Ch1 Sinusoidal Steady State Power Calculations

360 Sinusoidal Steady-State Power Calculations
10.1 Instantaneous Power

i We begin our investigation of sinusoidal power calculations with the
familiar circuit in Fig. 10.1. Here, v and i are steady-state sinusoidal signals.
v Using the passive sign convention, the power at any instant of time is

p = vi. (10.1)
Figure 10.1 The black box representation of a circuit
used for calculating power. This is instantaneous power. Remember that if the reference direction of
the current is in the direction of the voltage rise, Eq. 10.1 must be written
with a minus sign. Instantaneous power is measured in watts when the
voltage is in volts and the current is in amperes. First, we write expressions
for v and i:
v = Vm cos (vt + uv), (10.2)
i = Im cos (vt + ui), (10.3)
where uv is the voltage phase angle, and ui is the current phase angle.
We are operating in the sinusoidal steady state, so we may choose any
convenient reference for zero time. Engineers designing systems that
transfer large blocks of power have found it convenient to use a zero time
corresponding to the instant the current is passing through a positive max-
imum. This reference system requires a shift of both the voltage and cur-
rent by ui. Thus Eqs. 10.2 and 10.3 become
v = Vm cos (vt + uv - ui), (10.4)
i = Im cos vt. (10.5)
When we substitute Eqs. 10.4 and 10.5 into Eq. 10.1, the expression for the
instantaneous power becomes
p = VmIm cos (vt + uv - ui) cos vt. (10.6)
We could use Eq. 10.6 directly to find the average power; however, by sim-
ply applying a couple of trigonometric identities, we can put Eq. 10.6 into
a much more informative form.
We begin with the trigonometric identity1
1 1
cos a cos b = cos (a - b) + cos (a + b)
2 2
to expand Eq. 10.6; letting a = vt + uv - ui and b = vt gives
VmIm VmIm
p = cos (uv - ui) + cos (2vt + uv - ui). (10.7)
2 2
Now use the trigonometric identity
cos (a + b) = cos a cos b - sin a sin b
1 See entry 8 in Appendix F.

10.2 Average and Reactive Power 361
to expand the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. 10.7, which gives
VmIm VmIm
p = cos (uv - ui) + cos (uv - ui) cos 2vt
2 2
VmIm
- sin (uv - ui) sin 2vt. (10.8)
2
Figure 10.2 depicts a representative relationship among v, i, and p,

based on the assumptions uv = 60 ⴰ and ui = 0 ⴰ . You can see that the fre-
quency of the instantaneous power is twice the frequency of the voltage or
current. This observation also follows directly from the second two terms
on the right-hand side of Eq. 10.8. Therefore, the instantaneous power
goes through two complete cycles for every cycle of either the voltage or
the current. Also note that the instantaneous power may be negative for a
portion of each cycle, even if the network between the terminals is passive.
In a completely passive network, negative power implies that energy
stored in the inductors or capacitors is now being extracted. The fact that
the instantaneous power varies with time in the sinusoidal steady-state
operation of a circuit explains why some motor-driven appliances (such as
refrigerators) experience vibration and require resilient motor mountings
to prevent excessive vibration.
We are now ready to use Eq. 10.8 to find the average power at the ter-
minals of the circuit represented by Fig. 10.1 and, at the same time, intro-
duce the concept of reactive power.
v, i, p
3VmIm
4 p p
VmIm
2
Vm v v
Im
i i
vt
0
p 2p 3p 4p (radians)
p p
VmIm

4 i i
Im
Vm v v
Figure 10.2 Instantaneous power, voltage, and current versus vt for

steady-state sinusoidal operation.
10.2 Average and Reactive Power

We begin by noting that Eq. 10.8 has three terms, which we can rewrite as
follows:
p = P + P cos 2vt - Q sin 2vt, (10.9)

where
V m Im
Average (real) power P = cos (uv - ui), (10.10)
2
Vm Im
Reactive power Q = sin (uv - ui). (10.11)
2
P is called the average power, and Q is called the reactive power. Average
power is sometimes called real power, because it describes the power in a
circuit that is transformed from electric to nonelectric energy. Although
the two terms are interchangeable, we primarily use the term average
power in this text.
It is easy to see why P is called the average power. The average power
associated with sinusoidal signals is the average of the instantaneous
power over one period, or, in equation form,
t0 + T
1
P = p dt , (10.12)
T Lt0
where T is the period of the sinusoidal function. The limits on Eq. 10.12
imply that we can initiate the integration process at any convenient time t0
but that we must terminate the integration exactly one period later. (We
could integrate over nT periods, where n is an integer, provided we multi-
ply the integral by 1>nT.)
We could find the average power by substituting Eq. 10.9 directly into
Eq. 10.12 and then performing the integration. But note that the average
value of p is given by the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 10.9,
because the integral of both cos 2vt and sin 2vt over one period is zero.
Thus the average power is given in Eq. 10.10.
We can develop a better understanding of all the terms in Eq. 10.9 and
the relationships among them by examining the power in circuits that are
purely resistive, purely inductive, or purely capacitive.
Instantaneous and average power (W)
2.0 Power for Purely Resistive Circuits

p If the circuit between the terminals is purely resistive, the voltage and cur-
1.5 rent are in phase, which means that uv = ui. Equation 10.9 then reduces to
P p = P + P cos 2vt. (10.13)

1.0
The instantaneous power expressed in Eq. 10.13 is referred to as the
instantaneous real power. Figure 10.3 shows a graph of Eq. 10.13 for a
0.5
representative purely resistive circuit, assuming v = 377 rad>s. By defini-
tion, the average power, P, is the average of p over one period. Thus it is
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 easy to see just by looking at the graph that P = 1 for this circuit. Note
Time (s)
from Eq. 10.13 that the instantaneous real power can never be negative,
which is also shown in Fig. 10.3. In other words, power cannot be extracted
Figure 10.3 Instantaneous real power and average from a purely resistive network. Rather, all the electric energy is dissi-
power for a purely resistive circuit. pated in the form of thermal energy.
Power for Purely Inductive Circuits

If the circuit between the terminals is purely inductive, the voltage and
current are out of phase by precisely 90 ⴰ . In particular, the current lags the
voltage by 90 ⴰ (that is, ui = uv - 90 ⴰ ); therefore uv - ui = + 90 ⴰ . The
expression for the instantaneous power then reduces to
p = - Q sin 2vt. (10.14)
In a purely inductive circuit, the average power is zero. Therefore no
Instantaneous, average and reactive power

transformation of energy from electric to nonelectric form takes place.
The instantaneous power at the terminals in a purely inductive circuit is Q (VAR)
1.0
continually exchanged between the circuit and the source driving the cir- p (W)
cuit, at a frequency of 2v. In other words, when p is positive, energy is
0.5
being stored in the magnetic fields associated with the inductive elements,
and when p is negative, energy is being extracted from the magnetic fields. P (W)
0
A measure of the power associated with purely inductive circuits is
the reactive power Q. The name reactive power comes from the character-
ization of an inductor as a reactive element; its impedance is purely reac- 0.5
tive. Note that average power P and reactive power Q carry the same
dimension. To distinguish between average and reactive power, we use the 1.0
units watt (W) for average power and var (volt-amp reactive, or VAR) for 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
reactive power. Figure 10.4 plots the instantaneous power for a represen- Time (s)
tative purely inductive circuit, assuming v = 377 rad>s and Q = 1 VAR.
Figure 10.4 Instantaneous real power, average power,
and reactive power for a purely inductive circuit.
Power for Purely Capacitive Circuits
If the circuit between the terminals is purely capacitive, the voltage and
Instantaneous, average, and reactive power

current are precisely 90 ⴰ out of phase. In this case, the current leads the
voltage by 90 ⴰ (that is, ui = uv + 90 ⴰ ); thus, uv - ui = - 90 ⴰ . The expres- 1.0
p (W)
sion for the instantaneous power then becomes
0.5
p = - Q sin 2vt. (10.15)
P (W)
0
Again, the average power is zero, so there is no transformation of energy
from electric to nonelectric form. In a purely capacitive circuit, the power
is continually exchanged between the source driving the circuit and the 0.5
electric field associated with the capacitive elements. Figure 10.5 plots the Q (VAR)
instantaneous power for a representative purely capacitive circuit, assum- 1.0
ing v = 377 rad>s and Q = - 1 VAR.
Note that the decision to use the current as the reference leads to Q 1.5
being positive for inductors (that is, uv - ui = 90 ⴰ and negative for capac- 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
itors (that is, uv - ui = - 90 ⴰ . Power engineers recognize this difference in Time (s)
the algebraic sign of Q by saying that inductors demand (or absorb) mag-
Figure 10.5 Instantaneous real power and average
netizing vars, and capacitors furnish (or deliver) magnetizing vars. We say
power for a purely capacitive circuit.
more about this convention later.
The Power Factor

The angle uv - ui plays a role in the computation of both average and
reactive power and is referred to as the power factor angle. The cosine of
this angle is called the power factor, abbreviated pf, and the sine of this
angle is called the reactive factor, abbreviated rf. Thus
pf = cos (uv - ui), (10.16) Power factor
rf = sin (uv - ui). (10.17)
Knowing the value of the power factor does not tell you the value of the
power factor angle, because cos (uv - ui) = cos (ui - uv). To completely
describe this angle, we use the descriptive phrases lagging power factor and
leading power factor. Lagging power factor implies that current lags volt-
age—hence an inductive load. Leading power factor implies that current
leads voltage—hence a capacitive load. Both the power factor and the reac-
tive factor are convenient quantities to use in describing electrical loads.
Example 10.1 illustrates the interpretation of P and Q on the basis of
a numerical calculation.
Example 10.1 Calculating Average and Reactive Power
a) Calculate the average power and the reactive Solution

power at the terminals of the network shown in
Fig. 10.6 if a) Because i is expressed in terms of the sine func-
tion, the first step in the calculation for P and Q
v = 100 cos (vt + 15 ⴰ ) V, is to rewrite i as a cosine function:
i = 4 cos (vt - 105 ⴰ ) A.
ⴰ
i = 4 sin (vt - 15 ) A.
We now calculate P and Q directly from
Eqs. 10.10 and 10.11. Thus
b) State whether the network inside the box is
absorbing or delivering average power. 1
P = (100)(4) cos [15 - ( -105)] = - 100 W,
c) State whether the network inside the box is 2
absorbing or supplying magnetizing vars. 1
Q = 100(4) sin [15 - ( -105)] = 173.21 VAR.
2
b) Note from Fig. 10.6 the use of the passive sign

i convention. Because of this, the negative value
of - 100 W means that the network inside the
v box is delivering average power to the terminals.

c) The passive sign convention means that, because
Q is positive, the network inside the box is
Figure 10.6 A pair of terminals used for calculating power. absorbing magnetizing vars at its terminals.
ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS
Objective 1—Understand ac power concepts, their relationships to one another, and how to calcuate them in a circuit
10.1 For each of the following sets of voltage and Answer: (a) P = 500 W (A to B),
current, calculate the real and reactive power Q = - 866.03 VAR (B to A);
in the line between networks A and B in the
(b) P = - 866.03 W (B to A),
circuit shown. In each case, state whether the
Q = 500 VAR (A to B);
power flow is from A to B or vice versa. Also
state whether magnetizing vars are being trans- (c) P = 500 W (A to B),
ferred from A to B or vice versa. Q = 866.03 VAR (A to B);
a) v = 100 cos (vt - 45 ⴰ ) V; (d) P = - 500 W (B to A),
i = 20 cos (vt + 15°) A. Q = - 866.03 VAR (B to A).
b) v = 100 cos (vt - 45 ⴰ ) V;
10.2 Compute the power factor and the reactive fac-
i = 20 cos (vt + 165 ⴰ ) A.
tor for the network inside the box in Fig. 10.6,
c) v = 100 cos (vt - 45 ⴰ ) V; whose voltage and current are described in
i = 20 cos (vt - 105 ⴰ ) A. Example 10.1.
d) v = 100 cos vt V;
i = 20 cos (vt + 120 ⴰ ) A.
Hint: Use -i to calculate the power and reac-
i tive factors.

A v B

Answer: pf = 0.5 leading; rf = - 0.866.
NOTE: Also try Chapter Problem 10.1.
Appliance Ratings
Average power is used to quantify the power needs of household appliances.
The average power rating and estimated annual kilowatt-hour consumption
of some common appliances are presented in Table 10.1. The energy con-
sumption values are obtained by estimating the number of hours annually
that the appliances are in use. For example, a coffeemaker has an estimated
annual consumption of 140 kWh and an average power consumption during
operation of 1.2 kW. Therefore a coffeemaker is assumed to be in operation
140>1.2, or 116.67, hours per year, or approximately 19 minutes per day.
Example 10.2 uses Table 10.1 to determine whether four common
appliances can all be in operation without exceeding the current-carrying
capacity of the household.
Example 10.2 Making Power Calculations Involving Household Appliances
The branch circuit supplying the outlets in a typical Solution

home kitchen is wired with #12 conductor and is
protected by either a 20 A fuse or a 20 A circuit From Table 10.1, the total average power demanded
breaker. Assume that the following 120 V appli- by the four appliances is
ances are in operation at the same time: a cof- P = 1200 + 516 + 1196 + 1146 = 4058 W.
feemaker, egg cooker, frying pan, and toaster. Will The total current in the protective device is
the circuit be interrupted by the protective device?
4058
Ieff = L 33.82 A.
120
Yes, the protective device will interrupt the circuit.
TABLE 10.1 Annual Energy Requirements of Electric Household Appliances
Est. kWh Est. kWh

Average Consumed Average Consumed
Appliance Wattage Annuallya Appliance Wattage Annuallya
Food preparation Health and beauty

Coffeemaker 1200 140 Hair dryer 600 25
Dishwasher 1201 165 Shaver 15 0.5
Egg cooker 516 14 Sunlamp 279 16
Frying pan 1196 100 Home entertainment
Mixer 127 2 Radio 71 86
Oven, microwave (only) 1450 190 Television, color, tube type 240 528
Range, with oven 12,200 596 Solid-state type 145 320
Toaster 1146 39 Housewares
Laundry Clock 2 17
Clothes dryer 4856 993 Vacuum cleaner 630 46
Washing machine, automatic 512 103 a) Based on normal usage. When using these figures for projections,
Water heater 2475 4219 such factors as the size of the specific appliance, the geographical
area of use, and individual usage should be taken into considera-
Quick recovery type 4474 4811 tion. Note that the wattages are not additive, since all units are
Comfort conditioning normally not in operation at the same time.
Air conditioner (room) 860 860b b) Based on 1000 hours of operation per year. This figure will vary
widely depending on the area and the specific size of the unit. See
Dehumidifier 257 377
EEI-Pub #76-2, “Air Conditioning Usage Study,’’ for an estimate
Fan (circulating) 88 43 for your location.
Heater (portable) 1322 176 Source: Edison Electric Institute.
NOTE: Assess your understanding of this material by trying Chapter Problem 10.2.
Printed with permission from Edison Electric Institute.
10.3 The rms Value and Power

Calculations
In introducing the rms value of a sinusoidal voltage (or current) in
Section 9.1, we mentioned that it would play an important role in power
calculations. We can now discuss this role.
Assume that a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the terminals of a resis-
tor, as shown in Fig. 10.7, and that we want to determine the average

power delivered to the resistor. From Eq. 10.12,
Vmcos (vt uv) R
1 t0 + T V2m cos 2(vt + fv)
P = dt
T L t0 R
Figure 10.7 A sinusoidal voltage applied to the
terminals of a resistor. 1 1 t0 + T 2
= B Vm cos 2(vt + fv)dt R . (10.18)
R T L t0
Comparing Eq. 10.18 with Eq. 9.5 reveals that the average power deliv-
ered to R is simply the rms value of the voltage squared divided by R, or
V2rms
P = . (10.19)
R
If the resistor is carrying a sinusoidal current, say, Im cos (vt + fi), the
average power delivered to the resistor is
P = I 2rmsR. (10.20)
The rms value is also referred to as the effective value of the sinu-
soidal voltage (or current). The rms value has an interesting property:
Given an equivalent resistive load, R, and an equivalent time period, T,
the rms value of a sinusoidal source delivers the same energy to R as does
a dc source of the same value. For example, a dc source of 100 V delivers
the same energy in T seconds that a sinusoidal source of 100 Vrms delivers,
assuming equivalent load resistances (see Problem 10.12). Figure 10.8
demonstrates this equivalence. Energywise, the effect of the two sources
is identical. This has led to the term effective value being used inter-
changeably with rms value.
The average power given by Eq. 10.10 and the reactive power given
by Eq. 10.11 can be written in terms of effective values:
VmIm
P = cos (uv - ui)
2
Vm Im
= cos (uv - ui)
12 12
= VeffIeff cos (uv - ui); (10.21)

vs 100 V (rms) R ⬅ Vs 100 V (dc) R

Figure 10.8 The effective value of vs (100 V rms) delivers the

same power to R as the dc voltage Vs (100 V dc).
10.3 The rms Value and Power Calculations 367
and, by similar manipulation,
Q = VeffIeff sin (uv - ui). (10.22)
The effective value of the sinusoidal signal in power calculations is so

widely used that voltage and current ratings of circuits and equipment
involved in power utilization are given in terms of rms values. For exam-
ple, the voltage rating of residential electric wiring is often 240 V>120 V
service. These voltage levels are the rms values of the sinusoidal voltages
supplied by the utility company, which provides power at two voltage lev-
els to accommodate low-voltage appliances (such as televisions) and
higher voltage appliances (such as electric ranges). Appliances such as
electric lamps, irons, and toasters all carry rms ratings on their nameplates.
For example, a 120 V, 100 W lamp has a resistance of 1202>100, or 144 Æ,
and draws an rms current of 120>144, or 0.833 A. The peak value of the
lamp current is 0.83312, or 1.18 A.
The phasor transform of a sinusoidal function may also be expressed
in terms of the rms value. The magnitude of the rms phasor is equal to the
rms value of the sinusoidal function. If a phasor is based on the rms value,
we indicate this by either an explicit statement, a parenthetical “rms” adja-
cent to the phasor quantity, or the subscript “eff,” as in Eq. 10.21.
In Example 10.3, we illustrate the use of rms values for calculating power.
Example 10.3 Determining Average Power Delivered to a Resistor by Sinusoidal Voltage
a) A sinusoidal voltage having a maximum ampli- Eq. 10.19, the average power delivered to the
tude of 625 V is applied to the terminals of a 50 Æ resistor is
50 Æ resistor. Find the average power delivered (441.94)2
to the resistor. P = = 3906.25 W.
50
b) Repeat (a) by first finding the current in the
b) The maximum amplitude of the current in the
resistor.
resistor is 625>50, or 12.5 A. The rms value of
the current is 12.5> 12, or approximately
Solution 8.84 A. Hence the average power delivered to
a) The rms value of the sinusoidal voltage is the resistor is
625> 12, or approximately 441.94 V. From P = (8.84)250 = 3906.25 W.
ASSESSMENT PROBLEM
Objective 1—Understand ac power concepts, their relationships to one another, and how to calculate them in a circuit
10.3 The periodic triangular current in Example 9.4, i

repeated here, has a peak value of 180 mA. Ip etc.
Find the average power that this current deliv-
ers to a 5 kÆ resistor.
t
T/2 T/4 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T
Answer: 54 W.
Ip
NOTE: Also try Chapter Problem 10.15.
10.4 Complex Power

Before proceeding to the various methods of calculating real and reactive
power in circuits operating in the sinusoidal steady state, we need to intro-
duce and define complex power. Complex power is the complex sum of
real power and reactive power, or
Complex power S = P + jQ. (10.23)
As you will see, we can compute the complex power directly from the volt-
age and current phasors for a circuit. Equation 10.23 can then be used to
compute the average power and the reactive power, because P = t 5S6
and Q = s 5S6.
Dimensionally, complex power is the same as average or reactive
TABLE 10.2 Three Power Quantities and power. However, to distinguish complex power from either average or
Their Units reactive power, we use the units volt-amps (VA).Thus we use volt-amps for
complex power, watts for average power, and vars for reactive power, as
Quantity Units summarized in Table 10.2.
Complex power volt-amps Another advantage of using complex power is the geometric interpre-
tation it provides. When working with Eq. 10.23, think of P, Q, and |S| as
Average power watts
the sides of a right triangle, as shown in Fig. 10.9. It is easy to show that the
Reactive power var angle u in the power triangle is the power factor angle uv - ui. For the
right triangle shown in Fig. 10.9,
兩S兩 apparent power Q

tan u = . (10.24)
P
Q reactive power
But from the definitions of P and Q (Eqs. [10.10] and [10.11], respectively),
u
P average power Q (VmIm>2) sin (uv - ui)
(VmIm>2) cos (uv - ui)
=
Figure 10.9 A power triangle. P
= tan (uv - ui). (10.25)
Therefore, u = uv - ui. The geometric relations for a right triangle mean

also that the four power triangle dimensions (the three sides and the
power factor angle) can be determined if any two of the four are known.
The magnitude of complex power is referred to as apparent power.
Specifically,
Apparent power |S| = 2 P2 + Q2. (10.26)
Apparent power, like complex power, is measured in volt-amps. The

apparent power, or volt-amp, requirement of a device designed to convert
electric energy to a nonelectric form is more important than the average
power requirement. Although the average power represents the useful
output of the energy-converting device, the apparent power represents the
volt-amp capacity required to supply the average power. As you can see
from the power triangle in Fig. 10.9, unless the power factor angle is 0 ⴰ
(that is, the device is purely resistive, pf = 1, and Q = 0), the volt-amp
capacity required by the device is larger than the average power used by
the device. As we will see in Example 10.6, it makes sense to operate
devices at a power factor close to 1.
Many useful appliances (such as refrigerators, fans, air conditioners,
fluorescent lighting fixtures, and washing machines) and most industrial
loads operate at a lagging power factor. The power factor of these loads
sometimes is corrected either by adding a capacitor to the device itself or
10.5 Power Calculations 369
by connecting capacitors across the line feeding the load; the latter
method is often used for large industrial loads. Many of the Chapter
Problems give you a chance to make some calculations that correct a lag-
ging power factor load and improve the operation of a circuit.
Example 10.4 uses a power triangle to calculate several quantities
associated with an electrical load.
Example 10.4 Calculating Complex Power
An electrical load operates at 240 V rms. The load Solving for Ieff,
absorbs an average power of 8 kW at a lagging
power factor of 0.8. Ieff = 41.67 A.
a) Calculate the complex power of the load.
We already know the angle of the load imped-
b) Calculate the impedance of the load. ance, because it is the power factor angle:
Solution u = cos -1(0.8) = 36.87 ⴰ .

a) The power factor is described as lagging, so we
know that the load is inductive and that the We also know that u is positive because the
algebraic sign of the reactive power is positive. power factor is lagging, indicating an inductive
From the power triangle shown in Fig. 10.10, load. We compute the magnitude of the load
impedance from its definition as the ratio of the
P = |S| cos u, magnitude of the voltage to the magnitude of
Q = |S| sin u. the current:
Now, because cos u = 0.8, sin u = 0.6. |Veff| 240

Therefore |Z| = = = 5.76.
|Ieff| 41.67
P 8 kW
|S| = = = 10 kVA, Hence,
cos u 0.8
Q = 10 sin u = 6 kVAR, Z = 5.76 l 36.87 ⴰ Æ = 4.608 + j3.456 Æ.
and
S = 8 + j6 kVA.
b) From the computation of the complex power of 兩S兩

the load, we see that P = 8 kW. Using Eq. 10.21, Q
P = VeffIeff cos (uv - ui) u

P
= (240)Ieff(0.8)
Figure 10.10 A power triangle.
= 8000 W.
10.5 Power Calculations

We are now ready to develop additional equations that can be used to calcu-
late real, reactive, and complex power. We begin by combining Eqs. 10.10,
10.11, and 10.23 to get
VmIm VmIm
S = cos (uv - ui) + j sin (uv - ui)
2 2
3cos (uv - ui) + j sin (uv - ui)4

VmIm
=
2
VmIm j(uv - ui) 1
= e = VmIml (uv - ui). (10.27)
2 2
If we use the effective values of the sinusoidal voltage and current,

Eq. 10.27 becomes
S = VeffIeffl (uv - ui). (10.28)
Equations 10.27 and 10.28 are important relationships in power calcula-

Ieff
tions because they show that if the phasor current and voltage are known at
a pair of terminals, the complex power associated with that pair of terminals
Veff Circuit is either one half the product of the voltage and the conjugate of the cur-
rent, or the product of the rms phasor voltage and the conjugate of the rms
phasor current. We can show this for the rms phasor voltage and current in
Figure 10.11 The phasor voltage and current associ- Fig. 10.11 as follows:
ated with a pair of terminals.
S = VeffIeffl (uv - ui)
= VeffIeff e j(uv - ui)
= Veff e juvIeff e-jui
Complex power = VeffI*eff. (10.29)
Note that I *eff = Ieff e -jui follows from Euler’s identity and the trigonomet-
ric identities cos ( -u) = cos(u) and sin ( - u) = - sin (u):
Ieff e -jui = Ieff cos ( -ui) + jIeff sin ( -ui)
= Ieff cos (ui) - jIeff sin (ui)
= I *eff.
The same derivation technique could be applied to Eq. 10.27 to yield
1 *
S = VI . (10.30)
2
Both Eqs. 10.29 and 10.30 are based on the passive sign convention. If the
current reference is in the direction of the voltage rise across the termi-
nals, we insert a minus sign on the right-hand side of each equation.
To illustrate the use of Eq. 10.30 in a power calculation, let’s use the
same circuit that we used in Example 10.1. Expressed in terms of the pha-
sor representation of the terminal voltage and current,
V = 100 l 15 ⴰ V,
I = 4l -105 ⴰ A.
Therefore
1
S = (100 l 15 ⴰ )(4 l +105 ⴰ ) = 200 l 120 ⴰ
2
= - 100 + j173.21 VA.

Once we calculate the complex power, we can read off both the real and
reactive powers, because S = P + jQ. Thus
P = - 100 W,
Q = 173.21 VAR.
The interpretations of the algebraic signs on P and Q are identical to those

given in the solution of Example 10.1.
Alternate Forms for Complex Power

Ieff
Equations 10.29 and 10.30 have several useful variations. Here, we use the
rms value form of the equations, because rms values are the most common
type of representation for voltages and currents in power computations. Veff Z
The first variation of Eq. 10.29 is to replace the voltage with the prod-
uct of the current times the impedance. In other words, we can always rep-
resent the circuit inside the box of Fig. 10.11 by an equivalent impedance, Figure 10.12 The general circuit of Fig. 10.11
as shown in Fig. 10.12. Then, replaced with an equivalent impedance.
Veff = Z I eff. (10.31)
Substituting Eq. 10.31 into Eq. 10.29 yields
S = Z I effI *eff
= |I eff|2Z
= |I eff|2(R + jX)
= |I eff|2R + j|I eff|2X = P + jQ, (10.32)
from which
1 2
P = |I eff|2R = I R, (10.33)
2 m
1 2
Q = |I eff|2X = I X. (10.34)
2 m
In Eq. 10.34, X is the reactance of either the equivalent inductance or

equivalent capacitance of the circuit. Recall from our earlier discussion of
reactance that it is positive for inductive circuits and negative for capaci-
tive circuits.
A second useful variation of Eq. 10.29 comes from replacing the cur-
rent with the voltage divided by the impedance:
Veff * |Veff|2
S = Veff ¢ ≤ = = P + jQ. (10.35)
Z Z*
Note that if Z is a pure resistive element,
|Veff|2
P = , (10.36)
R
and if Z is a pure reactive element,
|Veff|2
Q = . (10.37)
X
In Eq. 10.37, X is positive for an inductor and negative for a capacitor.

The following examples demonstrate various power calculations in
circuits operating in the sinusoidal steady state.
Example 10.5 Calculating Average and Reactive Power
In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.13, a load having an Thus the load is absorbing an average power of
impedance of 39 + j26 Æ is fed from a voltage 975 W and a reactive power of 650 VAR.
source through a line having an impedance of
1 + j4 Æ. The effective, or rms, value of the source 1 j4
voltage is 250 V.

a) Calculate the load current I L and voltage VL. 39
250 0 IL
b) Calculate the average and reactive power deliv- VL
V (rms)
ered to the load. j26
c) Calculate the average and reactive power deliv-
ered to the line. Source Line Load
d) Calculate the average and reactive power sup-
Figure 10.13 The circuit for Example 10.5.
plied by the source.
Solution c) The average and reactive power delivered to the

line are most easily calculated from Eqs. 10.33
a) The line and load impedances are in series across and 10.34 because the line current is known. Thus
the voltage source, so the load current equals the
voltage divided by the total impedance, or P = (5)2(1) = 25 W,
250 l 0° Q = (5)2(4) = 100 VAR.

IL = = 4 - j3 = 5 l -36.87° A (rms).
40 + j30
Note that the reactive power associated with the
Because the voltage is given in terms of its line is positive because the line reactance is
rms value, the current also is rms. The load volt- inductive.
age is the product of the load current and load
d) One way to calculate the average and reactive
impedance:
power delivered by the source is to add the com-
plex power delivered to the line to that delivered
VL = (39 + j26)I L = 234 - j13
to the load, or
= 234.36 l -3.18° V (rms).
S = 25 + j100 + 975 + j650
b) The average and reactive power delivered to the = 1000 + j 750 VA.
load can be computed using Eq. 10.29. Therefore
The complex power at the source can also be cal-
S = VLI *L = (234 - j13)(4 + j3) culated from Eq. 10.29:
= 975 + j650 VA. Ss = - 250I *L.

The minus sign is inserted in Eq. 10.29 whenever The minus sign implies that both average power
the current reference is in the direction of a volt- and magnetizing reactive power are being deliv-
age rise. Thus ered by the source. Note that this result agrees
with the previous calculation of S, as it must,
because the source must furnish all the average
Ss = - 250(4 + j3) = - (1000 + j 750) VA. and reactive power absorbed by the line and load.
Example 10.6 Calculating Power in Parallel Loads
The two loads in the circuit shown in Fig. 10.14 can S2 = 20,000(.6) + j 20,000(.8)
be described as follows: Load 1 absorbs an average
= 12,000 + j16,000 VA.
power of 8 kW at a leading power factor of 0.8.
Load 2 absorbs 20 kVA at a lagging power factor
of 0.6.
36.87 20 kVA
0.05 j0.50 8 kW
16 kVAR

6 kVAR 53.13
Is 10 kVA
250 0 12 kW
Vs L I1 L2 I2
V (rms) 1 (a) (b)

22.36 kVA
10 kVAR
Figure 10.14 The circuit for Example 10.6. 26.565
20 kW
a) Determine the power factor of the two loads in
parallel. (c)
b) Determine the apparent power required to supply Figure 10.15 (a) The power triangle for load 1. (b) The
the loads, the magnitude of the current, I s, and the power triangle for load 2. (c) The sum of the power triangles.
average power loss in the transmission line.
c) Given that the frequency of the source is 60 Hz,
compute the value of the capacitor that would
It follows that
correct the power factor to 1 if placed in parallel
with the two loads. Recompute the values in (b) S = 20,000 + j10,000 VA,
for the load with the corrected power factor.
and
Solution 20,000 + j10,000
I *s = = 80 + j40 A.
250
a) All voltage and current phasors in this problem
are assumed to represent effective values. Note Therefore
from the circuit diagram in Fig. 10.14 that
I s = I 1 + I 2. The total complex power absorbed I s = 80 - j40 = 89.44 l -26.57° A.
by the two loads is Thus the power factor of the combined load is
S = (250)I *s
pf = cos(0 + 26.57°) = 0.8944 lagging.
= (250)(I 1 + I 2)*
The power factor of the two loads in parallel is
= (250)I *1 + (250)I *2 lagging because the net reactive power is positive.
= S1 + S2. b) The apparent power which must be supplied to

these loads is
We can sum the complex powers geometrically,
using the power triangles for each load, as shown |S| = |20 + j10| = 22.36 kVA.
in Fig. 10.15. By hypothesis,
The magnitude of the current that supplies this
8000(.6)
S1 = 8000 - j apparent power is
(.8)
= 8000 - j6000 VA, |I s| = |80 - j40| = 89.44 A.
The average power lost in the line results from the power factor is 1, the apparent power and
the current flowing through the line resistance: the average power are the same, as seen from the
power triangle in Fig. 10.16(c). Therefore, the
Pline = |I s|2R = (89.44)2(0.05) = 400 W apparent power once the power factor has been
corrected is
Note that the power supplied totals 20,000 + 400
= 20,400 W, even though the loads require a |S| = P = 20 kVA.
total of only 20,000 W. The magnitude of the current that supplies this
c) As we can see from the power triangle in apparent power is
Fig. 10.15(c), we can correct the power factor to 1
if we place a capacitor in parallel with the existing 20,000
|I s| = = 80 A.
loads such that the capacitor supplies 10 kVAR 250
of magnetizing reactive power. The value of the The average power lost in the line is thus
capacitor is calculated as follows. First, find the reduced to
capacitive reactance from Eq. 10.37:
Pline = |I s|2R = (80)2(0.05) = 320 W.
|Veff|2
X = Now, the power supplied totals 20,000 + 320
Q
= 20,320 W. Note that the addition of the capaci-
(250)2 tor has reduced the line loss from 400 W to 320 W.
=
-10,000
= - 6.25 Æ. 22.36 kVA

10 kVAR 10 kVAR
Recall that the reactive impedance of a capacitor 26.565
is -1>vC, and v = 2p(60) = 376.99 rad>s, if 20 kW
the source frequency is 60 Hz. Thus, (a) (b)
-1 -1
C = = = 424.4 mF. 20 kW
vX (376.99)(-6.25)
(c)
The addition of the capacitor as the third load is Figure 10.16 (a) The sum of the power triangles for loads 1
represented in geometric form as the sum of the and 2. (b) The power triangle for a 424.4 mF capacitor at 60 Hz.
two power triangles shown in Fig. 10.16. When (c) The sum of the power triangles in (a) and (b).
Example 10.7 Balancing Power Delivered with Power Absorbed in an ac Circuit
a) Calculate the total average and reactive power V1 V3

delivered to each impedance in the circuit shown j2 j3
1 1
in Fig. 10.17.
I1 12 I2

Vs V2 Ix 39 Ix

b) Calculate the average and reactive powers asso- j16
ciated with each source in the circuit.

Vs 150 0 V
V1 (78 j104) V I1 (26 j52) A
c) Verify that the average power delivered equals V2 (72 j104) V Ix (2 j6) A
the average power absorbed, and that the magnet- V3 (150 j130) V I2 (24 j58) A
izing reactive power delivered equals the magnet-
izing reactive power absorbed. Figure 10.17 The circuit, with solution, for Example 10.7.
Solution b) The complex power associated with the inde-

pendent voltage source is
a) The complex power delivered to the (1 + j 2) Æ
impedance is
1
Ss = - VsI *1 = Ps + jQs
2
1
S1 = V I * = P1 + jQ1 1
2 1 1 = - (150)( -26 + j52)
2
1 = 1950 - j3900 VA.
= (78 - j104)( -26 + j52)
2
Note that the independent voltage source is

1
= (3380 + j6760) absorbing an average power of 1950 W and
2 delivering 3900 VAR. The complex power asso-
ciated with the current-controlled voltage
= 1690 + j 3380 VA. source is
Thus this impedance is absorbing an average 1

Sx = (39I x)(I *2) = Px + jQx
power of 1690 W and a reactive power of 2
3380 VAR. The complex power delivered to the
(12 - j16) Æ impedance is 1
= (-78 + j 234)( -24 + j58)
2
= - 5850 - j5070 VA.

1
S2 = V I * = P2 + jQ2
2 2 x
Both average power and magnetizing reactive
1 power are being delivered by the dependent
= (72 + j104)( -2 - j6) source.
2
c) The total power absorbed by the passive imped-
ances and the independent voltage source is
= 240 - j 320 VA.
Pabsorbed = P1 + P2 + P3 + Ps = 5850 W.
Therefore the impedance in the vertical branch
is absorbing 240 W and delivering 320 VAR. The The dependent voltage source is the only circuit
complex power delivered to the (1 + j 3) Æ element delivering average power. Thus
impedance is
Pdelivered = 5850 W.
1 Magnetizing reactive power is being absorbed

S3 = V I * = P3 + jQ3
2 3 2 by the two horizontal branches. Thus
1 Qabsorbed = Q1 + Q3 = 9290 VAR.

= (150 - j130)( -24 + j58)
2
Magnetizing reactive power is being delivered
= 1970 + j5910 VA. by the independent voltage source, the capacitor
in the vertical impedance branch, and the
dependent voltage source. Therefore
This impedance is absorbing 1970 W and
5910 VAR. Qdelivered = 9290 VAR.
ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS
Objective 1—Understand ac power concepts, their relationships to one another, and how to calculate them in a circuit
10.4 The load impedance in the circuit shown is (c) 23.52 W, 94.09 VAR;
shunted by a capacitor having a capacitive reac- (d) 1152.62 W, - 376.36 VAR;
tance of -52 Æ. Calculate:
(e) 1223.18 VAR.
a) the rms phasors VL and IL,
b) the average power and magnetizing reactive 10.5 The rms voltage at the terminals of a load is
power absorbed by the (39 + j 26) Æ load 250 V. The load is absorbing an average power
impedance, of 40 kW and delivering a magnetizing reactive
c) the average power and magnetizing reactive power of 30 kVAR. Derive two equivalent
power absorbed by the (1 + j4) Æ line impedance models of the load.
impedance,
Answer: 1 Æ in series with 0.75 Æ of capacitive
d) the average power and magnetizing reactive
reactance; 1.5625 Æ in parallel with 2.083 Æ
power delivered by the source, and
of capacitive reactance.
e) the magnetizing reactive power delivered by
the shunting capacitor.
10.6 Find the phasor voltage Vs (rms) in the circuit
1 j4 shown if loads L1 and L2 are absorbing 15 kVA
at 0.6 pf lagging and 6 kVA at 0.8 pf leading,

39 respectively. Express Vs in polar form.
250 0 IL
VL j1
V (rms)
j26

Source Line Load Vs 200 0 V (rms) L1 L2

Answer: (a) 252.20 l -4.54° V (rms),
5.38 l -38.23° A (rms);
(b) 1129.09 W, 752.73 VAR; Answer: 251.64 l 15.91° V.
NOTE: Also try Chapter Problems 10.20, 10.28, and 10.30.
10.6 Maximum Power Transfer

a Recall from Chapter 4 that certain systems—for example, those that trans-
Generalized linear mit information via electric signals—depend on being able to transfer a
network operating ZL maximum amount of power from the source to the load. We now reexam-
in the sinusoidal ine maximum power transfer in the context of a sinusoidal steady-state
steady state
b network, beginning with Fig. 10.18. We must determine the load imped-
ance ZL that results in the delivery of maximum average power to termi-
Figure 10.18 A circuit describing maximum power nals a and b. Any linear network may be viewed from the terminals of the
transfer. load in terms of a Thévenin equivalent circuit. Thus the task reduces to
finding the value of ZL that results in maximum average power delivered
to ZL in the circuit shown in Fig. 10.19.
For maximum average power transfer, ZL must equal the conjugate of
the Thévenin impedance; that is,
Condition for maximum average power

transfer ZL = Z*Th . (10.38)
10.6 Maximum Power Transfer 377
We derive Eq. 10.38 by a straightforward application of elementary calcu-

lus. We begin by expressing ZTh and ZL in rectangular form:
ZTh = RTh + jXTh, (10.39)
ZL = RL + jXL. (10.40)
a
In both Eqs. 10.39 and 10.40, the reactance term carries its own algebraic ZTh
sign—positive for inductance and negative for capacitance. Because we
VTh I ZL
are making an average-power calculation, we assume that the amplitude
of the Thévenin voltage is expressed in terms of its rms value. We also use
the Thévenin voltage as the reference phasor. Then, from Fig. 10.19, the
b
rms value of the load current I is
Figure 10.19 The circuit shown in Fig. 10.18, with
the network replaced by its Thévenin equivalent.
VTh
I = . (10.41)
(RTh + RL) + j(XTh + XL)
The average power delivered to the load is
P = |I|2RL. (10.42)
Substituting Eq. 10.41 into Eq. 10.42 yields
|VTh|2RL
P = . (10.43)
(RTh + RL)2 + (XTh + XL)2
When working with Eq. 10.43, always remember that VTh, RTh, and XTh
are fixed quantities, whereas RL and XL are independent variables.
Therefore, to maximize P, we must find the values of RL and XL where
0P>0RL and 0P>0XL are both zero. From Eq. 10.43,
0P -|VTh|22RL(XL + XTh)
= , (10.44)
0XL [(RL + RTh)2 + (XL + XTh)2]2
0P |VTh|2[(RL + RTh)2 + (XL + XTh)2 - 2RL(RL + RTh)]

= .
0RL [(RL + RTh)2 + (XL + XTh)2]2
(10.45)
From Eq. 10.44, 0P>0XL is zero when
XL = - XTh. (10.46)
From Eq. 10.45, 0P>0RL is zero when
RL = 2R 2Th + (XL + XTh)2. (10.47)
Note that when we combine Eq. 10.46 with Eq. 10.47, both derivatives are
zero when ZL = Z*Th.
The Maximum Average Power Absorbed

The maximum average power that can be delivered to ZL when it is set
equal to the conjugate of ZTh is calculated directly from the circuit in
Fig. 10.19. When ZL = Z*Th, the rms load current is VTh>2RL, and the max-
imum average power delivered to the load is
|VTh|2RL 1 |VTh|2
Pmax = = . (10.48)
4R2L 4 RL
If the Thévenin voltage is expressed in terms of its maximum amplitude

rather than its rms amplitude, Eq. 10.48 becomes
1 V2m
Pmax = . (10.49)
8 RL
Maximum Power Transfer When Z is Restricted

Maximum average power can be delivered to ZL only if ZL can be set
equal to the conjugate of ZTh. There are situations in which this is not pos-
sible. First, RL and XL may be restricted to a limited range of values. In
this situation, the optimum condition for RL and XL is to adjust XL as
near to -XTh as possible and then adjust RL as close to
2R2Th + (XL + XTh)2 as possible (see Example 10.9).
A second type of restriction occurs when the magnitude of ZL can be
varied but its phase angle cannot. Under this restriction, the greatest
amount of power is transferred to the load when the magnitude of ZL is
set equal to the magnitude of ZTh; that is, when
|ZL| = |ZTh|. (10.50)
The proof of Eq. 10.50 is left to you as Problem 10.45.

For purely resistive networks, maximum power transfer occurs when
the load resistance equals the Thévenin resistance. Note that we first
derived this result in the introduction to maximum power transfer in
Chapter 4.
Examples 10.8–10.11 illustrate the problem of obtaining maximum
power transfer in the situations just discussed.
Example 10.8 Determining Maximum Power Transfer without Load Restrictions
a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 10.20, determine the simplify the circuit shown in Fig. 10.20 to the one
impedance ZL that results in maximum average shown in Fig. 10.21. Then,
power transferred to ZL. 16 l 0°
b) What is the maximum average power transferred VTh = ( - j6)
4 + j3 - j6
to the load impedance determined in (a)?
= 19.2 l -53.13° = 11.52 - j15.36 V.
Solution
5 j3 a
a) We begin by determining the Thévenin equiva-
lent with respect to the load terminals a, b. After 20 0
two source transformations involving the 20 V 20 j6 ZL
V
source, the 5 Æ resistor, and the 20 Æ resistor, we
b

4 j3 which we replaced the original network with its

a Thévenin equivalent. From Fig. 10.22, the rms magni-

tude of the load current I is
16 0
j6 VTh
V
19.2> 12
b Ieff = = 1.1785 A.
2(5.76)
Figure 10.21 A simplification of Fig. 10.20 by source The average power delivered to the load is
transformations.
We find the Thévenin impedance by deactivat- j1.68

5.76 a
ing the independent source and calculating the
impedance seen looking into the terminals a I 5.76
and b. Thus, 19.2 53.13
V j1.68
( -j6)(4 + j3)
ZTh = = 5.76 - j1.68 Æ.
4 + j3 - j6
b
For maximum average power transfer, the load Figure 10.22 The circuit shown in Fig. 10.20, with the
impedance must be the conjugate of ZTh, so original network replaced by its Thévenin equivalent.
ZL = 5.76 + j1.68 Æ.
P = I 2eff(5.76) = 8 W.
b) We calculate the maximum average power deliv-
ered to ZL from the circuit shown in Fig. 10.22, in
Example 10.9 Determining Maximum Power Transfer with Load Impedance Restriction
a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 10.23, what value of 3000 j4000 a
ZL results in maximum average power transfer to
ZL? What is the maximum power in milliwatts? RL
10 0
b) Assume that the load resistance can be varied V (rms)
between 0 and 4000 Æ and that the capacitive jXC
reactance of the load can be varied between
0 and -2000 Æ. What settings of RL and XL b
transfer the most average power to the load?
Figure 10.23 The circuit for Examples 10.9 and 10.10.
What is the maximum average power that can be
transferred under these restrictions?
Because the source voltage is given in terms of its
Solution rms value, the average power delivered to ZL is
1 102 25
a) If there are no restrictions on RL and XL, the P = = mW = 8.33 mW.
4 3000 3
load impedance is set equal to the conjugate of
the output or the Thévenin impedance. Therefore b) Because RL and XL are restricted, we first set XL
we set as close to -4000 Æ as possible; thus
RL = 3000 Æ and XL = - 4000 Æ, XL = - 2000 Æ. Next, we set RL as close to
2R2Th + (XL + XTh)2 as possible. Thus
or
ZL = 3000 - j4000 Æ. RL = 230002 + ( -2000 + 4000)2 = 3605.55 Æ.
Now, because RL can be varied from 0 to 4000 Æ, The average power delivered to the load is
we can set RL to 3605.55 Æ. Therefore, the load
impedance is adjusted to a value of P = (1.4489 * 10 -3)2(3605.55) = 7.57 mW.
ZL = 3605.55 - j2000 Æ.
This quantity is the maximum power that we can
With ZL set at this value, the value of the load deliver to a load, given the restrictions on RL
current is and XL. Note that this is less than the power that
10 l 0° can be delivered if there are no restrictions; in
Ieff = = 1.4489 l -16.85° mA. (a) we found that we can deliver 8.33 mW.
6605.55 + j2000
Example 10.10 Finding Maximum Power Transfer with Impedance Angle Restrictions
A load impedance having a constant phase angle of Now, as we know that the phase angle of ZL is
-36.87 ⴰ is connected across the load terminals -36.87 ⴰ , we have
a and b in the circuit shown in Fig. 10.23. The magni-
ZL = 5000 l -36.87° = 4000 - j3000 Æ.
tude of ZL is varied until the average power deliv-
ered is the most possible under the given restriction. b) With ZL set equal to 4000 - j3000 Æ, the load
a) Specify ZL in rectangular form. current is
b) Calculate the average power delivered to ZL. 10
Ieff = = 1.4142 l -8.13° mA,
7000 + j1000
and the average power delivered to the load is
Solution P = (1.4142 * 10 -3)2(4000) = 8 mW.
a) From Eq. 10.50, we know that the magnitude of This quantity is the maximum power that can be
ZL must equal the magnitude of ZTh. Therefore delivered by this circuit to a load impedance
whose angle is constant at -36.87 ⴰ . Again, this
quantity is less than the maximum power that can
|ZL| = |ZTh| = |3000 + j4000| = 5000 Æ. be delivered if there are no restrictions on ZL.
ASSESSMENT PROBLEM
Objective 2—Understand the condition for maximum real power delivered to a load in an ac circuit
10.7 The source current in the circuit shown is 3.6 mH

3 cos 5000t A. a
a) What impedance should be connected ig 20 5 mF

across terminals a,b for maximum average
power transfer? b
b) What is the average power transferred to 4
the impedance in (a)?
c) Assume that the load is restricted to pure Answer: (a) 20 - j10 Æ;
resistance. What size resistor connected (b) 18 W;
across a,b will result in the maximum aver- (c) 22.36 Æ;
age power transferred?
(d) 17.00 W.
d) What is the average power transferred to
the resistor in (c)?
NOTE: Also try Chapter Problems 10.41, 10.48, and 10.62.

Example 10.11 Finding Maximum Power Transfer in a Circuit with an Ideal Transformer
The variable resistor in the circuit in Fig. 10.24 is The open circuit value of I 2 is zero, hence I 1 is
adjusted until maximum average power is delivered zero. It follows that
to RL.
V1 = 840 l 0° V, V2 = 210 l 0° V.
a) What is the value of RL in ohms?
From Fig. 10.25 we note that VTh is the negative

b) What is the maximum average power (in watts)
of V2, hence
delivered to RL?
VTh = - 210 l 0° V.
60 Ideal a
4:1
The circuit shown in Fig. 10.26 is used to deter-
mine the short circuit current. Viewing I 1 and I 2
as mesh currents, the two mesh equations are
840 0
RL
V (rms)
840 l 0° = 80I 1 - 20I 2 + V1,
20
0 = 20I 2 - 20I 1 + V2.

b
60 I2
a
4:1
I1
Solution
V1 V2
a) We first find the Thévenin equivalent with 840 0 Ideal
respect to the terminals of RL. The circuit for V (rms)
determining the open circuit voltage in shown in
20
Fig. 10.25. The variables V1, V2, I 1, and I 2 have
been added to expedite the discussion.
b
Figure 10.26 The circuit used to calculate the short circuit
60 I2 current.
a
4:1
I1
V1 V2 When these two mesh current equations are com-
bined with the constraint equations we get
840 0 Ideal
VTh
V (rms)
840 l 0° = - 40I 2 + V1,
20

b V1
0 = 25I 2 + .
Figure 10.25 The circuit used to find the Thévenin voltage. 4
Solving for the short circuit value of I 2 yields

First we note the ideal transformer imposes the
following constraints on the variables V1, V2, I 1, and I 2: I 2 = - 6 A.
Therefore the Thévenin resistance is

1 1
V2 = V, I 1 = - I 2. -210
4 1 4 RTh = = 35 Æ.
-6
Maximum power will be delivered to RL when 35 a

RL equals 35 Æ.
b) The maximum power delivered to RL is most 210 0

35
easily determined using the Thévenin equivalent. V (rms)
From the circuit shown in Fig. 10.27 we have
-210 2 b
Pmax = ¢ ≤ (35) = 315 W. Figure 10.27 The Thévenin equivalent loaded for maximum
70
power transfer.
ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS
Objective 3—Be able to calculate all forms of ac power in ac circuits with linear transformers and ideal
transformers
10.8 Find the average power delivered to the 50 mH

40 mH 100 mH
100 Æ resistor in the circuit shown if
vg = 660 cos 5000t V.

vg 375 400
34 10 mH
8 mH Answer: (a) 50 W;
vg 20 mH 100
(b) 49.2 W;
(c) 99.2 W, 50 + 49.2 = 99.2 W.
10.10 Solve Example 10.11 if the polarity dot on the
Answer: 612.5 W. coil connected to terminal a is at the top.
10.9 a) Find the average power delivered to the Answer: (a) 15 Æ;

400 Æ resistor in the circuit shown if (b) 735 W.
vg = 248 cos 10,000t V.
10.11 Solve Example 10.11 if the voltage source is
b) Find the average power delivered to the reduced to 146 l 0° V rms and the turns ratio is
375 Æ resistor. reversed to 1:4.
c) Find the power developed by the ideal volt-
age source. Check your result by showing the Answer: (a) 1460 Æ;
power absorbed equals the power developed. (b) 58.4 W.
NOTE: Also try Chapter Problems 10.61 and 10.62.
Practical Perspective
Vampire Power
Vampire power, or standby power, may cost you more than you think. The average household
has about 40 electrical products that draw power, even when turned off. Approximately 5%
of typical residential power consumption can be attributed to standby power. Table 10.3
provides the power consumption of several different devices. Notice that when a device is
considered to be off, it is often still consuming power.
Consider a typical mobile phone charger. According to the values given in Table 10.3,
when the charger is detached from the phone it consumes only a fraction of the power that
is used when the charger is attached to the phone and the phone is charging. Suppose you
charge your phone for three hours each day, but leave the charger plugged into the wall
outlet 24 hours a day. Recall that the electric company bills you based on the number of
kilowatt-hours (kWh) you use in a given month. A device that uses 1000 W of power
Practical Perspective 383
Rs R1 R2 TABLE 10.3 Average power consumption of common electrical devices

M
Electrical device+ Power [W]*
120
V (rms) L1 L2 phone Mobile phone charger
Attached to phone, phone charging 3.68
Plugged into wall outlet but not into phone 0.26
Figure 10.28 A linear transformed used in a phone charger. Notebook computer AC adapter
Attached to computer, computer charging 44.28
Rs R1 jvM R2 Attached to computer, computer sleeping 15.77
Attached to computer, computer off 8.9
120 Plugged into wall outlet but not into computer 4.42
V (rms) jvL1 jvL2
I DVD player
On and playing 9.91
On and not playing 7.54
Figure 10.29 The phone charger circuit when the phone Off 1.55
is not connected.
Microwave oven
Ready with door closed 3.08
Ready with door open 25.79
Cooking 1433.0
Inkjet multifunction printer
On 9.16
Off 5.26
*Data in this table from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory report
(http://standby.lbl.gov/standby.html)
+This value is the average of the power measured for many types of each device
continuously over one hour has consumed 1 kWh. Let’s calculate the number of kilowatt-hours used by
the phone charger in one month.
30[3(3.68) + 21(0.26)]
P[kWh] = = 1.8 kWh
1000
Now do the calculation again, this time assuming that you unplug the charger when it is not being used
to charge the phone.
30[3(3.68) + 21(0)]
P[kWh] = = 0.33 kWh
1000
Keeping the charger plugged in when you are not using it causes the charger to consume more than 5 times
the power needed to charge your phone every day. You can therefore minimize the cost of vampire power by
unplugging electrical devices if they are not being used.
How can the phone charger consume power when not plugged into the phone? The electronic circuitry
in your phone uses 5 V(dc) sources to supply power. The phone charger must transform the 120 V(rms)
signal supplied by the wall outlet into a signal that can be used to charge the phone. Phone chargers can
use linear transformers, together with other circuitry, to output a voltage suited to the phone.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 10.28. The linear transformer is part of the circuitry used to reduce the
voltage supplied by the source to a level suited to the phone. The additional components needed to com-
plete this task are not shown in the circuit. When the phone is unplugged from the circuit in Fig. 10.28,
but the circuit is still connected to the 120 V(rms) source, there is still a path for the current, as shown
in Fig. 10.29. The current is
120
I = .
Rs + R1 + jvL1
The real power, delivered by the voltage source and supplied to the resistors, is
P = (Rs + R1)|I|2.
This is the vampire power being consumed by the phone charger even when it is not connected to the phone.
NOTE: Assess you understanding of this Practical Perspective by trying Chapter Problems 10.66–10.68.
Summary
• Instantaneous power is the product of the instanta- • The power factor is the cosine of the phase angle
neous terminal voltage and current, or p = ; vi. The between the voltage and the current:
positive sign is used when the reference direction for
the current is from the positive to the negative refer-
pf = cos(uv - ui).
ence polarity of the voltage. The frequency of the
instantaneous power is twice the frequency of the volt-
age (or current). (See page 360.) The terms lagging and leading added to the description
of the power factor indicate whether the current is lag-
ging or leading the voltage and thus whether the load is
inductive or capacitive. (See page 363.)
• Average power is the average value of the instanta-
neous power over one period. It is the power converted • The reactive factor is the sine of the phase angle
from electric to nonelectric form and vice versa. This between the voltage and the current:
conversion is the reason that average power is also
referred to as real power. Average power, with the pas-
rf = sin(uv - ui).
sive sign convention, is expressed as
(See page 363.)

1
P = VmIm cos(uv - ui)
2 • Complex power is the complex sum of the real and reac-
tive powers, or
= VeffIeff cos(uv - ui).
S = P + jQ
(See page 362.) 1 *
= VI = VeffI *eff
2
V2eff
= I 2effZ = .
Z*
• Reactive power is the electric power exchanged
between the magnetic field of an inductor and the (See page 368.)
source that drives it or between the electric field of a
capacitor and the source that drives it. Reactive
power is never converted to nonelectric power. • Apparent power is the magnitude of the complex power:
Reactive power, with the passive sign convention, is
expressed as |S| = 2P2 + Q2.
1 (See page 368.)

Q = V I sin(uv - ui)
2 mm
• The watt is used as the unit for both instantaneous and
= VeffIeff sin(uv - ui). real power. The var (volt amp reactive, or VAR) is used
as the unit for reactive power. The volt-amp (VA) is
used as the unit for complex and apparent power. (See
Both average power and reactive power can be page 368.)
expressed in terms of either peak (Vm, Im) or effective
(Veff, Ieff) current and voltage. Effective values are • Maximum power transfer occurs in circuits operating in
widely used in both household and industrial applica- the sinusoidal steady state when the load impedance is
tions. Effective value and rms value are interchangeable the conjugate of the Thévenin impedance as viewed from
terms for the same value. (See page 362.) the terminals of the load impedance. (See page 376.)
Problems 385
Problems
Sections 10.1–10.2 10.5 Find the average power delivered by the ideal
PSPICE current source in the circuit in Fig. P10.5 if
10.1 The following sets of values for v and i pertain to MULTISIM
ig = 4 cos 5000t mA.
the circuit seen in Fig. 10.1. For each set of values,
calculate P and Q and state whether the circuit Figure P10.5
inside the box is absorbing or delivering (1) average
power and (2) magnetizing vars. 500 1000
a) v = 250 cos(vt + 45 ⴰ ) V,
i = 4 sin(vt + 60 ⴰ ) A. ig 160 nF 100 mH
b) v = 18 cos(vt - 30 ⴰ ) V,
i = 5 cos(vt - 75 ⴰ ) A.
c) v = 150 sin(vt + 25 ⴰ ) V, 10.6 Find the average power dissipated in the 30 Æ
i = 2 cos(vt + 50 ⴰ ) A. PSPICE resistor in the circuit seen in Fig. P10.6 if
d) v = 80 cos (vt + 120 ⴰ ) V, MULTISIM
ig = 6 cos 20,000t A.
i = 10 cos(vt + 170 ⴰ ) A.
Figure P10.6
10.2 a) A college student wakes up hungry. He turns on 30 i 1.25 mF
the coffee maker, puts some oatmeal in the
microwave oven to cook, puts a couple of slices
of bread in the toaster, and starts making scram- ig i 0.5 mH 30
bled eggs in the electric frying pan. If all of
these appliances in his dorm room are supplied
by a 120 V branch circuit protected by a 50 A
circuit breaker, will the breaker interrupt his 10.7 The op amp in the circuit shown in Fig. P10.7 is
breakfast? PSPICE ideal. Calculate the average power delivered to the
MULTISIM
b) The student’s roommate wakes up and turns on 1 kÆ resistor when vg = cos 1000t V.
the air conditioner. He realizes that the room is
a mess, so starts to vacuum. Now does the circuit Figure P10.7
breaker interrupt breakfast? 100 nF
10.3 Show that the maximum value of the instantaneous

power given by Eq. 10.9 is P + 2P2 + Q2 and that 20 k
the minimum value is P - 2P2 + Q2. 500 nF
2 k 5V

10.4 A load consisting of a 480 Æ resistor in parallel

with a (5>9) mF capacitor is connected across the 5 V
terminals of a sinusoidal voltage source vg, where vg
1 k
vg = 240 cos 5000t V.
a) What is the peak value of the instantaneous
power delivered by the source?
b) What is the peak value of the instantaneous 10.8 a) Calculate the real and reactive power associated
power absorbed by the source? with each circuit element in the circuit in
Fig. P9.63.
c) What is the average power delivered to the load?
b) Verify that the average power generated equals
d) What is the reactive power delivered to the load?
the average power absorbed.
e) Does the load absorb or generate magnetiz-
c) Verify that the magnetizing vars generated
ing vars?
equal the magnetizing vars absorbed.
f) What is the power factor of the load?
g) What is the reactive factor of the load? 10.9 Repeat Problem 10.8 for the circuit shown in
Fig. P9.64.
10.10 The load impedance in Fig. P10.10 absorbs 6 kW b) Suppose the voltage in part (a) is applied to the
and generates 8 kVAR. The sinusoidal voltage terminals of a 40 Æ resistor. Calculate the aver-
source develops 8 kW. age power dissipated by the resistor.
a) Find the values of inductive line reactance that c) When the voltage in part (a) is applied to a dif-
will satisfy these constraints. ferent resistor, that resistor dissipates 10 mW of
b) For each value of line reactance found in (a), average power. What is the value of the resistor?
show that the magnetizing vars developed
equals the magnetizing vars absorbed.
Figure P10.14
Figure P10.10 vg(V)

40
25 jX
etc.
1000 0 ZL
V (rms) 10 15 30 35
0 20 25 40 t(s)
5
Source Line Load
40
Section 10.3
10.11 a) A personal computer with a monitor and key- 10.15 a) Find the rms value of the periodic voltage shown
board requires 40 W at 115 V (rms). Calculate in Fig. P10.15.
the rms value of the current carried by its
power cord. b) If this voltage is applied to the terminals of a
4 Æ resistor, what is the average power dissi-
b) A laser printer for the personal computer in pated in the resistor?
(a) is rated at 90 W at 115 V (rms). If this printer
is plugged into the same wall outlet as the com- Figure P10.15
puter, what is the rms value of the current drawn
from the outlet? vg (V)
20
10.12 Find the rms value of the periodic current shown in
Fig. P10.12.
10 etc.
Figure P10.12
i (A)
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 t (ms)
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 t (ms) 20
10.13 The periodic current shown in Fig. P10.12 dissipates

an average power of 1280 W in a resistor. What is 10.16 A dc voltage equal to Vdc V is applied to a resistor of
the value of the resistor? R Æ. A sinusoidal voltage equal to vs V is also
applied to a resistor of R Æ. Show that the dc voltage
10.14 a) Find the rms value of the periodic voltage shown will deliver the same amount of energy in T seconds
in Fig. P10.14. (where T is the period of the sinusoidal voltage) as
Problems 387
the sinusoidal voltage provided Vdc equals the rms 10.20 a) Find the average power, the reactive power, and
value of vs. (Hint: Equate the two expressions for the PSPICE the apparent power supplied by the voltage
MULTISIM
energy delivered to the resistor.) source in the circuit in Fig. P10.20 if
vg = 40 cos 106t V.
Sections 10.4–10.5 b) Check your answer in (a) by showing
Pdev = a Pabs.
10.17 The current Ig in the frequency-domain circuit c) Check your answer in (a) by showing
shown in Fig. P10.17 is 50 l 0° mA (rms). Qdev = a Qabs.
a) Find the average and reactive power for the
current source. Figure P10.20
b) Is the current source absorbing or delivering 40
average power?
c) Is the current source absorbing or delivering 25 nF
magnetizing vars? 80 mH
d) Find the average and reactive powers associated

with each impedance branch in the circuit.
vg 60

e) Check the balance between delivered and
absorbed average power.
f) Check the balance between delivered and
absorbed magnetizing vars. 10.21 Two 480 V (rms) loads are connected in parallel.The
two loads draw a total average power of 40,800 W at
Figure P10.17 a power factor of 0.8 lagging. One of the loads draws
j75 20 kVA at a power factor of 0.96 leading. What is the
power factor of the other load?
ig 50 j50 10.22 The two loads shown in Fig. P10.22 can be described
as follows: Load 1 absorbs an average power of
25
10 kW and delivers 4 kVAR of reactive power;
Load 2 has an impedance of (60 + j80)Æ.
10.18 Find the average power, the reactive power, and the The voltage at the terminals of the loads is
PSPICE apparent power absorbed by the load in the circuit 100012 cos 100pt V.
MULTISIM
in Fig. P10.18 if vg equals 150 cos 250t V. a) Find the rms value of the source voltage.
Figure P10.18 b) By how many microseconds is the load voltage
out of phase with the source voltage?
80 mF
50 c) Does the load voltage lead or lag the source
voltage?
vg 100 mH

Figure P10.22
Load 0.5 j0.05

Vg VL L1 L2
10.19 a) Find VL (rms) and u for the circuit in Fig. P10.19
if the load absorbs 2500 VA at a lagging power
factor of 0.8.
b) Construct a phasor diagram of each solution
10.23 The three loads in the circuit seen in Fig. P10.23
obtained in (a).
are S1 = 6 + j3 kVA, S2 = 7.5 - j4.5 kVA,
Figure P10.19 S3 = 12 + j9 kVA.
j2
a) Calculate the complex power associated with
1
each voltage source, Vg1 and Vg2.

b) Verify that the total real and reactive power
250 u V (rms) VL 0 Load delivered by the sources equals the total real
and reactive power absorbed by the network.
Figure P10.23 average power of 9 kW and reactive power of

0.1 3 kvars; Load 3 is a 25 Æ resistor in parallel with
a capacitor whose reactance is -5 Æ. Find the
rms magnitude and the phase angle of Vg if
Vg1 S1 150 0 V (rms)
0.2 Vo = 250 l 0° V.
S3

Vg2 S2 150 0 V (rms)
0.1 Figure P10.26
j0.1

10.24 The three loads in the circuit seen in Fig. P10.24 are
described as follows: Load 1 is absorbing 4.8 kW
Vg Vo L1 L2 L3
and delivering 2.4 kVAR; Load 2 is absorbing
6 kVA at a power factor of 0.8 lagging; Load 3 is a
24 Æ resistor in parallel with an inductance whose
reactance is 6 Æ .
10.27 Consider the circuit described in Problem 9.78.
a) Calculate the average power and the magnetiz-
ing reactive power delivered by each source if a) What is the rms magnitude of the voltage across
Vg1 = Vg2 = 120 l 0° V (rms). the load impedance?
b) Check your calculations by showing your results b) What percentage of the average power devel-
are consistent with the requirements oped by the practical source is delivered to the
load impedance?
a Pdev = a Pabs
10.28 Three loads are connected in parallel across a
a Qdev = a Qabs.
300 V(rms) line, as shown in Fig. P10.28. Load
1 absorbs 3 kW at unity power factor; Load 2 absorbs
Figure P10.24 5 kVA at 0.8 leading; Load 3 absorbs 5 kW and deliv-
ers 6 kvars.
Vg1
a) Find the impedance that is equivalent to the
L1
three parallel loads.
L3 b) Find the power factor of the equivalent load as
seen from the line’s input terminals.
Vg 2 L2

Figure P10.28
10.25 Suppose the circuit shown in Fig. P10.24 represents 300 V (rms) 1 2 3
a residential distribution circuit in which the
impedances of the service conductors are negligi-
ble and Vg1 = Vg2 = 110 l 0° V (rms). The three
loads in the circuit are L1 (a toaster, a coffee 10.29 The three loads in Problem 10.28 are fed from a line
maker, and a microwave oven); L2 (a solid-state having a series impedance 0.02 + j0.05 Æ, as
TV, a vacuum cleaner, and a portable heater); and shown in Fig. P10.29.
L3 (an automatic washing machine and a clothes
dryer). Assume that all of these appliances are in a) Calculate the rms value of the voltage (Vs) at the
operation at the same time. The service conductors sending end of the line.
are protected with 50 A circuit breakers. Will the b) Calculate the average and reactive powers asso-
service to this residence be interrupted? Why or ciated with the line impedance.
why not? c) Calculate the average and reactive powers at the
sending end of the line.
10.26 The three parallel loads in the circuit shown in d) Calculate the efficiency (h) of the line if the effi-
Fig. 10.26 can be described as follows: Load 1 is ciency is defined as
absorbing an average power of 6 kW and delivering
reactive power of 8 kvars; Load 2 is absorbing an h = (Pload>Psending end) * 100.
Problems 389
Figure P10.29 magnitude as the voltage at the load end, that is,
0.2 j0.05 4800 V (rms). The 150 kVA load is operating at a
power factor of 0.8 lag. Calculate the size of the

capacitor in microfarads if the circuit is operating at
L1 L2 L3 300 0
Vs
V (rms) 60 Hz. In selecting the capacitor, keep in mind the
need to keep the power loss in the line at a reason-
able level.
10.30 The three loads in the circuit in Fig. P10.30 can be Figure P10.32
described as follows: Load 1 is a 240 Æ resistor in
series with an inductive reactance of 70 Æ ; load 2 is 10 j5
a capacitive reactance of 120 Æ in series with a
160 Æ resistor; and load 3 is a 30 Æ resistor in series 150 kVA
Vs 4800 0 V (rms) 0.8
with a capacitive reactance of 40 Æ . The frequency
lag
of the voltage source is 60 Hz.
a) Give the power factor and reactive factor of
each load.
10.33 A group of small appliances on a 60 Hz system
b) Give the power factor and reactive factor of the
requires 20 kVA at 0.85 pf lagging when operated at
composite load seen by the voltage source.
125 V (rms). The impedance of the feeder supplying
the appliances is 0.01 + j0.08 Æ. The voltage at the
Figure P10.30 load end of the feeder is 125 V (rms).
a) What is the rms magnitude of the voltage at the
vg source end of the feeder?
Load 1 Load 2 Load 3

b) What is the average power loss in the feeder?
c) What size capacitor (in microfarads) across the
load end of the feeder is needed to improve the
10.31 a) Find the average power dissipated in the line in load power factor to unity?
Fig. P10.31.
d) After the capacitor is installed, what is the rms
b) Find the capacitive reactance that when con- magnitude of the voltage at the source end of
nected in parallel with the load will make the the feeder if the load voltage is maintained at
load look purely resistive. 125 V (rms)?
c) What is the equivalent impedance of the load
e) What is the average power loss in the feeder
in (b)?
for (d)?
d) Find the average power dissipated in the line
when the capacitive reactance is connected
10.34 A factory has an electrical load of 1600 kW at a lag-
across the load.
ging power factor of 0.8. An additional variable
e) Express the power loss in (d) as a percentage of power factor load is to be added to the factory. The
the power loss found in (a). new load will add 320 kW to the real power load of
the factory. The power factor of the added load is to
Figure P10.31 be adjusted so that the overall power factor of the
j8
factory is 0.96 lagging.
6
a) Specify the reactive power associated with the
30 added load.
270 0 b) Does the added load absorb or deliver magnet-
V (rms) izing vars?
j40
c) What is the power factor of the additional load?
Source Line Load d) Assume that the voltage at the input to the fac-
tory is 2400 V (rms). What is the rms magnitude
10.32 The steady-state voltage drop between the load and of the current into the factory before the vari-
the sending end of the line seen in Fig. P10.32 is able power factor load is added?
excessive. A capacitor is placed in parallel with the e) What is the rms magnitude of the current into
150 kVA load and is adjusted until the steady-state the factory after the variable power factor load
voltage at the sending end of the line has the same has been added?
10.35 Assume the factory described in Problem 10.34 is fed Figure P10.38
from a line having an impedance of 0.25 + j0.1 Æ. 4:1
The voltage at the factory is maintained at
2400 V (rms).
a) Find the average power loss in the line before Ideal
5 0 A
and after the load is added. 60 40
(rms)
b) Find the magnitude of the voltage at the sending
end of the line before and after the load is added. 20
10.36 a) Find the six branch currents I a - I f in the circuit

in Fig. P10.36.
b) Find the complex power in each branch of the 10.39 a) Find the average power dissipated in each resis-
circuit. tor in the circuit in Fig. P10.39.
c) Check your calculations by verifying that the b) Check your answer by showing that the total
average power developed equals the average power developed equals the total power
power dissipated. absorbed.
d) Check your calculations by verifying that the
magnetizing vars generated equal the magnetiz- Figure P10.39
ing vars absorbed. j40
30
Figure P10.36
10 Ic I 900 Turns
d 5
250 0°
j10 j10 j20 e
V (rms)
a
Ib Id l 300 Turns j10
50 0° + j10
Ia Ie 10 If
V (rms) -
10.40 The sinusoidal voltage source in the circuit in

10.37 a) Find the average power delivered to the 8 Æ
Fig. P10.40 is developing an rms voltage of 2000 V.
resistor in the circuit in Fig. P10.37.
The 4 Æ load in the circuit is absorbing four times
b) Find the average power developed by the ideal as much average power as the 25 Æ load. The two
sinusoidal voltage source. loads are matched to the sinusoidal source that has
c) Find Zab. an internal impedance of 500l 0° kÆ.
d) Show that the average power developed equals a) Specify the numerical values of a1 and a2.
the average power dissipated. b) Calculate the power delivered to the 25 Æ load.
c) Calculate the rms value of the voltage across the
Figure P10.37 4 Æ resistor.
j6
2 a j10 j4
Figure P10.40
a1:1
272 0 j14 j8
Zab 8
V (rms) j20 500 25
b
Ideal
a2:1
10.38 a) Find the average power delivered by the sinu- 2000 0
soidal current source in the circuit of Fig. P10.38. V (rms) 4
b) Find the average power delivered to the 20 Æ Ideal
resistor.
Problems 391
Section 10.6 10.44 The load impedance ZL for the circuit shown in
Fig. P10.44 is adjusted until maximum average
10.41 a) Determine the load impedance for the circuit
power is delivered to ZL.
shown in Fig. P10.41 that will result in maximum
average power being transferred to the load if a) Find the maximum average power delivered
v = 8 krad>s. to ZL.
b) Determine the maximum average power b) What percentage of the total power developed
delivered to the load from part (a) if vg = in the circuit is delivered to ZL?
10 cos 8000t V.
c) Repeat part (a) when ZL. consists of two com- Figure P10.44
ponents from Appendix H whose values yield a
maximum average power closest to the value 25 j10 1
calculated in part (b). If

100 0 V (rms) 5If j3 ZL

Figure P10.41
31.25 nF
500 mH
10.45 Prove that if only the magnitude of the load

impedance can be varied, most average power is
vg 4 k ZL
transferred to the load when |ZL| = |ZTh|. (Hint: In
deriving the expression for the average load
power, write the load impedance ( ZL) in the form
ZL = |ZL| cos u + j|ZL| sin u, and note that only
10.42 Suppose an impedance equal to the conjugate of |ZL| is variable.)
the Thévenin impedance is connected to the termi-
nals c, d of the circuit shown in Fig. P9.75. 10.46 The variable resistor in the circuit shown in
Fig. P10.46 is adjusted until the average power it
a) Find the average power developed by the sinu-
absorbs is maximum.
soidal voltage source.
a) Find R.
b) What percentage of the power developed by the
source is lost in the linear transformer? b) Find the maximum average power.
c) Find a resistor in Appendix H that would have
10.43 The phasor voltage Vab in the circuit shown in the most average power delivered to it.
Fig. P10.43 is 300l 0° V (rms) when no external load
is connected to the terminals a, b. When a load hav- Figure P10.46
ing an impedance of 200 - j500 Æ is connected j300 j480
500 200
across a, b, the value of Vab is 156 - j42 V (rms).
a) Find the impedance that should be connected
300 0°
across a, b for maximum average power transfer. V (rms) j200 R
b) Find the maximum average power transferred to
the load of (a).
c) Construct the impedance of part (a) using com- 10.47 The variable resistor Ro in the circuit shown in
ponents from Appendix H if the source fre- Fig. P10.47 is adjusted until maximum average
quency is 50 Hz. power is delivered to Ro.
a) What is the value of Ro in ohms?
Figure P10.43
b) Calculate the average power delivered to Ro.
A circuit a c) If Ro is replaced with a variable impedance Zo,
operating in what is the maximum average power that can be
the sinusoidal Vab delivered to Zo?
steady
b d) In (c), what percentage of the circuit’s devel-
state
oped power is delivered to the load Zo?
Figure P10.47 capacitor is adjusted until the average power dissi-

Vf pated in the line resistance is minimum.
10 a) If the frequency of the sinusoidal source is
5
60 Hz, what is the value of the capacitance in
microfarads?
j 5
5 b) If the capacitor is removed from the circuit,
what percentage increase in the magnitude of Vs
is necessary to maintain 4000 V at the load?
100 0 V (rms) Vf j5 Ro
c) If the capacitor is removed from the circuit,
what is the percentage increase in line loss?
Figure P10.50
10.48 The peak amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage
PSPICE source in the circuit shown in Fig. P10.48 is 180 V, 1.25 j10
MULTISIM
and its frequency is 5000 rad>s. The load resistor
can be varied from 0 to 4000 Æ, and the load capac-
Vs 4000 0 V (rms) 100 j100 jXC
itor can be varied from 0.1 mF to 0.5 mF.
a) Calculate the average power delivered to the
load when Ro = 2000 Æ and Co = 0.2 mF.
b) Determine the settings of Ro and Co that will 10.51 For the frequency-domain circuit in Fig. P10.51,
result in the most average power being trans- calculate:
ferred to Ro. a) the rms magnitude of Vo.
c) What is the average power in (b)? Is it greater b) the average power dissipated in the 160 Æ
than the power in (a)? resistor.
d) If there are no constraints on Ro and Co, what is c) the percentage of the average power generated
the maximum average power that can be deliv- by the ideal voltage source that is delivered to
ered to a load? the 9 Æ load resistor.
e) What are the values of Ro and Co for the condi-
tion of (d)? Figure P10.51
f) Is the average power calculated in (d) larger 30 j100
than that calculated in (c)?

5120 0° j40 j64 Vo 160
Figure P10.48 V (rms)

Ro
6 k 0.6 H
10.52 The 160 Æ resistor in the circuit in Fig. P10.51 is
replaced with a variable impedance Zo. Assume Zo
vg 12 k Co
is adjusted for maximum average power transfer
to Zo.
a) What is the maximum average power that can
be delivered to Zo?
10.49 a) Assume that Ro in Fig. P10.48 can be varied
PSPICE between 0 and 10 kÆ. Repeat (b) and (c) of b) What is the average power developed by the
MULTISIM
Problem 10.48. ideal voltage source when maximum average
power is delivered to Zo?
b) Is the new average power calculated in (a)
greater than that found in Problem 10.48(a)? c) Choose single components from Appendix H to
form an impedance that dissipates average
c) Is the new average power calculated in (a) less power closest to the value in part (a). Assume
than that found in 10.48(d)? the source frequency is 60 Hz.
10.50 The sending-end voltage in the circuit seen in 10.53 Find the impedance seen by the ideal voltage source
Fig. P10.50 is adjusted so that the rms value of in the circuit in Fig. P10.53 when Zo is adjusted for
the load voltage is always 4000 V. The variable maximum average power transfer to Zo.
Problems 393
Figure P10.53 10.56 The values of the parameters in the circuit shown
15 Ω j15 in Fig. P10.56 are L1 = 8 mH; L2 = 2 mH;
k = 0.75; Rg = 1 Æ; and RL = 7 Æ. If
40 0° j18 vg = 5412 cos 1000t V, find
j30 Zo
V (rms) a) the rms magnitude of vo
b) the average power delivered to RL
c) the percentage of the average power generated
10.54 The impedance ZL in the circuit in Fig. P10.54 is by the ideal voltage source that is delivered to RL.
adjusted for maximum average power transfer to
ZL. The internal impedance of the sinusoidal volt- Figure P10.56
age source is 4 + j7 Æ.
Rg L1
a) What is the maximum average power delivered
to ZL?
b) What percentage of the average power delivered k

vg L2 vo RL
to the linear transformer is delivered to ZL?

Figure P10.54
4 j7 12 11 10.57 Assume the coefficient of coupling in the circuit in

j10 Fig. P10.56 is adjustable.
a) Find the value of k that makes vo equal to zero.
120 0
j5 j 23 ZL b) Find the power developed by the source when k
V (rms)
has the value found in (a).
Source Transformer Load

10.58 Assume the load resistor (RL) in the circuit in
Fig. P10.56 is adjustable.
a) What value of RL will result in the maximum
10.55 a) Find the steady-state expression for the currents average power being transferred to RL?
PSPICE ig and iL in the circuit in Fig. P10.55 when
MULTISIM b) What is the value of the maximum power
vg = 400 cos 400t V.
transferred?
b) Find the coefficient of coupling.
c) Find the energy stored in the magnetically cou- 10.59 The load impedance ZL in the circuit in Fig. P10.59
pled coils at t = 1.25p ms and t = 2.5p ms. is adjusted until maximum average power is trans-
d) Find the power delivered to the 375 Æ resistor. ferred to ZL.
e) If the 375 Æ resistor is replaced by a variable a) Specify the value of ZL if N1 = 3600 turns and
resistor RL, what value of RL will yield maxi- N2 = 600 turns.
mum average power transfer to RL? b) Specify the values of I L and VL when ZL is
f) What is the maximum average power in (e)? absorbing maximum average power.
g) Assume the 375 Æ resistor is replaced by a vari-
able impedance ZL. What value of ZL will result Figure P10.59
in maximum average power transfer to ZL? j400
50
h) What is the maximum average power in (g)?
Figure P10.55 N1
I
d IL
125 312.5 mH 24 0
e
ig iL V (rms)
a
vg 625 mH 625 mH 375 l N2 VL ZL

10.60 The sinusoidal voltage source in the circuit in Figure P10.63

Fig. P10.60 is operating at a frequency of 20 krad>s. V1
The variable capacitive reactance in the circuit is N1
10 k
adjusted until the average power delivered to the
100 Æ resistor is as large as possible.
2.25 0 Ideal
a) Find the value of C in microfarads. 80 k N2 400
mA (rms)
b) When C has the value found in (a), what is the
average power delivered to the 100 Æ resistor?
c) Replace the 100 Æ resistor with a variable resis-
10.64 a) If N1 equals 1000 turns, how many turns should
tor Ro. Specify the value of Ro so that maximum
be placed on the N2 winding of the ideal trans-
average power is delivered to Ro.
former in the circuit seen in Fig. P10.64 so that
d) What is the maximum average power that can maximum average power is delivered to the
be delivered to Ro? 6800 Æ load?
b) Find the average power delivered to the 6800 Æ
Figure P10.60 resistor.
2 100 c) What percentage of the average power deliv-
1:5 ered by the ideal voltage source is dissipated in
15 0 the linear transformer?
20 j10 C
A (rms)
Ideal Figure P10.64
j200
40 720 N1
10.61 Find the average power delivered to the 5 kÆ resis-
tor in the circuit of Fig. P10.61. Ideal
255 0
j30 j1500 N2 6800
V (rms)
Figure P10.61
200
25 : 1 1 : 50
145 0° 10.65 The variable load resistor RL in the circuit shown in
5 k Fig. P10.65 is adjusted for maximum average power
V (rms) PSPICE
MULTISIM
Ideal transfer to RL.
Ideal
a) Find the maximum average power.
10.62 The ideal transformer connected to the 5 kÆ load b) What percentage of the average power devel-
in Problem 10.61 is replaced with an ideal trans- oped by the ideal voltage source is delivered to
former that has a turns ratio of 1:a. RL when RL is absorbing maximum average
power?
a) What value of a results in maximum average
power being delivered to the 5 kÆ resistor? c) Test your solution by showing that the power
developed by the ideal voltage source equals the
b) What is the maximum average power? power dissipated in the circuit.
10.63 a) Find the turns ratio N1>N2 for the ideal trans-
Figure P10.65
former in the circuit in Fig. P10.63 so that
maximum average power is delivered to the 12
400 Æ load.
b) Find the average power delivered to the 4 1 16
400 Æ load. 1:4
c) Find the voltage V1. 40 0
RL
V (rms)
d) What percentage of the power developed by the
ideal current source is delivered to the 400 Æ Ideal
resistor?
Problems 395
10.66 Repeat Problem 10.65 for the circuit shown in d) Repeat the calculation in part (a) assuming that
PSPICE Fig. P10.66. the computer is charging for 5 hours and the AC
MULTISIM
adapter is unplugged from the wall outlet for
19 hours.
Figure P10.66
RL 10.68 a) Suppose you use your microwave oven for
12 minutes each day. The remaining time, the
oven is ready with the door closed. Use the val-
80 20 40
ues in Table 10.3 to calculate the total number
1:2 of kilowatt-hours used by the microwave oven
500 0 in one month.
360
V (rms)
b) What percentage of the power used by the
Ideal
microwave oven in one month is consumed
when the oven is ready with the door closed?
Sections 10.1–10.6 10.69 Determine the amount of power, in watts, con-

10.67 a) Use the values in Table 10.3 to calculate the sumed by the transformer in Fig. 10.29. Assume that
number of kilowatt-hours consumed in one the voltage source is ideal (Rs = 0 Æ ), R1 = 5 Æ ,
month by a notebook computer AC adapter if and L1 = 250 mH. The frequency of the 120 V(rms)
every day the computer is charging for 5 hours source is 60 Hz.
and sleeping for 19 hours..
10.70 Repeat Problem 10.69, but assume that the
b) Repeat the calculation in part (a) assuming that linear transformer has been improved so that
the computer is charging for 5 hours and off for Rs = 50 m Æ. All other values are unchanged.
19 hours.
c) Repeat the calculation in part (a) assuming that 10.71 Repeat Problem 10.69 assuming that the linear
the computer is charging for 5 hours and dis- transformer in Fig. 10.29 has been replaced by an
connected from the AC adapter for 19 hours, ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 30:1. (Hint –
but the AC adapter remains plugged into the you shouldn’t need to make any calculations to
wall outlet. determine the amount of power consumed.)

Ch1 Sinusoidal Steady State Power Calculations

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360 Sinusoidal Steady-State Power Calculations

10.1 Instantaneous Power

v = Vm cos (vt + uv), (10.2)

i = Im cos (vt + ui), (10.3)

v = Vm cos (vt + uv - ui), (10.4)

i = Im cos vt. (10.5)

p = VmIm cos (vt + uv - ui) cos vt. (10.6)

to expand Eq. 10.6; letting a = vt + uv - ui and b = vt gives

Now use the trigonometric identity

cos (a + b) = cos a cos b - sin a sin b

1 See entry 8 in Appendix F.

Figure 10.2 depicts a representative relationship among v, i, and p,

Figure 10.2 Instantaneous power, voltage, and current versus vt for

10.2 Average and Reactive Power

p = P + P cos 2vt - Q sin 2vt, (10.9)

2.0 Power for Purely Resistive Circuits

P p = P + P cos 2vt. (10.13)

Power for Purely Inductive Circuits

In a purely inductive circuit, the average power is zero. Therefore no

Instantaneous, average and reactive power

Instantaneous, average, and reactive power

The Power Factor

pf = cos (uv - ui), (10.16) Power factor

rf = sin (uv - ui). (10.17)

Example 10.1 Calculating Average and Reactive Power

a) Calculate the average power and the reactive Solution

b) Note from Fig. 10.6 the use of the passive sign

Example 10.2 Making Power Calculations Involving Household Appliances

The branch circuit supplying the outlets in a typical Solution

Est. kWh Est. kWh

Food preparation Health and beauty

10.3 The rms Value and Power

Figure 10.8 The effective value of vs (100 V rms) delivers the

and, by similar manipulation,

Q = VeffIeff sin (uv - ui). (10.22)

The effective value of the sinusoidal signal in power calculations is so

Example 10.3 Determining Average Power Delivered to a Resistor by Sinusoidal Voltage

10.3 The periodic triangular current in Example 9.4, i

10.4 Complex Power

Complex power S = P + jQ. (10.23)

兩S兩 apparent power Q

= tan (uv - ui). (10.25)

Therefore, u = uv - ui. The geometric relations for a right triangle mean

Apparent power |S| = 2 P2 + Q2. (10.26)

Apparent power, like complex power, is measured in volt-amps. The

Example 10.4 Calculating Complex Power

Solution u = cos -1(0.8) = 36.87 ⴰ .

Now, because cos u = 0.8, sin u = 0.6. |Veff| 240

b) From the computation of the complex power of 兩S兩

P = VeffIeff cos (uv - ui) u

10.5 Power Calculations

3cos (uv - ui) + j sin (uv - ui)4

If we use the effective values of the sinusoidal voltage and current,

S = VeffIeffl (uv - ui). (10.28)

Equations 10.27 and 10.28 are important relationships in power calcula-

= VeffIeff e j(uv - ui)

= Veff e juvIeff e-jui

Complex power = VeffI*eff. (10.29)

Ieff e -jui = Ieff cos ( -ui) + jIeff sin ( -ui)

= Ieff cos (ui) - jIeff sin (ui)

The same derivation technique could be applied to Eq. 10.27 to yield

= - 100 + j173.21 VA.

The interpretations of the algebraic signs on P and Q are identical to those

Alternate Forms for Complex Power

4 j3 which we replaced the original network with its

We find the Thévenin impedance by deactivat- j1.68

a) What impedance should be connected ig 20 5 mF

Maximum power will be delivered to RL when 35 a

b) The maximum power delivered to RL is most 210 0

Load 0.5 j0.05

4 j7 12 11 10.57 Assume the coefficient of coupling in the circuit in