DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ACADEMIC YEAR 2023 - 2024 – EVEN SEMESTER (Regulation 2017)

CONTINUOUS INTERNAL ASSESSMENT - III (Answer Key)

Course Code &Title: CE8091 Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering

Year / Semester: IV/VIII Date of the exam: 29.04.2024 (AN)
Name of the Faculty: Dr. R. Vignesh

Answer all questions

PART – A (7 x 2 = 14 Marks)

1. List out the major classification of reservoirs.

• Valley-dammed reservoir or Storage reservoir

• Flood control reservoirs
• Service reservoirs or Distribution reservoir

2. Describe any two factors selecting site for reservoirs.

Some of the factors which are important in selecting site for reservoirs are:

• an adequate supply of preferably high-quality water;

• a minimum of detrimental effects on the environment;
• sufficient elevation to provide a natural flow of water to the distribution system.

3. Define life of reservoirs.

A reservoir exists for a long time and the period of its operation should normally check large
technological and socio-economic changes. The planning assumptions about the exact socio-economic
outputs are, therefore, likely to be changed during operation, and similarly, the implication of socio-
economic differences in the output due to sedimentation are difficult to access.

4. Name the different types of aquifers.

• Confined aquifers
• Unconfined aquifers

5. Differentiate between steady and unsteady flow.

Steady flow refers to fluid motion where the velocity, pressure, and other properties of the fluid remain
constant over time. It is an idealized concept and is used in engineering and physics to simplify fluid
mechanics problems. The velocity, pressure, energy, and mass flow rates are constant in a steady flow.

Unsteady flow refers to fluid motion where the velocity, pressure, and other properties of the fluid vary
with time. Unsteady flows occur in turbulent, oscillating, and transient flows. The velocity, pressure,
energy, and mass flow rates vary with time in unsteady flow.

6. Discuss about the governing equations in groundwater flow.

Used in hydrogeology, the groundwater flow equation is the mathematical relationship which is used to
describe the flow of groundwater through an aquifer. The transient flow of groundwater is described by a
 form of the diffusion equation, similar to that used in heat transfer to describe the flow of heat in a solid
(heat conduction). The steady-state flow of groundwater is described by a form of the Laplace equation,
which is a form of potential flow and has analogs in numerous fields.

The groundwater flow equation is often derived for a small representative elemental volume (REV),
where the properties of the medium are assumed to be effectively constant. A mass balance is done on the
water flowing in and out of this small volume, the flux terms in the relationship being expressed in terms
of head by using the constitutive equation called Darcy's law, which requires that the flow is laminar.

7. List out the important properties of aquifers.

• Aquifer materials
• Rock properties
• Porosity
• Specific yield and specific retention
• Hydraulic conductivity

PART – B (2 X 10 =20 Marks)

8.a. Discuss about the purpose of reservoirs and elaborate the various types of reservoirs in detail.

Purpose of Reservoir

Sometimes weather fluctuations cause the natural flow of streams and rivers to change over time. The
excess water flow and valley floods can vary according to short flow or drought. The main purpose of
water storage or reservoirs is to store the excess water during periods of higher flow. This way, floods
can be controlled, and the stored water can be released gradually for longer periods. This stored water
can be used for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes.

The reservoir supplies water to cities and towns and provides basic human needs. Population growth
plays a significant role in designing reservoirs. Though reservoirs are designed for irrigation, flood
control, and water supply, some common purposes of reservoirs are as follows:

• Prevent or control the flood.

• Hydroelectric or Power generation
• Fishing and Boating
• Irrigation
• Water Supply
• Water Storage
• Water Sports
• Wildlife habitat
• Bird sanctuary
• Wildlife Parks

Types of Reservoirs: The types of reservoir are as follows:

1. Valley-dammed reservoir or Storage reservoir

2. Flood control reservoirs
3. Service reservoirs or Distribution reservoir

Valley Dammed Reservoir

Valley-dammed reservoirs are formed in valleys in the middle of the mountains. There is often an
 existing lake or water, and the sides of the mountain are used as reservoir walls to hold water. A dam or
artificial tank wall is built at the narrowest point to hold water. Before constructing Valley-dammed
reservoirs, the water flow or river must be diverted. The dam construction process involves laying the
foundations for the dam, and then the concrete cladding is laid and the construction of the dam can
proceed.

The construction of the dam usually takes many years, but when it is finished, valley ponds and a large
water source can be used to serve the purpose of irrigation, hydropower generation, domestic and
industrial water supply.

Flood Control Reservoir

This type of reservoir, also known as a flood mitigation reservoir, is built to store the floodwater from a
high flow water stream to reduce flooding in protected areas or populated areas. The entire stream
entering the water storage is discharged until the outflow reaches the safe capacity of the lower
channel. The excess inflow is stored in the reservoir, and the stored water is gradually resealed to create a
storage capacity for the next flood. There are two types of flood control reservoirs:

1. Storage Reservoir
2. Retarding Reservoir

i) Storage Reservoir: A reservoir where gates and valves are installed at its spillways and sluice outlets
is known as a storage reservoir. This reservoir requires a manual operation to open and close the gate,
which gives complete control over the amount of water discharged.

ii) Retarding Reservoir: A reservoir that has ungated outlets and the flow is uncontrolled is known as
retarding reservoir or retarding basin. The retarding reservoir has some advantages over the storage
reservoir, such as no necessity of installing gates at sluiceways and spillway crests. During maximum
floods, the water present in the land is submerged temporarily and driven out in a few days after the
flood is controlled or minimized.

Distribution Reservoir or Service Reservoir

Distribution Reservoir connected to the main water supply channels(pipelines). The main purpose of this
type of reservoir is to serve or supply water to consumers according to changing demands or
requirements of the local population. It also serves as local storage in the event of an emergency. Here
the water is stored in the reservoir by pumping at a specific rate, and later, this stored water can be used
or supplied at a rate higher than the inflow rate during high demands.

The main advantage of this type of reservoir is it can store water during the demand period and supply
water during the demand period. Distribution reservoirs mainly depend on the population’s demand for
water at a particular period.

(or)
8.b. Define spillways and discuss the important factors where spillways are generally used.

Spillways

A spillway is a structure used to provide the controlled release of water downstream from a dam or levee,
typically into the riverbed of the dammed river itself. Spillways ensure that water does not damage parts
of the structure not designed to convey water.
 Spillways can include floodgates and fuse plugs to regulate water flow and reservoir level. Such features
enable a spillway to regulate downstream flow—by releasing water in a controlled manner before the
reservoir is full, operators can prevent an unacceptably large release later.

Other uses of the term "spillway" include bypasses of dams and outlets of channels used during high
water, and outlet channels carved through natural dams such as moraines.

Water normally flows over a spillway only during flood periods, when the reservoir has reached its
capacity and water continues entering faster than it can be released. In contrast, an intake tower is a
structure used to control water release on a routine basis for purposes such as water supply
and hydroelectricity generation.

A spillway is located at the top of the reservoir pool. Dams may also have bottom outlets with valves or
gates which may be operated to release flood flow, and a few dams lack overflow spillways and rely
entirely on bottom outlets.

The two main types of spillways are controlled and uncontrolled.

A controlled spillway has mechanical structures or gates to regulate the rate of flow. This design allows
nearly the full height of the dam to be used for water storage year-round, and flood waters can be
released as required by opening one or more gates.

An uncontrolled spillway, in contrast, does not have gates; when the water rises above the lip or crest of
the spillway, it begins to be released from the reservoir. The rate of discharge is controlled only by the
height of water above the reservoir's spillway. The fraction of storage volume in the reservoir above the
spillway crest can only be used for the temporary storage of floodwater; it cannot be used as water
supply storage because it sits higher than the dam can retain it.

9.a. Describe in detail: i) Aquifer ii) Aquitard iii) Aquiclude iv) Aquifuge.

Groundwater is an important natural resource. The precipitation infiltrates into the ground and travels
down until it reaches the impervious stratum where it is stored as groundwater. It is stored in the pores
present in the geological formations such as soil, rock, sand, etc.

Types of Geological Formations of Groundwater. There are four different types of geological formation
of groundwater:

1. Aquifer
2. Aquitard
3. Aquiclude
4. Aquifuge

Aquifer

An aquifer is a saturated formation of the earth. It not only stores the water but also yields it in adequate
quantity. Aquifers are highly permeable formations and hence they are considered as main sources of
groundwater applications. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel are examples of an aquifer.

Aquifers are classified into two types based on their occurrence which are as follows:

• Unconfined aquifer
• Confined Aquifer
 Unconfined aquifer

An unconfined aquifer is an aquifer which has free water surface - which means the water table exists for
this type of aquifer. This is also called as water table aquifer or free aquifer or phreatic aquifer.
Unconfined aquifers are recharged by the infiltration of precipitation from the ground surface.

Confined Aquifer

A confined aquifer is an aquifer confined between two impermeable beds such as aquifuge, aquiclude,
etc. The water in the confined aquifer will be under greater pressure which is greater than atmospheric
pressure. Hence, the water level shown by piezometer is always higher than the top level of the confined
aquifer. The recharge of confined aquifer occurs at a place where it exposes to the ground surface.

Aquitard

An aquitard is also a saturated formation. It permits the water through it but does not yield water in
sufficient quantity as much as aquifer does. It is because of their partly permeable nature. But however, if
there is an aquifer under the aquitard then the water from aquitard may seep into the aquifer. Sandy
clay is a perfect example of an aquitard. Here, the clay particles block the voids present in the sand and
make it partly permeable.

Aquiclude

An aquiclude is a geological formation which is impermeable to the flow of water. It contains a large
amount of water in it but it does not permit water through it and also does not yield water. It is because of
its high porosity. Clay is an example of aquiclude.

Aquifuge

An aquifuge is an impermeable geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable - which
means it cannot store water in it and at the same time it cannot permit water through it. Compact rock is
an example of aquifuge.

(or)
9.b. Briefly explain about artificial recharge.

Artificial recharge is the process of spreading or impounding water on the land to increase the infiltration
through the soil and percolation to the aquifer or of injecting water by wells directly into the
aquifer. Confined aquifers can be recharged with wells that penetrate the aquifer. Groundwater levels are
declining across the country as our withdrawals exceed the rate of aquifers to naturally replenish
themselves called recharge. Artificial groundwater recharge is one method of controlling declining water
levels. Artificial recharge is the practice of increasing the amount of water that enters an aquifer through
human-controlled means. For example, groundwater can be artificially recharged by redirecting water
across the land surface through canals, infiltration basins, or ponds, adding irrigation furrows or sprinkler
systems, or simply injecting water directly into the subsurface through injection wells. When
groundwater is continuously overpumped, year after year, the volume withdrawn from the aquifer cannot
be replaced by recharge. Eventually, the groundwater level is much lower than its initial level, and even
when pumping stops, the aquifer has trouble rising once again to its original level. In continental
zones, overexploitation can lead to groundwater drawdown and, ultimately, to subsidence through the
development of sinkholes when underground caverns or channels collapse. In coastal areas, the decrease
in groundwater recharge results in saltwater intrusion into the aquifer formation. Preserving local
groundwater resources is an environmental and economic issue in coastal zones and is vital in an island
context. The increasing demand for water caused by a growing population can lead to the salinization of
 groundwater resources if these are systematically overexploited.

Following are the main advantages of artificially recharging the ground water aquifers.

• No large storage structures needed to store water. Structures required are small and cost-
effective.
• Enhance the dependable yield of wells and hand pumps.
• Negligible losses as compared to losses in surface storages.
• Improved water quality due to dilution of harmful chemicals/ salts.
• No adverse effects like inundation of large surface areas and loss of crops.
• No displacement of local population.
• Reduction in cost of energy for lifting water especially where rise in ground water level
is substantial.
• Utilizes the surplus surface runoff which otherwise drains off.

PART – C (1 X 16 =16 Marks)

10.a. Elaborate in detail about the major classification of groundwater zones and types of water
available in different zones.

There are various classifications of groundwater given by different researchers. However, as per the most
popular classification given by Meinzer (1923), the groundwater has been divided mainly in two groups:
interstitial water and internal water. The interstitial water is again subdivided into two divisions. They are
vadose water present in the zone of aeration and groundwater present in the zone of saturation.
 The vadose water is further subdivided into three zones, i.e., soil water zone, intermediate zone and
capillary zone. The soil water zone is adjacent to the ground surface. The intermediate zone is between
the lower edge of the soil water zone and the upper edge of the capillary zone. The capillary zone extends
from the bottom edge of the intermediate zone to the upper edge of the saturated zone. The thickness of
the capillary zone depends on the properties of the soil and also on the homogeneity of the soil. The
depth of capillary zone is varying from few centimeters to few meters. In capillary zone, all the pores are
field up with water. However, we cannot draw water by inserting a well up to that depth. This is because
of the negative pressure developed at this zone due to surface tension effect. Groundwater zone starts
from the bottom edge of the capillary zone. In this zone, all the pores of the soil matrix are filled with
water. This zone is also known as zone of saturation. The top surface of the zone of saturation or
groundwater is known as phreatic surface. This phreatic surface is also known as water table.

The degree of saturation for the soil below the water table is equal to 1, i.e. the soil is fully saturated. As
a groundwater hydrologist, we are primarily interested for the water below the groundwater table, i.e. the
water available in the zone of saturation. For the soil above the water table, the degree of saturation of
the soil is varying between 0 and 1. However, the degree of saturation will never be 0 due of the presence
of hygroscopic water. The hygroscopic water is the water that held tightly on the surface of the soil
colloidal particle. Hygroscopic water can be removed from the soil by oven drying.

(or)
10.b. Discuss in detail about the groundwater situations in rural and urban areas.

The National Compilation of Dynamic Ground Water Resources is a biennial report published by
the Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India. It details the state of
ground water from the state and union territory, to the district and blocks of districts (Taluks) level for all
districts.
The report calculates the total annual groundwater availability based on the rainfall received and other
sources. It also calculates the total groundwater extracted each year. The stage of groundwater extraction
is computed based on this as the percentage of the total annual groundwater availability that is extracted
annually.

This percentage if classified into the following stages:

• “Safe” where less than 70% of the annual available groundwater is extracted
• “Semi-critical” where between 70 to 90% of the annual available groundwater is extracted
• “Critical” where the extraction is between 90-100% of the available groundwater
• “Over-exploited” when the annual extraction exceeds the annual availability.

Imagine ground water as a bank account from which you can withdraw money to spend. Every year you
receive an income that is deposited into the account. Initially, when the population in an area is less,
there are more green spaces, more aquifers in the form of tanks and lakes and more water seeping into
the ground, more money is deposited into the account. Borewells that extract this water spend money
from the account, but as borewells and wells were shallower the amount extracted was smaller and the
amount withdrawn each year was less than what was deposited. This adds to the balance in the account
every year. In ground water terms it is called fossil water.

As the population in the area grows, as green spaces are lost due to concretisation, as lakes and tanks are
encroached upon, the annual income into the account starts reducing. In parallel, as more and deeper
borewells are drilled to sate the increasing population, the amount that is withdrawn from the account
starts growing rapidly. A tipping point is soon reached when the amount withdrawn every year exceeds
the amount being deposited. When this happens you start withdrawing the earlier balance, the fossil
water. Eventually, like in an overdrawn bank account, the balance goes to zero and there is no water left
to extract. This is called a Day Zero situation.

Stage of groundwater extraction in major cities

According to the national compilation of ground water resources – 2022, two of India’s large metros –
Bengaluru and Chennai are in over-exploited stage, while three others – Delhi, Hyderabad and Kolkata
are in the Critical stage, bordering on 100%. Pune and Ahmedabad are in semi-critical state. No
information on Mumbai was available in the report.

In terms of usage, different cities use groundwater for different purposes. While most of the groundwater
extracted in Chennai, Delhi and Hyderabad is for domestic purposes, in Pune, Ahmedabad and
Bengaluru irrigation (agriculture) dominates the usage. The usage for agriculture in Pune is high enough
to make a separate chart without it!

High usage for irrigation is a factor of the presence of villages within a district. In the case of Chennai,
Delhi and Hyderabad, the city corporation area covers almost the entire district, while in the case of
Bengaluru Urban, Ahmedabad and Pune districts, the district covers an area much larger than the city
council limits where there are still villages which depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Despite the
presence of industries in most cities, the usage is higher than domestic only in Bengaluru and
Ahmedabad.

Looking only at domestic usage, Delhi ranks the highest followed by Chennai, Pune and Hyderabad.
Despite popular perception Bengaluru ranks well behind the other metros in terms of domestic usage.
This is mainly because of the Cauvery water supply to most areas of Bengaluru.

To understand the groundwater situation in three major metros where the usage is either over-exploited
or close to that, we looked at the extraction over the years for Bengaluru, Chennai and Delhi. The data
for Hyderabad is incomplete in some of the years and had to be excluded because of that.

The compilation report is available only for the following years – 2004, 2009, 2011, 2013,
2017, 2020 and 2022. The x-axis in charts below also reflect that and should not be seen as a timeline
with equal intervals.

Looking at the stage of extraction, Delhi seems to have gradually moved to critical stage from over-
exploitation over the years. Chennai’s groundwater exploitation percentage seems to be declining
gradually and if the trend holds they can go below 100% at some point in the future. Bengaluru’s
situation however looks grim. But given how the usage is mainly towards irrigation and industries, the
chances of it declining soon are remote.