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25 Problems for STEM Education
25 Problems for STEM Education

Valery F. Ochkov
Moscow Power Engineering Institute
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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In memory of Alexey Ochkov
Contents

Acknowledgment, xiii
Author, xv

INTRODUCTION, XVII

STUDY 1 ◾ Formulas for Calculations Or: Chekhov’s Gun 1

ABSTRACT 1
REFERENCES 8

STUDY 2 ◾ Swan, Crayfsh and Pike Or: Scalar and Vector in Computer Calculations 9
ABSTRACT 9
REMARK 10
AFTERWORD 13
CONCLUSIONS 16

STUDY 3 ◾ The Gold-Bug Or: Roman-Arab Cryptography 17

ABSTRACT 17
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 24

STUDY 4 ◾ Solvers Or: The Mathcad Magnifcent Seven 25

ABSTRACT 25
INTRODUCTION 25
PROBLEM 1 26
Solve 26
root+root 27
Polyroots 31
Find 31
PROBLEM 2 31
lsolve 33
Minimize and Maximize 33
PROBLEM 3 33
Minerr 34
CONCLUSIONS 35
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 35
vii
viii ◾ Contents

STUDY 5 ◾ Guess the Image Or: The Matrix Game 37

ABSTRACT 37
GUESSING NOT THE IMAGE BUT MELODY 40
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 41

STUDY 6 ◾ How Much Or: The Old Problem in a New Way 43

ABSTRACT 43
PROBLEM 1 47
PROBLEM 2 49
PROBLEM 3 51
REFERENCE 52

STUDY 7 ◾ Catenary Or: The Fifth Element 53

ABSTRACT 53
SQUARE WHEEL 67
CONTINUING STUDY 7 67
Also about a Chain (Circles), but Electrical 68
ELECTRICAL COMMENTARY 71
AND THE LAST 75
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 78

STUDY 8 ◾ Live Kinematic Schemes Or: Arm of Hella 81

ABSTRACT 81
THE ARM OF HELLA 89
JOURNEY INTO THE WORLD OF SCIENCE AND ART ON THE PLANTIGRADE MACHINE 90
LET’S MOVE AHEAD 95
AND FINALLY 96
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 98

STUDY 9 ◾ Celestial Mechanics Or: Kepler’s Watch 99

ABSTRACT 99
LAWLESS COMET 109
And Last but One for the Most Curious and Meticulous 114
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 119

STUDY 10 ◾ Recursion Or: A Knight’s Tour 121

ABSTRACT 121

STUDY 11 ◾ Yes–No in Mathcad Or: Boole’s Origami 127

ABSTRACT 127
BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS OF ONE ARGUMENT 127
 Contents ◾ ix

BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS OF TWO ARGUMENTS 128

FUNCTIONS OF MANY ARGUMENTS 137
A SAD NOTE 137
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 138

STUDY 12 ◾ Fuzzy Sets Or: Optimal Fire Bucket 139

ABSTRACT 139
PROBLEM 1 141
PROBLEM 2 143
And at Last 150
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 150

STUDY 13 ◾ The Journey of a Circle in a Triangle, and of a Triangle in a Hollow Or: A Self-
Directed Computer Director 151
ABSTRACT 151
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 160

STUDY 14 ◾ Interpolation, Extrapolation and Fitting Or: Lies, Damned Lies and Statistics 161
ABSTRACT 161
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 178

STUDY 15 ◾ Go There, Knowing Where to Go Or: New Swiss Watches 179

ABSTRACT 179
LET’S START WITH THE CLOCK 179
PROBLEM 1 187
PROBLEM 2 187
PROBLEM 3 188
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 191

STUDY 16 ◾ Heads or Tails Or: A Three-Way Duel in Monte Carlo 193

ABSTRACT 193
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 199

STUDY 17 ◾ Geese Are Flying Or: The Problem of Fishermen and Fish 201
ABSTRACT 201
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 204

STUDY 18 ◾ Alphabetical Puzzle Or: Help Yourself So That the Computer Helps You! 205
ABSTRACT 205
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 208
x ◾ Contents

STUDY 19 ◾ Seven Computational Curves Or: Apollonius Bicycle and Apollo Guitar 209
ABSTRACT 209
BUG OF THE SECOND-ORDER 223
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 224

STUDY 20 ◾ Journey from Home to School on the Fermat Route Or: The Second Optical
Property of Hyperbola 225
ABSTRACT 225
MAGNIFIER FOR READING PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL REFERENCE BOOKS 233
THE THEOREM OF FERMAT AND MATHCAD 235
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 235

STUDY 21 ◾ Optimization of Potential Energy Or: Curves of the Second-Order in Statistics 237
ABSTRACT 237
NEW YEAR’S MATHCAD-POSTCARD OR NEW MATHEMATICAL CONSTANT 240
VI POINTS, VII POINTS, VIII POINTS, IX POINTS, ETC. CONSTANTS. CONCLUSION 243
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 243

STUDY 22 ◾ Parallel Computing Or: Put Yourself in Order! 245

ABSTRACT 245
TWO “RANDOM” MATHCAD FUNCTIONS 249
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 249

STUDY 23 ◾ How to Calculate a Ship Or: How You Name a Boat, Is How it Will Sail 251
ABSTRACT 251
CENTER OF MASS, CENTER OF GRAVITY 256
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 257

STUDY 24 ◾ How to Calculate a Rocket Or: “… and on Mars Will Blossom Apple Trees” 259
ABSTRACT 259
ASSIGNMENT FOR READERS 263

STUDY 25 ◾ Hybrid Calculations on the Computer Or: One More about a Cone 265
ABSTRACT 265
CONCLUSION 271
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 271

STUDY 26 ◾ Funicular Polygons in Statics, Kinematics and Dynamics Or: Isaac Newton versus
Joseph Louis Lagrange 273
ABSTRACT 273
A SHORT INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 273
PART I: STATICS 274
 Contents ◾ xi

PART II: KINEMATICS 280

Comment 283
PART III: DYNAMICS 283
Note on Animation in Mathcad Prime 285
CONCLUSIONS 290
AND THE LAST 291
Pendulum-Tulip 291
AND THE VERY LAST THING 293
AND MOST MOST-RECENT 294
AFTERWORD TO THE STUDY 296
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 296

STUDY 27 ◾ BHL Or: Application for the Ig Nobel Prize 299

ABSTRACT 299
A NOTE ON THE UNITS 307
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 308

STUDY 28 ◾ Tomography = IT + Mathematics + Physics + Biology Or: Worker-Peasant Graphics 309

ABSTRACT 309
CONCLUSION 316
ASSIGNMENT FOR READERS 316

STUDY 29 ◾ A New Ellipse Or: Math Porcelain Service 317

ABSTRACT 317
INTRODUCTION 317
MATERIALS AND METHODS 319
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 319
New Type of Ellipses 319
Animation and Augmented Reality 321
CONCLUSIONS 322
REFERENCES 322

STUDY 30 ◾ What Lies behind a Simplifed Formula Or: Hybrid Calculation of the Otto Cycle 323
ABSTRACT 323
ASSIGNMENTS FOR READERS 329

STUDY 31 ◾ Mad Chain Or: Physical and Mathematical Informatics 331

ABSTRACT 331
THEORETICAL, IMPLEMENTATION AND EXPERIMENTAL PARTS 331
THE CHAIN ON TWO NAILS 332
Interlude: Te Chain Number π 338
End of the Interlude 340
xii ◾ Contents

CHAIN ON HANGERS 340

CHAIN ON A CONE 344
MAD CHAIN 345
Comment on “dif eqns” 346
CONCLUSIONS 352
REFERENCES 353

STUDY 32 ◾ STEM Education And Or: Science Fiction 355

ABSTRACT 355
SIZES OF THE SUBMARINE 356
GRAPH OF AN IMPLICIT FUNCTION OF TWO ARGUMENTS 357
SYMBOLIC MATHEMATICS ERROR 358
THE OPERATOR “APPROXIMATELY EQUAL” 359
AGAIN ABOUT THE SIZE OF THE NAUTILUS 360
HYBRID MATHEMATICS: NUMBER AND SYMBOL 360
ANIMATION 361
OPTIMIZATION 361
IMPLICIT 3D FUNCTIONS 362
TO SINK AND TO FLOAT 363
DENSITY OF SEAWATER 366
LEAGUES, MILES, KILOMETERS, METERS 366
A BIT OF POLITICS AND OF ECONOMICS 368
“CLOUDY” AIR DENSITY 370
COMPETITION “MR. NAUTILUS” OR METROLOGICAL MUSK OX 370
EXIT/CONCLUSION 372

INDEX, 373
Acknowledgment
The author expresses deep gratitude to colleagues
and friends for their help in writing this book:
Natalia Slivina, Elena Bogomolova, Jana Kalova, Julia
Chudova, Natalia Ochkova, Katarina Pisačić, Gizem
Karaali, Inna Vasileva, Irina Kirichenko (ladies
first), Evgeny Nikulchev, Massimiliano Nori, Fred
Kohlhepp, Alan Stevens, Werner Exinger, Michael
Kirsanov, Alexey Sokolov, Vladimir Chudov, Alvaro
Dias, Luc Mekes, Alvaro Falconi, Mati Hainloo,
Sergey Fedorovich, Alexander Eliseev, Alexander
Bobriakov, Sergey Khorkov, Volker Lehner, Sasha
Gurke, Andreas Look, Viktor Korobov, Alexander
Solodov, Vitaly Samsonov, Aung Thu Ya Tun and Jury
Fedorov.
Te author is immensely grateful to Massimiliano
Nori, Fred Kohlhepp Alan Stevens, and Dmitry Petrov
for their great help in translating this book into English
and for valuable comments.
xiii
Author
Valery F. Ochkov is a Professor
at Moscow Power Engineering
Institute (Technical University,
MPEI, www.mpei.ru) in the
Department of Teoretical Basics
of Termal Engineering (TOT),
founder and general manager of
Trieru (www.trie.ru) an engineer-
ing consulting frm that devel-
ops simulators and analytical sofware for the power
industry. He also works at Joint Institute for High
Temperatures (www.jiht.ru) of the Russian Academy of
Sciences and at Moscow High School at MPEI. He is a
member of the working group on thermodynamics of
the International Association for the Properties of Water
and Steam (IAPWS) and PTC Mathcad Community
(https://community.ptc.com).
He has authored more than 25 books in Russian
and English and numerous journal articles on the
use of math sofware for solving the problems in
thermodynamics, heat and mass transfer, and fuid
dynamics. Professor Ochkov is one of the creators of
WaterSteamPro™, an application for simulating ther-
mophysical properties of water and steam and also a
co-creator of web calculations for the Elsevier/Knovel
website.
xv

Teaching of Informatics, Mathematics,
Physics, Chemistry with Mathematical
Packages
Or
Between Scylla and Charybdis
Te history of the development of methods for solv-
ing problems in mathematics, physics and chemistry
in school and at university is, among other things, the
history of struggling with computational tools. First
(in the oral calculations classes, for example), the use
of pen and paper was forbidden; then (when studying
calculation with a “stick” pen on paper), the calculator
was forbidden; and, fnally, when solving more complex
problems, using a computer with modern mathemati-
cal programs, such as Mathematica, Maple, MATLAB®,
Mathcad, SMath, etc. (or, rather, computer programs),
though not explicitly prohibited, was alleged to be the
equivalent of solving simple problems (such as 65 times
9, for example) with a calculator. Tis prohibition was
not applied to the computational tools themselves
when specially selected examples in computer science
and programming classes were being taught, but only
to their use to solve problems in arithmetic, trigonom-
etry, linear algebra and mathematical analysis classes.
However, modern schoolchildren and students do not
understand this; for them the computer is ubiquitous in
both work and play.
With mental calculation, everything is more or less
clear. Tese exercises are wonderful gymnastics for
the mind (see Study 3). Te use of calculators in these
INTRODUCTION
classes is equivalent to the addition of sports simulator
hydraulic boosters. Counting “column” can also be con-
sidered as a gym for the mind and good motor skills for
the hands. But there is another reason. We must be able
to do mental calculations in the absence of pencil and
paper; further, we must be able to calculate with pencil
and paper, in the absence of a calculator, etc. However—
to get fre by friction if there are no matches at hand; to
be able to determine cardinal points through the trees
in the forest, if there is no compass or navigator at hand;
to be able etc. Unfortunately, or fortunately, with the
development of civilization, we have forgotten how to
do mental calculation, to obtain fre by friction, to ori-
ent ourselves on the terrain by natural signs, etc. Te
schoolteacher of the author of this book did not tire of
repeating in the lessons on arithmetic, that if we, his
students did not learn to count quickly and accurately
in the mind or, at least, on a sheet of paper, we would
be weighed and cheated in stores. Now this motivation
to develop an oral calculation does not work anymore,
because in modern supermarkets, modern methods of
“hanging and counting” are used.
Opponents of the use of modern computer solu-
tions for school and university tasks in mathemat-
ics, physics, chemistry, etc., also rely on a number of
xvii
xviii ◾ Introduction
other arguments, which they, however, do not openly
talk about.
First, and very unfortunately, many schoolteachers
and university teachers simply cannot work with mod-
ern computer mathematical programs and/or do not
know about their capabilities. Tese teachers have mas-
tered the computer, but at the level of ofce programs
(text editor, table processor, email, work on the Internet)
and the basics of operating (fle system, etc.), but they do
not want to go further, or cannot, justifying it by saying
that such programs are harmful to learners.
Second, the introduction of these programs in the
educational process requires a thorough revision of the
content and methods of teaching, as well as the rewrit-
ing of textbooks and problem books in mathemat-
ics, physics and chemistry or, at least, their substantial
reprocessing. Te examples in the problem books, of
course, are rewritten. Before, there were, for example,
“funts and arshins” (Russian obsolete units equivalent
to pound and yard, respectively, see Study 6), and now
“meters and kilograms”. Previously, the problem was:
“Te digger has dug so many meters of ditch”, and now
“the computer has such volume of memory”, but the
essence of the tasks and the method of solving them,
alas, do not change.
Tird, the previously mentioned computer programs
are quite expensive. Our schools and universities were
not able to aford many of them. However, this prob-
lem is now solved. Firms that develop mathematical
programs provide substantial discounts to educational
institutions and in some cases supply programs free
of charge. Tis has a commercial goal, of course. Afer
graduation, students who mastered the free program
will hopefully buy it themselves or ask their employer
to buy it. Teachers should not complain about the high
cost of programs or the inability to work with pirated
copies for various reasons, but look for ways to solve this
problem, by contacting, for example, sofware develop-
ers and their dealers. In addition, you need to remember
that there are free versions of the programs. For exam-
ple, PTC, the developer of the Mathcad program, allows
a month to work with the full version of Mathcad Prime,
and then with its truncated version Mathcad Express,
which nevertheless allows solving rather complicated
mathematical problems.
And one more very important point.
At present, powerful sofware tools for the computer
modeling of physical processes are being intensively
introduced into the educational process of technical
universities. If we talk about universities in the energy
feld, in which the author of this book works, then there
are programs such as ANSYS or COMSOL (modeling of
heat and mass transfer processes), TermoFlow (calcula-
tions of thermodynamic cycles), FlowVision (modeling
of hydrodynamics). New laboratory work is created on
the basis of similar programs, seminars are held and lec-
ture courses are taught in many advanced universities of
energy and power engineering.
Unfortunately, these programs are ofen used as
“black boxes”; initial data is entered, the “box cover” is
closed (press the Calculate button), then the user opens
the “cover” and takes out the results: tables with fgures,
graphs, three-dimensional virtual objects (which can
even be printed on a 3D printer), animation, etc. Tis
means students have very vague (if any) ideas about
what is happening in these “black boxes”. Afer all, these
programs were created not for educational, but for com-
mercial purposes, and the design code in them is hid-
den from extraneous views (protected from industrial
espionage). Also, there are ofen cases when this code
is hidden because it is very old and primitive, and the
“modernity” of the program is visible only on its inter-
face (all the steam went of in a whistle). Te beneft of
this educational process is ofen close to zero. However,
there are educational technologies in which a real exper-
iment (for example, heating or cooling a physical body
with temperature being measured on its surface using
a thermal imager) is carried out in the laboratory, fol-
lowed by the modeling and mapping of this process on
the computer. Te comparison of images with the ther-
mal imager and with the display screen stimulates dis-
cussion of the issues related to the essence of a physical
phenomenon, to the methods and the errors of the tools
of the instrumental control, as well as to the limitations
and the assumptions of computer programs: this pro-
cess is modeling.
We have now examined a kind of Scylla, meaning
by this “sea monster” the way in which packages like
ANSYS or COMSOL are implemented in the learning
process rather than meaning the packages themselves.
Now let’s talk about the second “monster”—about a kind
of Charybdis.
Currently, a large number of programs have been
accumulated in the so-called high-level programming
languages (Fortran, Pascal, BASIC, C, Python, etc.)
for calculating the processes that are modeled in the

previously described “black boxes”. Teachers of older
generations are trying to “re-teach” modern students
these programs (codes) in order to explain the essence
of the calculations. But for most students, the lan-
guages of these programs are incomprehensible. And,
most importantly, the motivation of the majority of the
students, who will never seriously code (especially in
these languages), is not clear, since they will use ready-
made sofware products (the “black boxes”) or mathe-
matical packages for solving their particular problems:
calculations with complex formulas, solving equations
and systems (algebraic and diferential), constructing
graphs, creating animations, processing statistical
data, etc.
But many teachers still try to teach students to work
with “their” programs. Tere are many possible expla-
nations for this. First, do not “dismiss an equivalent
product”—created with much efort and thoroughly
tested for decades; for example, in “good old Fortran”.
Second, many teachers do not know about the possibili-
ties of new sofware or consider that they (the teachers)
are incapable of studying something new. Tird, the
appeal of the “good old horse”, sorry, Fortran or BASIC,
“which does not spoil furrows”. Tis is explained by the
fact that in many organizations where students end up
working afer university, Fortran is that “horse”, which
is still used to “plow”, guided among other things by the
principle that the best is the enemy of the good.
We can swim between Scylla and Charybdis, if we
use mathematical packages, such as Mathcad, for mod-
eling physical phenomena with details of their essence
and methods of implementation on the computer. Tat
is the main idea of this book.
But why Mathcad? What good is it for these kinds of cal-
culations? First, of course, the fact that the author is well
aware of this package and has written several books on it.
However, there are, of course, objective indicators
of the convenience of working with Mathcad.* We list
them.
1. Good documentation of calculations. Calculations
made in Mathcad can be printed and submitted
for review or shown to a person (teacher) who has
* Te book’s calculations are slightly diluted with solutions in alternative
mathematical environments: SMath (Figure 1.8), Maple (Figure 17.3,
Figure 24.4, Figure 25.3 and Figure 26.34) and Mathematica (Internet
version, see Figure 7.5, Figure 26.32, Figure 26.33 and Figure 28.8).
Introduction ◾ xix
never worked on a computer.† Mathcad refects the
appearance of calculations made on paper, thanks
to the WYSIWYG mode—what you see is what
you get—“what you see (on the display screen),
then you will get (on printed paper)”. Te printouts
of the solutions received in Mathcad can be lef in
an archive so that someone reading them 50–100
years later will understand what is written there
and be able to reproduce it in the new sofware
environments that will have appeared by that time.
And this is very important.
In the area of computer information technolo-
gies there is currently a crisis, which we have
already touched on above, and which is conven-
tionally called the “nightmare of legacy sofware”.
What is it? Imagine a frm, corporation or uni-
versity that afer 30–40 years of intensive use of
computers has developed and accumulated a large
number of programs of varying complexity for cal-
culating and modeling various processes, devices
and technologies in various felds of science and
technology, and also for the creation and manage-
ment of databases (knowledge).
In place of morally and physically obsolete
computers come new computers with new hard-
ware and new operating systems. Computers are
integrated into local networks, which participate
in the process of “globalization” and are inte-
grated into the Internet—wired and wireless. Te
development of wireless communication between
computers and servers has led to the emergence of
“cloud” information technology. Modernization
of the computer park ofen leads to the fact that
old applications stop running on new or updated
computers—workstations and servers. Sometimes
it’s just impossible to read a program from old
media (punched cards, punched tape, a diskette
of various diameters, obsolete “fash drives”,
etc.), since new computers do not have appropri-
ate reading devices. We either have to completely
abandon such programs and create new ones from
scratch, or spend time and money on developing
† At the end of Study 9, we show one of the diferences between Mathcad
and manual formulas. It will also be said there that these diferences are
gradually disappearing.
xx ◾ Introduction
or purchasing certain utilities (emulators) to run
old programs on new or updated computers.
But that’s not so bad. Te real trouble begins
when specialists, who created and supported these
programs, leave the “frms, corporations, universi-
ties” and the young people who replace them can
neither modernize the programs nor adapt them
to new requirements. Te reason for this would be
an insufcient documentation of codes, the lack
of appropriate tools and the simple impossibility
of correctly reading a program written in “dead”
programming languages. If, however, it is difcult
to recreate or modernize the old program, using
old or even new programming languages, the
“nightmare of legacy sofware” will reappear afer
a while.
Good documentation and detailed calculations
are very important in the educational sphere. It’s
no secret that many teachers of higher educa-
tional institutions are opposed to the use of com-
puters for calculating educational tasks. We have
already looked at with this problem. Tese teach-
ers quite reasonably believe that such tasks need
to be addressed solely by use of the “pen” and not
the computer, or, at least, by the means that they
themselves used as students. But these teachers are
referring to the use of computers as “black boxes”
(see above), in which the “initial” data are “input”
and from which ready-made answers are “taken
out”. Mathcad is by no means a “black box”, which
is contraindicated for students.
2. Working with units of measurements. Electronic
tables and programming languages played a cruel
joke on us—they made us accustomed to work-
ing without physical quantities. More accurately,
we were taught to work with quantities devoid of
dimension (reduced to basic SI), and to keep in
mind the units of their measurement (SI units—
meters, seconds, pascal, kelvin, joules, watts, etc.),
which is very inconvenient and fraught with errors
in the calculations. Also, the basic SI units them-
selves are inconvenient: the basic unit of pressure
(pascal) is very small and always requires multi-
pliers of kilo or mega, the temperature in kelvins
ofen requires conversion to Celsius or Fahrenheit
degrees, etc. Tis problem will be considered in
more detail in Study 1. Tis feature allows us to
call Mathcad not just mathematical, but a physi-
cal and mathematical package. It was created,
incidentally, by a nuclear physicist by education—
Allan Razdow.
3. A fexible system of variable names. Variables and
functions in Mathcad, with rare exceptions, have
the same names that were assigned to them in cer-
tain scientifc and technical disciplines long before
the advent of computers. For example, the Greek
letter η with various indices in thermodynamics is
the efciency (thermal, internal relative, etc.), and
the Greek letter λ is the thermal conductivity. Tis,
along with the use of traditional writing of mathe-
matical constants, operators and functions, as well
as upper and lower indexes, makes the “language”
of Mathcad available to the uninitiated (see para-
graph 1 above) without much additional comment.
Te notation in Mathcad practically coincides
with generally accepted mathematical notation:
integral, derivative, modulus, degree, etc.
Another four features, that are also available in
other mathematical packages (MATLAB, Maple,
Mathematica, SMath, Derive, etc.), are listed here:
4. Numerical and symbolic mathematics, which
make it possible to use a rich library of numeri-
cal methods for solving problems, anticipating or
supplementing them with attempts (successful or
less successful) to solve the problem analytically.
Mathcad was originally created as a numerical
mathematics package, to which later (in the ffh
version) the core of symbolic mathematics was
attached from Maple. Tis core was then (in the
thirteenth version) replaced by the core of sym-
bolic mathematics from MuPAD. Similarly, the
“numerical” package MATLAB, initially also
had a symbolic engine from Maple that was later
replaced by MuPAD. Conversely the Maple and
Mathematica packages were originally packages of
symbolic mathematics with elements of numerical
calculations.
5. Mathcad includes powerful and fexible tools for
creating 2D and 3D plots, as well as animations.
Tis allows you to quickly and easily visualize the
source, intermediate and summary data without
calling external procedures or writing auxiliary

programs, which contributes to a better under-
standing of the essence of the calculation, iden-
tifying possible errors and false ways to solve a
problem within it.
6. Coding. In Mathcad, mathematical actions on
the worksheet are executed on a regular sheet of
paper from lef to right and from top to bottom.
But sometimes it is necessary to change this order
of calculation. Tis opportunity (programming)
is provided in Mathcad, and is successfully used
not only by advanced users, but also by those who
once mistakenly believed that they would never
program. Mathcad’s programming tools allow us
to solve rather complicated tasks that do not ft in
the narrow framework of the sequential algorithm
(from lef to right and from top to bottom).
7. Mathcad provides the ability to expand the list of
available functions in three ways:
• Te frst method is to link Mathcad by a DLL
(Dynamic Link Library) mechanism with
functions written, for example, in C program-
ming language.
• Te second is a link from the working docu-
ment to other Mathcad-sheets. Because of this
link, the user variables and functions stored in
the linked document (fle) will become avail-
able (visible, as the programmers say) also
in the working document. Tese and other
Mathcad-sheets can be downloaded to your
computer or to a local network and used as
templates. However, you could do this if your
computer has a reliable, high-speed connection
to the Internet.
• Te third method: Mathcad tools allow the
user to write and debug functions quickly
Introduction ◾ xxi
that return, for example, material properties
(example in Figure 2.3 in Study 3), based on
formulas, tables or graphs taken from an exter-
nal source—from a paper or electronic book, as
well as from the Internet.
Tese three possibilities could and should be used in
order to make available in the calculation document, for
example, functions that have as arguments the param-
eters of a particular point of the thermodynamic cycle
and return the necessary thermophysical properties of
the working body at this point: specifc enthalpy, spe-
cifc entropy, density, specifc heat capacity (isobaric or
isochoric), thermal conductivity, viscosity, etc. Without
this, it is impossible to calculate heat engineering pro-
cesses (a specialization of the author).
And lastly. Calculations created in Mathcad can be
placed on the server (on the Internet or on the local net-
work) without much trouble to work without Mathcad
itself. So, for example, with many calculations described
in this book, you can work through the Internet using
Mathcad Calculation Server technology, without install-
ing any additional programs on your computer.
In this book, all these possibilities will be shown
using concrete physical and mathematical examples.
And more.
Almost all problems of the book were solved in
Mathcad. PTC Academic is committed to providing
access to Mathcad for free.
PTC Mathcad Express, a lighter version of PTC
Mathcad is available for student and educators' down-
load at https://www.ptc.com/en/products/mathcad-
express-free-download.
If you are interested in purchasing full-featured PTC
Mathcad for university or school - please contact PTC
academic team at https://www.ptc.com/en/academi
c-program/contact-us.

Formulas for Calculations
Or
Chekhov’s Gun
ABSTRACT
Mathematical expressions can be added or edited in
electronic media as embedded calculations. Formulas
in an electronic document are not just expressions writ-
ten in a formal language, they are also an object that
could be studied, helping to comprehend a text and
avoid many typos and mistakes typical of mathemati-
cal formulas found in print. Tis Study describes some
features of formulas embedded in online scientifc lit-
erature and educational web apps. Te Study is based
on the experience of teaching engineering subjects and
math assisted by the visualization of calculations. Te
author examines key features and practical application
of calculations and formulas embedded into the scien-
tifc and educational texts.
Mathematics: Formulas.
Physics: Units, empirical and pseudo-empirical for-
mulas, molarity, molality.
IT: Cloud calculation, modern publishing process.
Art: Anton Chekhov.
Study website: https://community.ptc.com/t5/PTC-
Mathcad-Questions/PhysMathStudy1/m-p/85566.
A lot of changes are taking place in the educational and
scientifc content publishing arena. Traditional print is
enhanced and ofen supplanted by electronic materials
with embedded features such as web links, bookmarks,
STU DY 1
comments, references to forums, and video clips or ani-
mations [1].
Embedded calculations play an important role among
these features, enhancing comprehension of the math
while enabling live computation [2].
Tere is a wide variety of sofware capable of support-
ing embedded calculations. For example, the symbolic
math engine Maple has found wide use in academia for
diferentiation and integration. Te popular program-
ming language Python is used for realization of algo-
rithms in TeX documents [3]. Math formulas on HTML
pages can be supported by Mathcad [4]. Cloud comput-
ing applications are also becoming more widespread [5].
Regardless of the technology used, a modern elec-
tronic textbook is not just a web-enabled text. It is also
a self-contained learning tool [6]. It helps us to compre-
hend math better, allows for calculation and visualiza-
tion of solutions in the form of graphs, and can be used
for in-text exercises.
If there is an equation in a book, the reader should
be able to use it for calculation right there. Additionally,
readers should be able to change the variables in the
equation. Tis also applies to tables and graphs contain-
ing functional dependencies [7].
Te following are some observations from our peda-
gogical practice that illustrate the usefulness of embed-
ded equations in education.
1
2 ◾ 25 Problems for STEM Education
1. In a physics department, students can conduct lab
experiments and then use a computer to access a
web page with live calculations, to enter data points
and to ft a curve using the least-squares method.
Tis method used to be the normal approach. Now,
an increasing number of students use smartphones
and tablets. When asked why they do not use the
lab computer, students ofen reply: “I hardly know
how to work with a standard keyboard, and I can
input data faster on the tablet.”
2. During math, physics and chemistry classes, stu-
dents ofen use their mobile devices (smartphones,
tablets, notebooks) to go to a math website and to
key in an algebraic or diferential equation (see
Figure 1.2) in order to fnd an analytic or numeric
solution that validates calculations written by the
lecturer on the blackboard.
3. Finally, during a physics class, a student might
derive an equation describing string vibration and
then create an animation for its visualization.
Tere is a new trend in the content and in the production
of scientifc papers, handbooks, monographs and text-
books containing calculations. In the old days, authors
submitted their work to publishers in the form of typed
manuscripts with handwritten formulas and special
characters. Now, publishers require electronic fles with
the text in MS Word and formulas created in a math
editor or native sofware; the formulas are scanned and
inserted as images into the text.
Formulas in scientifc papers and textbooks are there
for the purposes of calculation. In electronic formats, they
can be used for computing right on the screen. Printed
formulas can be easily validated by using an interactive
electronic version. Tis is a revolutionary change!
Te production of electronic handbooks with embed-
ded interactive equations is described in [8]. Making
equations interactive reveals many typographical and
other errors in the formulas. For example, multiple errors
were found during the development of a series of web-
based handbooks called “Heat Technology and Power
Engineering” and corrected for the subsequent edition.
During peer review of scientifc papers, we are ofen
asked by editors to validate numeric solutions. While
the damage caused by typos in regular text is negligible,
those in formulas can lead to serious consequences. For
example, during the review of an article on the thermal
conductivity of an aqueous solution of NaCl, calcula-
tions were validated using the Mathcad Calculation
Server. Tis revealed that some equations and coef-
fcients in the article had typos. When these were cor-
rected the article was published free of error and with a
reference to “live” computing.
In this chapter of the book, we will examine vari-
ous aspects of computing with embedded formulas and
discuss ways of improving the quality and precision of
solutions by using validated formulas.
Modern calculation apps such as Mathcad can handle
units of measurement. Tis is very convenient due to the
automatic conversion of input and output values with
diferent units, and the control over their dimensional
compatibility. However, there are some issues.
Tere are two types of scientifc equations—physi-
cal and empirical. Te former deal with physical values
and can be used with any appropriate units of measure-
ment. Good examples of these formulas are E = m·c2
and F = m·a. Calculation apps will solve these equations
correctly regardless of the units as long as they have the
right dimension, and they will indicate an error when
the dimensions are not compatible. Empirical equa-
tions, created as a rule by statistical treatment of experi-
mental (empirical) data, require numeric input in the
stated units of measurement. Probably the simplest and
best known empirical formula is that linking the height
of an average man with his weight [4]: height of a person
in centimeters is his weight in kilograms plus 100. Tis
formula, written in Mathcad, and the units of measure-
ment are shown in Figure 1.1. Te results in Figure 1.1
are rounded, although variables in equations contain 15
digits in the mantissa. Tis detail is an important aspect
of the creation of “live” equations. In paper handbooks,
monographs and textbooks, calculation of the systems
of equations is done by rounding intermediate results
and then using these results in other equations. In com-
puter calculations, variables retain maximum precision.
Te results of these calculations would thus be slightly
diferent from those in paper publications.
In handbooks, the basic units of measurement are
shown in the legends for physical formulas. However,
FIGURE 1.1 Input of a simple empirical equation.

FIGURE 1.2 Working with pseudo-empirical formulas.
machine computing of these formulas is done without
using the units. Here is a simple example: F = m·a, where
F is force in N (newton), a is acceleration in m/s2, and m
is mass in kg. For modern calculation applications input
of the units is redundant because all appropriate conver-
sions for the derived units are done automatically.
We should not forget about physical problems with
solutions that contain numbers beyond the range of
computer calculations. Tey could have both very
large and very small parameters, resulting in incor-
rect rounding due to simultaneous processing of large
and small numbers. Also, solution algorithms for math
models could become unsuitable if model equations
contain variables that difer by several orders of mag-
nitude. In this case, the errors for the large parameters
could be on the same scale as the parameters them-
selves and could signifcantly distort the values for the
small parameters. Before solving these equations, it is
advisable to modify them to reduce the spread between
the magnitudes of parameters and to reduce the num-
ber of arithmetic operations leading to an accumula-
tion of errors.
A solution is to replace the variables with dimension-
less quantities prior to calculation, making all variables
in a math model practically the same magnitude. As a
rule, the equations themselves become simpler due to the
elimination of “extraneous” constants and quantities,
and the real parameters of the process being modeled
are disclosed. Te equations are made unit-independent
by converting absolute values of some properties to
relative values, specifc to a particular physical model.
Usually, these are length, speed, time and energy-related
or mechanical properties.
Formulas for Calculations ◾ 3
Many physical constants are dimensionless by def-
nition. Tese include, for example, the Mach number
(compressibility factor), Reynolds number (viscosity
factor), Poisson’s ratio (a parameter of material elastic-
ity) and the Prandtl number (refecting the relationship
between viscosity and thermal conductivity). An angle
measured in radians is a dimensionless quantity as well,
and it is calculated as a ratio between the length of an
arc and a radius of a circle.
Let’s use oscillation of a weight attached to a spring to
illustrate how an equation can be made dimensionless.
Suppose at time t0 the initial extension of the spring is x0
(m), with parameters k (N/m), v0 (Hz) and m (kg). Te
characteristic time would have the dimension of m k
and, if the spring is stretched instantaneously, the inter-
val of calculations would be so small it would be compa-
rable to computational error, and representative values of
x could be so large as to lead to a loss in precision. Let’s
make the quantities dimensionless by introducing new
variables x˜ = x x0 , t˜ = t k m and v˜ = v m / k . Te sys-
tem of equations with new variables can be expressed
˛ x°̃ = v˜,
˙
as ˝ .
˙ˆv°̃ = − x˜ .
Here, representative values of all the variables are
comparable and, therefore, the system of equations can
be solved numerically with the required precision. In
addition, by solving this system once, we can obtain a
solution for the whole range of problems for diferent
values of x0, k and m. To get back the units, we need to
reverse substitute the variables.
Getting rid of the units of measurement involves tran-
sitioning from the absolute physical quantities to the rel-
ative quantities specifc to a given physical process. Tis
transition is governed by the theory of similarity. For
example, the transition from laminar fow to turbulent
occurs at a certain value of Reynolds number, depend-
ing on the fow velocity, geometry and fuid viscosity.
Making calculated quantities dimensionless opens
the possibility of adding Reynolds and Prandtl numbers
without getting a program error. Adding viscosity to
thermal conductivity is not possible or, more precisely,
it is not possible using sofware that can control units.
Tis and other reasons lead to the return to dimensional
physical quantities and rejection of their “shadows”—
dimensionless quantities—the obvious drawbacks of
which are felt by those who use pseudo-units such as
4 ◾ 25 Problems for STEM Education
degrees. Modern sofware has the means to remedy this
situation.
Another obvious case of dimensionless quantities is
the use of decibels. Bel is a common logarithm of a ratio
of two unidimensional physical quantities, and a decibel
is, of course, one-tenth of a bel. By measuring a property
in decibels we are actually converting a physical quan-
tity into a dimensionless value on a logarithmic scale.
Usually, decibels are used for measuring the volume of
sound by comparing the intensity of sound waves I with
the lowest level of sound perceivable by a human ear I0
(typically I0 = 0.01 W/m2). We can calculate the ratio I/I0
directly, but the range of this ratio is very wide, mak-
ing its use inconvenient. Tis is resolved by using loga-
rithmic scale and the prefx deci, −0.1·log(I/I0). A very
loud noise of a sledgehammer has a volume of 80 dB,
whereas a conversation in a room has a volume of 60
dB and a barely audible sound such as the rustling of
leaves is approximately 10 dB. Decibels, as well as other
dimensionless quantities, make calculations easier but,
again, not if we use a computer.
Some time ago, during transition to the SI system
of units, STM publishers and journal editors stopped
accepting manuscripts that used other, still common,
units of measurement. Tis transition was painful for
engineers and scientists who used foot, pound and other
non-metric units. In spite of the prevalence of SI units,
there are some customary, non-metric units that are
still being used in many countries. For example, we (in
Russia) will never learn to measure atmospheric pres-
sure in millibars (hectopascals), preferring millimeters
of mercury (torrs). Now, publishers are beginning to
deviate from the rules requiring the use of SI units in
articles and books. One of the reasons for that is unit-
enabled calculation sofware.
Some equations in journals and books could be
called pseudo-empirical. Tese are basically physi-
cal equations that in reality are empirical because
they require units of measurement for computation
(see Figures 1.3 and 1.4). Te following is an example
from power engineering. At a given efciency (η) of a
power plant, the specifc fuel consumption (b) can be
calculated as b = 123/η. Tis means that a power plant
with efciency 34% consumes 362 (123/0.34) grams of
fuel to generate one kilowatt-hour of electricity. Tis
simple equation would result in an incomplete solu-
tion in Mathcad, i.e. a solution without the units (see
the frst line in calculations shown in Figure 1.2). So,
what is the problem? Te reason is that, in the past,
this equation was adopted for manual calculation and
for calculation with sofware that could not handle the
units (such as spreadsheets). However, if we remem-
ber the equivalence between fuel and its calorifc value
(Qef ), we can restore the original equation b 1/(Qef·η)
and use it without any problems in Mathcad (see the
last line in Figure 1.2). Te result will have units and,
in addition, will be more accurate. A power engineer
using the original equation would fnd out that his/
her plant consumes almost half a gram less fuel. On a
large scale it represents a huge energy saving.
Te case shown in Figure 1.2 is quite common. Te
lack of units in the result shown in the frst line in
Figure 1.4 points to the pseudo-empirical nature of this
equation.
In the next example, the pseudo-empirical nature of
the formula is not so apparent. Tis formula is used to
convert concentration from one unit to another. When
taken from a handbook and input into Mathcad, it pro-
duces an answer with the correct units of measurement
and, incredibly, with plausible results. Te goal is to con-
vert the molarity (the ratio of the solute to the volume of
the solution) of an aqueous NaCl solution to its molality
(ratio of the solute to the mass of solution). Te formula
for this conversion can be easily found in a number of
chemical handbooks and on the web (see Figure 1.3).
We can copy an equation for calculation of molal-
ity (L) based on molarity (M) from the table shown in
Figure 1.3. To calculate, we need to input additional val-
ues: molecular mass of NaCl (mp) and solution density
(q). Copy, input and get an incorrect answer (see the 2nd
line of the calculations in Figure 1.4).
In the table shown in Figure 1.3, the variable K is
defned as a mass percent without disclosing whether it
is a mass of the solution or a mass of the solvent. An
analysis of this table reveals that it is the mass of solu-
tion and not of the solvent. However, other cases are not
so apparent, leading to calculation errors. For example,
in many analytical chemistry handbooks, solubility in
water is given as a ratio of the mass of solute to the mass
of solvent by default, without an explanation. On http:
//twt.mpei.ac.ru/MCS/Worksheets/Thermal/T90-T
68.xmcd this quantity is provided in two units of mea-
surement (ratio to the mass of solvent and to the mass
of solution) to prevent calculation errors. Tere are
lots of these “defaults”. Take temperature for example.
Here is a typical problem: the temperature at the inlet

FIGURE 1.3 Equations for calculation of diferent types of concentration.
FIGURE 1.4 Working with a pseudo-empirical formula for conversion of diferent units of concentration.
of a heat exchanger is given as 25°C, fnd the tempera-
ture at the outlet if the temperature of the fuid in the
heat exchanger increases by 5°C. Te answer is 30°C.
However, if this problem is input into Mathcad as it is,
the answer will be paradoxically 25°С + 5°С = 303.15°С.
Te answer can be explained by remembering that 5°С
equal 5K but 25°С is equal 298.15K. Most users under-
stand this default (Celsius scale and centigrade degree)
as it is found in many handbooks, but computers do not.
Also, in these calculations, users should account for the
year of the temperature scale, 1968 or 1990, in which the
temperature is given.
Te problem here is that the equations in Figure 1.3
have been adopted for the convenience of manual com-
putation by using non-basic (“chemical”) units of mea-
surement: concentration, density (g/cm3 instead of kg/
m3), molar mass (g/mol vs. kg/mol), mass (g vs. kg),
Formulas for Calculations ◾ 5
volume (cm3 vs. m3), etc. Te formula for computation
of molality from molarity can, of course, be used as an
empirical one (see above) by adding the required units
of measurement (see 3rd line in Figure 1.6) to obtain
the correct result. However, it is better to go back to the
initial physical formula by removing the coefcients
“1000”—(see the last line in Figure 1.4), realizing that
1000 is the number of grams in a kilogram and the
number of cubic centimeters in a liter, etc.
As a result, most practicing chemists, when they need
to convert concentration from one unit to another, try
to avoid the existing formulas like those shown in the
table in Figure 1.3. Instead, they calculate concentra-
tions using ratios. Tese ratios are not required, how-
ever, if they have access to a computer with Mathcad or
to a website with an appropriate computational appli-
cation. Tere he/she can input and solve an algebraic
6 ◾ 25 Problems for STEM Education
equation linking, for example, the moles and the mass of
the solute to diferent units of concentration. Mathcad
has a symbolic math engine that allows computing with
the symbols of variables instead of their numerical val-
ues. Mathcad calculations with formulas for conversion
of solution concentration from one unit to other using
algebraic equations are shown in Figure 1.5. Tis is a
true improvement with respect to handbook formulas.
One can see both the formulas used for the calculation
and the corresponding physical law-based equations
from which the formulas are derived!
FIGURE 1.5 Generation of formulas for conversion of diferent types of concentration units.
FIGURE 1.6 Computation of molality using modifed formula.
In Figure 1.6 an example solution is provided for the
conversion of molality to molarity using a formula, mod-
ifed as shown in Figure 1.5 on the basis of the physical
law of the conservation of mass. Te operator clearsym
that is in the collapsible area is used to remove numeric
values of variables during symbolic transformations.
Figure 1.7 shows a website for the conversion of con-
centrations using the above formula. Tis site was cre-
ated some time ago and should be updated to show not
just the formula itself but also the equation from which
it was derived (see Figure 1.6).
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