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2017–2018 Edition
American Government
and Politics Today
The Essentials
Bardes Shelley Schmidt

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
A M E R I CA N
G OV E R N M E N T
and Politics Today
THE ESSENTIALS
2017–2018 Edition
Barbara A. Bardes
University of Cincinnati
Mack C. Shelley II
Iowa State University
Steffen W. Schmidt
Iowa State University
$XVWUDOLDä%UD]LOä0H[LFRä6LQJDSRUHä8QLWHG.LQJGRPä8QLWHG6WDWHV
American Government © 2018, 2015 Cengage Learning®
and Politics Today,
The Essentials ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
2017—2018 Edition
herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
Bardes, Shelley, Schmidt
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
iii
BRIEF CONTENTS
Part 1 The American System

Chapter 1 The Democratic Republic 1
Chapter 2 The Constitution 29
Chapter 3 Federalism 59
Part 2 Civil Rights and Liberties

Chapter 4 Civil Liberties 85
Chapter 5 Civil Rights 115
Part 3 People and Politics

Chapter 6 Public Opinion and Political Socialization 149
Chapter 7 Interest Groups 179
Chapter 8 Political Parties 205
Chapter 9 Campaigns and Elections 235
Chapter 10 The Media 265
Part 4 Political Institutions

Chapter 11 The Congress 287
Chapter 12 The President 319
Chapter 13 The Bureaucracy 347
Chapter 14 The Courts 377
Part 5 Public Policy

Chapter 15 Domestic and Economic Policy 405
Chapter 16 Foreign Policy 435
Appendices
A The Declaration of Independence A-1
B The Constitution of the United States A-3
C Federalist Papers Nos. 10, 51, and 78 A-19
D Justices of the United States Supreme Court since 1900 A-29
E Party Control of Congress since 1904 A-33
F Presidents of the United States A-34
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
iv
D E TA I L E D C O N T E N T S
A Letter to Instructors xi Chapter 2

A Letter to Students xii THE CONSTITUTION 29
MindTap QuickStart Guide xiii
Resources xiv The Colonial Background 31
Separatists, the Mayflower, and the Compact 31
Acknowledgments xvi
More Colonies, More Government 32
Reviewers xvii
British Restrictions and Colonial Reactions 33
About the Authors xviii The First Continental Congress 34
Career Opportunities xix The Second Continental Congress 34
Take Action: A Guide to Political Participation xxi An Independent Confederation 35
The Resolution for Independence 35
July 4, 1776—The Declaration of Independence 35
Part 1 The Rise of Republicanism 37
The American System The Articles of Confederation: Our First Form
of Government 37
The Constitutional Convention 39
Chapter 1 Who Were the Delegates? 40
THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC 1 The Working Environment 40
Factions among the Delegates 40
Politics and Government 3 Politicking and Compromises 41
Government Is Everywhere 3 Working toward Final Agreement 43
Why Is Government Necessary? 5 The Final Document 45
Limiting Government Power 5
The Difficult Road to Ratification 46
Authority and Legitimacy 6
The Federalists Push for Ratification 46
Democracy and Other Forms of Government 6 The March to the Finish 48
Types of Government 6 Did the Majority of Americans Support
Direct Democracy as a Model 7 the Constitution? 49
The Dangers of Direct Democracy 7 The Bill of Rights 50
A Democratic Republic 8
Altering the Constitution 51
What Kind of Democracy Do We Have? 9
The Formal Amendment Process 51
Fundamental Values 11 Informal Methods of Constitutional Change 54
Liberty versus Order 11
Equality versus Liberty 12 Chapter 3
The Proper Size of Government 14
FEDERALISM 59
Political Ideologies 16
Conservatism 17 Federalism and Its Alternatives 61
Liberalism 17 A Unitary System 61
The Traditional Political Spectrum 18 A Confederal System 61
Problems with the Traditional Political Spectrum 19 A Federal System 62
A Four-Cornered Ideological Grid 19 Why Federalism? 63
One Nation, Divided 20 Other Arguments for Federalism 64
The Changing Face of America 21 Arguments against Federalism 64
The End of the Population Explosion 22 The Constitutional Basis
Ethnic Change in America 22 for American Federalism 65
Are We Better Off? 24 Powers of the National Government 65
v
Detailed Contents
Powers of the State Governments 66 Privacy Rights and the “Right to Die” 102
Prohibited Powers 67 Civil Liberties versus Security Issues 104
Concurrent Powers 67 The USA Patriot Act 104
The Supremacy Clause 67 Roving Wiretaps 104
Interstate Relations 69 National Security Agency Surveillance 104
Defining Constitutional Powers—the Early Years 70 Recent Revelations of NSA Activity 104
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) 70 National Security and the Civil Liberties
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) 70 of Immigrants 105
States’ Rights and the Resort to Civil War 71 The Great Balancing Act: The Rights
The Continuing Dispute of the Accused versus the Rights of Society 106
over the Division of Power 72 Rights of the Accused 107
Dual Federalism 72 Extending the Rights of the Accused 107
The New Deal and Cooperative Federalism 73 The Exclusionary Rule 108
Methods of Implementing Cooperative Federalism 74 The Death Penalty 109
Fiscal Federalism and State Budgets 76
The Politics of Federalism 78 Chapter 5
What Has National Authority Accomplished? 78
The “New Federalism” 78
CIVIL RIGHTS 115
The Politics of Federalism Today 79 The African American Experience
Federalism and the Supreme Court 79 and the Civil Rights Movement 117
Recent Supreme Court Rulings 80 Ending Servitude 117
The Ineffectiveness of the Early
Civil Rights Laws 118
Part 2 The End of the Separate-but-Equal Doctrine 120
Civil Rights and Liberties De Jure and De Facto Segregation 120

The Civil Rights Movement 121
Modern Civil Rights Legislation 122
Chapter 4 Consequences of Civil Rights Legislation 123
CIVIL LIBERTIES 85 Civil Rights and the Courts 124

Standards for Judicial Review 126
The Constitutional Bases of Our Liberties 87 The Courts Address Affirmative Action 127
Protections Listed in the Original Constitution 87 Experiences of Other Minority Groups 129
Extending the Bill of Rights to State Governments 88 Latinos and the Immigration Issue 129
Incorporation under the Fourteenth Amendment 88 The Agony of the American Indian 131
Freedom of Religion 89 Asian Americans 132
The Separation of Church and State— Lingering Social and Economic Disparities 133
The Establishment Clause 89 Women’s Struggle for Equal Rights 134
The Free Exercise Clause 93 Early Women’s Political Movements 134
Freedom of Expression 94 The Modern Women’s Movement 134
No Prior Restraint 94 Women in Politics Today 136
The Protection of Symbolic Speech 95 Gender-Based Discrimination
The Protection of Commercial Speech 95 in the Workplace 137
Attempts to Ban Subversive or Advocacy Speech 96 The Rights and Status of Gay Males
The Eclipse of Obscenity as a Legal Category 97 and Lesbians 138
Unprotected Speech: Slander 98 Growth in the Gay Male and Lesbian Rights
Student Speech 98 Movement 138
The Right to Assemble and to Petition State and Local Laws Targeting Gay Men
the Government 99 and Lesbians 139
Freedom of the Press 100 Gay Men and Lesbians in the Military 139
The Right to Privacy 101 Same-Sex Marriage 140
Privacy Rights and Abortion 101 The Rights of Transgender Individuals 142
vi
Detailed Contents
The Rights and Status of Juveniles 143 Indirect Techniques 198

Voting Rights and the Young 143 Regulating Lobbyists 200
The Rights of Children in Civil and Criminal The Results of the 1946 Act 201
Proceedings 143 The Reforms of 1995 201
The Reforms of 2007 201
Part 3 Chapter 8
People and Politics POLITICAL PARTIES 205
Political Parties in the United States 207

Chapter 6 Functions of Political Parties in the United States 207
PUBLIC OPINION AND The Three Faces of a Party 208
POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION 149 The Party-in-the-Electorate 209
The Party Organization 209
Public Opinion and Political Socialization 151 The Party-in-Government 211
Consensus and Divided Opinion 151 A History of Political Parties in the United States 212
Forming Public Opinion: Political Socialization 152 The Formative Years: Federalists
The Media and Public Opinion 154 and Anti-Federalists 213
Political Events and Public Opinion 155 Democrats and Whigs 213
Political Preferences and Voting Behavior 157 The Civil War Crisis 214
Party Identification and Demographic Influences 157 The Post–Civil War Period 214
Election-Specific Factors 163 The Progressive Interlude 216
Measuring Public Opinion 163 The New Deal Era 216
The History of Opinion Polls 163 An Era of Divided Government 216
Sampling Techniques 164 The Two Major U.S. Parties Today 217
The Difficulty of Obtaining Accurate Results 165 A Series of Wave Elections 217
Additional Problems with Polls 166 The Parties’ Core Constituents 219
Technology and Opinion Polls 168 Divisions within the Parties 220
Public Opinion and the Political Process 170 Cultural Politics and Party Loyalty 222
Political Culture and Public Opinion 170 Why Has the Two-Party System Endured? 223
Public Opinion about Government 172 The Historical Foundations
Public Opinion and Policymaking 173 of the Two-Party System 223
A Policy Example: Contraception Insurance 174 Political Socialization and Practical Considerations 223
The Winner-Take-All Electoral System 223
Chapter 7 State and Federal Laws Favoring the Two Parties 224
INTEREST GROUPS 179 The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Politics 225
Mechanisms of Political Change 229
Interest Group Fundamentals 181 Realignment 229
Interest Groups and Social Movements 182 Dealignment 230
Why Do Americans Join Interest Groups? 182 Tipping 231
Types of Interest Groups 184
Economic Interest Groups 185 Chapter 9
Environmental Groups 189
Public-Interest Groups 189
CAMPAIGNS AND ELECTIONS 235
Other Interest Groups 190 The Twenty-First-Century Campaign 237
The Influence of Interest Groups 191 Who Is Eligible? 237
What Makes an Interest Group Powerful? 191 Who Runs? 238
Interest Groups and Representative Democracy 193 Managing the Campaign 239
Interest Groups and the Political Parties 194 Financing the Campaign 241
Interest Group Strategies 196 The Evolution of the Campaign Finance System 241
Direct Techniques 196 The Current Campaign Finance Environment 243
vii
Detailed Contents
Running for President: The Longest Campaign 247 The Conflict-Resolution Function 292
Reforming the Presidential Primaries 247 The Powers of Congress 292
The Invisible Primary 248 House–Senate Differences
Primaries and Caucuses 249 and Congressional Perks 293
Front-Loading the Primaries 251 Size and Rules 293
On to the National Convention 252 Debate and Filibustering 294
The Electoral College 253 Congresspersons and the Citizenry:
How Are Elections Conducted? 254 A Comparison 296
Office-Block and Party-Column Ballots 254 Perks and Privileges 296
Voting by Mail 255
Congressional Elections and Apportionment 298
Voting Fraud and Voter ID Laws 255
Candidates for Congressional Elections 298
Turning Out to Vote 256 Apportionment of the House 300
Factors Influencing Who Votes 258
How Congress Is Organized 304
Legal Restrictions on Voting 259
The Power of Committees 304
Types of Congressional Committees 305
Chapter 10 The Selection of Committee Members 306
THE MEDIA 265 Leadership in the House 307
Leadership in the Senate 308
The Roles of the Media 267
Entertaining the Public 267 Lawmaking and Budgeting 310
Reporting the News 267 How Much Will the Government Spend? 310
Identifying Public Problems 268 Congress Faces the Budget 313
Socializing New Generations 268 Budget Resolutions and Crises 314
Providing a Political Forum 268
Making Profits 269 Chapter 12
Television versus the New Media 271 THE PRESIDENT 319
The Media and Political Campaigns 272
Television Coverage 272 Who Can Become President? 321
The Internet, Blogging, and Podcasting 275 A “Natural Born Citizen” 321
Government Regulation of the Media 278 Presidential Characteristics 321
Concentrated Ownership of the Media 278 The Process of Becoming President 322
Government Control of Content 278 The Many Roles of the President 323
The Issue of Net Neutrality 279 Head of State 323
Opinion and Bias in the Media 281 Chief Executive 323
Talk Radio 282 Commander in Chief 325
Bias in the Media 282 Chief Diplomat 327
Chief Legislator 329
The President as Party Chief and Superpolitician 332
Part 4 Presidential Powers 334
Political Institutions Emergency Powers 334
Executive Orders 335
Executive Privilege 336
Chapter 11 Signing Statements 337
THE CONGRESS 287 Abuses of Executive Power and Impeachment 337
The Nature and Functions of Congress 289 The Executive Organization 338
Bicameralism 289 The Cabinet 338
The Lawmaking Function 290 The Executive Office of the President 339
The Representation Function 290 The Vice Presidency 341
The Oversight Function 291 The Vice President’s Job 341
The Public-Education Function 291 Presidential Succession 342
viii
Detailed Contents
Chapter 13 Court Procedures 388

Decisions and Opinions 388
THE BUREAUCRACY 347
The Selection of Federal Judges 389
The Nature and Scope Judicial Appointments 390
of the Federal Bureaucracy 349 Policymaking and the Courts 394
Public and Private Bureaucracies 349 Judicial Review 394
Models of Bureaucracy 349 Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint 395
The Size of the Bureaucracy 350 Strict versus Broad Construction 395
The Federal Budget 352 The Roberts Court 396
The Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy 353 What Checks Our Courts? 399
Cabinet Departments 353
Independent Executive Agencies 356
Independent Regulatory Agencies 357 Part 5
Government and Government-Controlled
Corporations 360
Public Policy
Staffing the Bureaucracy 362
Political Appointees 362 Chapter 15
History of the Federal Civil Service 363 DOMESTIC AND
Modern Attempts at Bureaucratic Reform 365 ECONOMIC POLICY 405
Sunshine Laws before and after 9/11 365
Privatization, or Contracting Out 366 The Policymaking Process:
Saving Costs through E-Government 366 Health Care as an Example 407
Helping Out the Whistleblowers 366 Health Care: Agenda Building 407
Bureaucrats as Politicians and Policymakers 368 Health Care: Policy Formulation 410
The Rulemaking Environment 370 Health Care: Policy Adoption 411
Negotiated Rulemaking 371 Health Care: Policy Implementation 412
Bureaucrats as Policymakers 371 Health Care: Policy Evaluation 413
Congressional Control of the Bureaucracy 373 Immigration 413
The Issue of Unauthorized Immigration 414
The Immigration Debate 414
Chapter 14
Crime in the Twenty-First Century 415
THE COURTS 377
Crime in American History 415
Sources of American Law 379 The Prison Population Bomb 417
The Common Law Tradition 379 Energy and the Environment 418
Constitutions 380 Energy Independence—A Strategic Issue 418
Statutes and Administrative Regulations 380 Climate Change 421
Case Law 380 The Politics of Economic Decision Making 422
The Federal Court System 381 Good Times, Bad Times 422
Basic Judicial Requirements 381 Fiscal Policy 424
Parties to Lawsuits 382 Deficit Spending and the Public Debt 425
Procedural Rules 382 Monetary Policy 427
Types of Federal Courts 383 The Politics of Taxes 429
Federal Courts and the War on Terrorism 385 Federal Income Tax Rates 429
The Supreme Court at Work 387 Loopholes and Lowered Taxes 429
Which Cases Reach the Supreme Court? 387
ix
Detailed Contents
Chapter 16 The Major Foreign Policy Themes 456

The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements 456
FOREIGN POLICY 435
The Era of Internationalism 456
Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policies 437 Superpower Relations 458
National Security and Defense Policies 437
Diplomacy 438
Idealism versus Realism in Foreign Policy 438
Terrorism and Warfare 439
The Emergence of Terrorism 439
Appendices
A The Declaration of Independence A-1
Wars in Iraq 441
Afghanistan 442 B The Constitution of the United States A-3
The Civil War in Syria and the Rise of ISIS 443 C Federalist Papers Nos. 10, 51, and 78 A-19
U.S. Diplomatic Efforts 444 D Justices of the United States
Nuclear Weapons 444 Supreme Court since 1900 A-29
The New Power: China 446 E Party Control of Congress since 1904 A-33
Israel and the Palestinians 447 F Presidents of the United States A-34
Europe’s Economic Troubles 449
Who Makes Foreign Policy? 452 Glossary G-1
Constitutional Powers of the President 452 Index I-1
Other Sources of Foreign Policymaking 453
Congress Balances the Presidency 455
xi
A Letter to I N S T R U C TO R S
T
he fundamental theme of American Government and t T he 2017–2018 Edition includes a separate Chapter 10
Politics Today: The Essentials, 2017–2018 Edition con- on The Media. Because the new media have become so
tinues to be the importance of participating in active important, we felt it necessary to devote an entire chapter
citizenship, emphasizing critical thinking about political to this topic. We look at content providers and aggrega-
issues, and encouraging students to take action and become tors. We look at the importance of media in campaigns.
involved in the political process. Whether the topic is immi- Net neutrality is an important topic in this chapter. Finally,
gration, trade deals, Supreme Court rulings, or taxation, we we examine the issue of media bias and talk radio.
constantly strive to involve students in the analysis. Our goal t M
ore demographics material is included through-
is to make sure that politics is not just an abstract process, out, particularly in Chapter 1, which presents material
but a very human enterprise. We emphasize how differ- on positive and negative trends, such as unemployment
ent outcomes can affect students’ civil rights and liberties, and inequality, and falling crime and teen pregnancy
employment opportunities, and economic welfare. To make rates, and rising mortality rates among members of the
sure students understand the link between themselves and rural white working class.
the subject matter they are reading, new Why Should You
t M
ajor updates to the content have been made in
Care about...? features grab students’ attention while they
the areas of public opinion, interest groups, modern
are reading the materials. We further encourage interac-
political parties, social media in politics, and the Obama
tion with the political system by ending each chapter with
legacy. The chapters on Domestic and Economic Policy
a feature titled How You Can Make a Difference, which
and Foreign Policy have been completely updated and
shows students how to become politically involved and why
modernized. The text reflects the current events that
it is important that they do so. Which Side Are You On?
most interest you and your students, including recent
features challenge students to find the connection between
Supreme Court rulings and state legislation on same-sex
a current controversy and their personal positions. And to
marriage, marijuana, privacy and recent NSA revelation
help students think critically about the world around them
coverage, current civil rights issues including the role of
and spark discussion in your classroom, we pose questions
the police, foreign policy coverage of Syria and Ukraine,
for critical analysis with almost every boxed feature, table,
and more!
chart, exhibit, and photo.
New to This Edition MindTap

We have made numerous changes to this volume for the MindTap is here to simplify your workload as an instruc-
2017–2018 Edition. We have rewritten the text as neces- tor, organize and immediately grade your students’ assign-
sary, added many new features, and updated the book to ments, and allow you to customize your course as you see
reflect the events of the past two years. For a detailed list of fit. Through deep-seated integration with your Learning
changes, please contact your Cengage learning consultant. Management System (LMS), grades are easily exported and
t Because we know that students respond to up-to-date analytics are pulled with just the click of a button. MindTap
information about political events, we incorporate com- provides you with a platform to easily add in current events
pelling, thought-provoking current examples through- videos and RSS feeds from national or local news sources.
out. We also include the results of the November 2016 Looking to incorporate more recent and late-breaking news
elections and analyze how the rise of Donald Trump into the course? Add in our KnowNow American Govern-
will change the way we look at American politics. In ment Blog link for weekly updated news coverage and
each new Election 2016 feature, we place the elec- pedagogy.
tion results in the context of the chapter’s subject
matter. Barbara A. Bardes, Mack C. Shelley II, Steffen W. Schmidt
xii
A Letter to S T U D E N T S
T
he 2016 presidential elections proved to be the most t Why You Should Care about . . . ? marginal features
consequential in years. If Democrat Hillary Clinton demonstrate why the topic at hand directly affects you
had been elected, the nation would have carried and matters in your life.
on much as it had under the last six years of the Barack
t Which Side Are You On? sections challenge you to
Obama administration. We would have a Democratic presi-
take a stand on controversial issues.
dent constrained by a Republican House of Representatives.
That is not what happened, however. Republican Donald t How You Can Make a Difference features conclude
Trump is now president of the United States of America. each chapter with ways in which you can become
Republicans control both chambers of Congress. Further- actively involved in American politics.
more, Trump is not a conventional Republican. Would he t Election 2016 features highlight the important impact
really impose major restrictions on imports? Deport millions of the 2016 elections and include an analysis of the cam-
of unauthorized immigrants? Snuggle up to Russia’s Vladi-
paigns and election results.
mir Putin? Above all, how can he meet the expectations of
his millions of energized supporters? What will happen to t $SJUJDBMUIJOLJOH RVFTUJPOT now accompany almost
the economy? How far will Congress go in unraveling the all boxed features, figures, tables, and photo cap-
Obama legacy? Whatever Trump and the Republicans do, tions, helping you apply and analyze the information
the effect is likely to be felt by every citizen. presented.
You’ll learn about all of these developments and more t -FBSOJOH 0VUDPNFT appear in each chapter opener,
in the 2017–2018 Edition of American Government and correlate to each major section to help you target your
Politics Today: The Essentials. reading, and are revisited in each Chapter Summary and
Our hope is that this book inspires you to join the end-of-chapter Quiz to help you assess your comprehen-
exciting process of being an active, informed citizen. Your sion and master the book’s key concepts. Every chapter
American Government course and the material you’ll read
also concludes with key terms and a list of additional
here will give you the knowledge you’ll need to under-
print and media resources. And the book is now seam-
stand our political system and develop well-informed
lessly integrated with MindTap, directing you to a vari-
opinions on the current issues and controversies you’ll
ety of online interactive activities that will help you test
encounter in your daily life. We strive to highlight how
yourself on the book’s Learning Outcomes.
American government and politics directly affect you in
every chapter. We also suggest easy ways that you can
take action in your community and become involved in The Benefits of Using MindTap
the political process.
For you as a student, the benefits of using MindTap with
this book are endless. With automatically graded practice
Special Features quizzes and activities, an easily navigated learning path, and
t Take Action: A Guide to Political Participation an interactive eBook, you will be able to test yourself inside
is filled with resources and suggestions to help stu- and outside of the classroom with ease. The accessibility of
dents stay informed and get involved in the political current events coupled with interactive media makes the
process. content fun and engaging. On your computer, phone, or
t Thought-provoking What If . . . ?, Beyond Our Bor- tablet, MindTap is there when you need it, giving you easy
ders, and Consider the Source features help you access to flashcards, quizzes, readings, and assignments.
understand key concepts and current events as well as
develop a more informed and global perspective. Barbara A. Bardes, Mack C. Shelley II, Steffen W. Schmidt
Want to turn your
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The Essentials, 2017–2018 Edition
ISBN: 9781337091374
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xvi
AC K N O W L E D G M E N T S
I
n preparing this 2017–2018 edition of American Gov- marketing the text and Product Assistant Staci Eckenroth
ernment and Politics Today: The Essentials, we were the for her contributions to this project. We are indebted to
beneficiaries of the expert guidance of a skilled and ded- Lachina Publishing Services for the accurate and timely
icated team of publishers and editors. We have benefited composition of this text. Their ability to generate the pages
greatly from the supervision and encouragement given by for this text quickly and accurately made it possible for us
our Product Manager Bradley Potthoff. Alison Duncan, our to meet our ambitious printing schedule.
Content Developer, deserves our thanks for her efforts in Many other people helped during the research and
coordinating reviews and in many other aspects of project editorial stages of this edition. Gregory Scott provided
development. We are especially appreciative of the photo excellent editorial and research assistance from the outset
research that she and Content Team Assistant Cazzie Reyes of the project to the end. Kristi Wiswell’s copyediting and
undertook for us. We are grateful to our Senior Content Beverly Peavler’s proofreading skills contributed greatly to
Project Manager Ann Borman for her ability to make this the book. Roxie Lee served as a coordinator for the flow
project as smooth running and as perfect as is humanly of manuscript and pages with all of their corrections. We
possible. thank her profusely. We also thank Sue Jasin of K&M Con-
Our gratitude goes to all of those who worked on the sulting for her contributions to the smooth running of the
various supplements offered with this text, especially the project.
test bank author, Scott Wallace from Indiana University- Any errors remain our own. We welcome comments
Purdue University Indianapolis, and the Instructor’s Man- from instructors and students alike. Suggestions that we
ual author, Tamra Ortgies-Young from Georgia Perimeter have received in the past have helped us to improve this
College. We would also like to thank Senior Marketing text and to adapt it to the changing needs of instructors
Manager Valerie Hartman for her tremendous efforts in and students.
xvii
REVIEWERS
W
e would also like to thank the instructors who
have contributed their valuable feedback through
reviews of this text:
Pat Andrews, West Valley College

Marcos Arandia, North Lake College
Sara C. Benesh, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
Sherman Brewer, Jr., Rutgers University, Newark
Martyn de Bruyn, Northeastern Illinois University
Gary Castaneda, Miracosta College
Ann Clemmer, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Beatriz Cuartas, El Paso Community College
Jodi Empol, Montgomery County Community College
Crystal Garrett, Georgia Perimeter College, Dunwoody
Joseph Georges, El Camino College
Jack Goodyear, Dallas Baptist University
Willie Hamilton, Mt. San Jacinto College
Matthew Hansel, McHenry County College
Joanne Hopkins-Lucia, Baker College of Clinton Township
Frank Ibe, Wayne County Community College
Mark S. Jendrysik, University of North Dakota
Roger Jordan, Baker College of Flint
Jon Kelly, West Valley College
Thomas R. Kemp, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Kevin Kniess, Lakeland College
Linda Lien, Westwood College, Los Angeles
William Madlock, University of Memphis
Jan McCauley, Tyler Junior College
James Mitchell, California State University, Northridge
Dr. Michael Mitchell, Georgia Perimeter College
Eric Nobles, Atlanta Metropolitan College
Tamra Ortgies-Young, Georgia Perimeter College
Lisa Perez-Nichols, Austin Community College
William Parent, San Jacinto College, Central Campus
Travis N. Ridout, Washington State University
Ron Robinson, Schoolcraft College
Steven R. Rolnick, Western Connecticut State University
Margaret E. Scranton, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Shyam Sriram, Georgia Perimeter College
Arlene Story Sanders, Delta State University
Judy Tobler, NorthWest Arkansas Community College
June Trudel, California State University, San Marcos
Scott Wallace, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis
Robert Whitaker, Hudson Valley Community College
Dr. Adam M. Williams, Kennesaw State University
xviii
About the AU T H O R S
Barbara A. Bardes Mack C. Shelley II Steffen W. Schmidt

Barbara A. Bardes is professor emerita Mack C. Shelley II is professor of politi- Steffen W. Schmidt is professor of
of political science and former dean of cal science and statistics at Iowa State political science at Iowa State Univer-
Raymond Walters College at the Uni- University. After receiving his bache- sity. He grew up in Colombia, South
versity of Cincinnati. She received her lor’s degree from American University America, and studied in Colombia,
B.A. and M.A. from Kent State Uni- in Washington, D.C., he completed Switzerland, and France. He obtained
versity. After completing her Ph.D. at graduate studies at the University of his Ph.D. in public law and govern-
the University of Cincinnati, she held Wisconsin–Madison, where he re- ment from Columbia University in
faculty positions at Mississippi State ceived a master’s degree in econom- New York.
University and Loyola University in ics and a Ph.D. in political science. He Schmidt has published 14 books
Chicago. She returned to Cincinnati, taught for two years at Mississippi and more than 130 journal articles.
her hometown, as a college adminis- State University before arriving at He is also the recipient of numerous
trator. She has also worked as a politi- Iowa State in 1979. prestigious teaching prizes, includ-
cal consultant and directed polling for Shelley has published numer- ing the Amoco Award for Lifetime
a research center. ous articles, books, and monographs Career Achievement in Teaching and
Bardes has written articles on pub- on public policy. From 1993 to 2002, the Teacher of the Year award. He is
lic opinion and foreign policy and on he served as elected co-editor of a pioneer in the design, production,
women and politics. She has authored the Policy Studies Journal. His pub- and delivery of Internet courses and
Thinking about Public Policy; Declara- lished books include The Permanent a founding member of the American
tions of Independence: Women and Majority: The Conservative Coalition in Political Science Association’s section
Political Power in Nineteenth-Century the United States Congress; Biotech- on Computers and Multimedia. He
American Fiction; and Public Opinion: nology and the Research Enterprise is known as “Dr. Politics” for his ex-
Measuring the American Mind (with (with William F. Woodman and Brian tensive commentary on U.S. politics
Robert W. Oldendick). J. Reichel); American Public Policy: The in U.S. and international media. He
Bardes’s home is located in a very Contemporary Agenda (with Steven is a weekly blogger for Gannett and
small hamlet in Kentucky called Rab- G. Koven and Bert E. Swanson); Re- comments on CNN en Español and
bit Hash, famous for its 150-year-old defining Family Policy: Implications for Univision. He is the chief political and
general store. Her hobbies include the 21st Century (with Joyce M. Mer- international correspondent of the In-
traveling, gardening, needlework, and cier and Steven Garasky); and Quality ternet magazine InsiderIowa.com.
antique collecting. Research in Literacy and Science Edu- Schmidt likes to snow ski, ride
cation: International Perspectives and hunter jumper horses, race sailboats,
Gold Standards (with Larry Yore and and scuba dive.
Brian Hand).
His leisure time includes traveling,
working with students, and playing
with the family dog and cats.
xix
CA R E E R O P P O R T U N I T I E S :
Political Science
Introduction or the Congressional Budget Office, many of whom were
political science majors in college. This does not even begin
It is no secret that college graduates are facing one of the
to account for the multitude of similar jobs in state and
toughest job markets in the past fifty years. Despite this
local governments that you might consider as well.
challenge, those with a college degree have done much
better than those without since the 2008 recession. One Campaigns, Elections, and Polling
of the most important decisions a student has to make is Are campaigns and elections the most exciting part of politi-
the choice of a major. Many consider future job possibili- cal science for you? Then you might consider a career in the
ties when making that call. A political science degree is growing industry based around political campaigns. From
useful for a successful career in many different fields, from volunteering and interning to consulting, marketing, and
lawyer to policy advocate, pollster to humanitarian worker. fundraising, there are many opportunities for those who
Employer surveys reveal that the skills that most employers enjoy the competitive and high-stakes electoral arena. For
value in successful employees—critical thinking, analytical those looking for careers that combine political knowledge
reasoning, and clarity of verbal and written communica- with statistical skills, there are careers in public opinion poll-
tion—are precisely the tools that political science courses ing. Pollsters work for independent national organizations
should be helping you develop. This brief guide is intended such as Gallup and YouGov, or as part of news operations
to help spark ideas for what kinds of careers you might pur- and campaigns. For those who are interested in survey
sue with a political science degree and the types of activities methodology there are also a wide variety of non-political
you can engage in now to help you secure one of those career opportunities in marketing and survey design.
positions after graduation.
Interest Groups, International and
Nongovernmental Organizations
Careers in Political Science Is there a cause that you are especially passionate about?
If so, there is a good chance that there are interest groups
Law and Criminal Justice out there that are working hard to see some progress made
Do you find that your favorite parts of your political science on similar issues. Many of the positions that one might find
classes are those that deal with the Constitution, the legal in for-profit companies also exist in their non-profit inter-
system, and the courts? Then a career in law and criminal est group and nongovernmental organization counterparts,
justice might be right for you. Traditional jobs in the field including lobbying and high-level strategizing. Do not for-
range from lawyer or judge to police or parole officer. Since get that there are also quite a few major international orga-
9/11, there has also been tremendous growth in the area of nizations—such as the United Nations, the World Health
homeland security, which includes jobs in mission support, Organization, and the International Monetary Fund—
immigration, and travel security, as well as prevention and where a degree in political science could be put to good
response. use. While competition for those jobs tends to be fierce,
your interest and knowledge about politics and policy will
Public Administration
give you an advantage.
The many offices of the federal government combined rep-
resent one of the largest employers in the United States. Foreign Service
Flip to the bureaucracy chapter of this textbook and con- Does a career in diplomacy and foreign affairs, complete
sider that each federal department, agency, and bureau you with the opportunity to live and work abroad, sound excit-
see looks to political science majors for future employees. ing for you? Tens of thousands of people work for the State
A partial list of such agencies would include the Depart- Department, both in Washington, D.C., and in consulates
ment of Education, the Department of Health and Human throughout the world. They represent the diplomatic inter-
Services, and the Federal Trade Commission. There are also ests of the United States abroad. Entrance into the Foreign
thousands of staffers who work for members of Congress Service follows a very specific process, starting with the
xx
Career Opportunities
Foreign Service Officers Test—an exam given three times a fear among respondents. And yet oral communication
year that includes sections on American government, his- is a vital tool in the modern economy. You can practice
tory, economics, and world affairs. Being a political science this skill in a formal class setting or through extracur-
major is a significant help in taking the FSOT. ricular activities that get you in front of a group.
Graduate School Quantitative Analysis: As the Internet aids in the

While not a career, graduate school may be the appropri- collection of massive amounts of information, the
ate next step for you after completing your undergradu- nation is facing a drastic shortage of people with basic
ate degree. Following the academic route, being awarded statistical skills to interpret and use this data. A political
a Ph.D. or Master’s degree in political science could open science degree can go hand-in-hand with courses in
additional doors to a career in academia, as well as many of introductory statistics.
the professions mentioned earlier. If a career as a researcher Foreign Language: One skill that often helps a stu-
in political science interests you, you should speak with your dent or future employee stand out in a crowded job
advisors about continuing your education. market is the ability to communicate in a language
other than English. Solidify or set the foundation for
Preparing While Still on Campus your verbal and written foreign language communica-
tion skills while in school.
Internships
One of the most useful steps you can take while still on Student Leadership
campus is to visit your college’s career center to discuss an One attribute that many employers look for is “leader-
internship in your field of interest. Not only does it give you ship potential,” which can be quite tricky to indicate on
a chance to experience life in the political science realm, it a resume or cover letter. What can help is a demonstrated
can lead to job opportunities later down the road and add record of involvement in clubs and organizations, prefer-
experience to your resume. ably in a leadership role. While many people think immedi-
ately of student government, most student clubs allow you
Skills the opportunity to demonstrate your leadership skills.
In addition to your political science classes, there are a few
skills any number of which will prove useful as a comple-
ment to your degree: Conclusion
We hope that reading this has sparked some ideas on
Writing: Like anything else, writing improves with
potential future careers. As a next step, visit your college’s
practice. Writing is one of those skills that is applicable
career placement office, which is a great place to further
regardless of where your career might take you.
explore what you have read here. You might also visit your
Virtually every occupation relies on an ability to write
college’s alumni office to connect with graduates who are
cleanly, concisely, and persuasively.
working in your field of interest. Political science opens the
Public Speaking: An oft-quoted 1977 survey showed door to a lot of exciting careers; have fun exploring the
that public speaking was the most commonly cited possibilities!
xxi
Billion Photos/Shutterstock.com
TAKE
ACTION
A GUIDE TO POLITICAL
PARTICIPATION com
It’s easy to think of politics as a spectator sport—

tterstock.
something that politicians do, pundits analyze,

l.com/Shu
and citizens watch. But there are many ways to get

engaged with politics, to interact with the political
Rawpixe
world and participate in it, and even to effect change.
GET
Find Out Where You Fit
and What You Know
INFORMED.
constitutioncenter.org/foundersquiz/ to discover
t :PVBMSFBEZIBWFTPNFPQJOJPOTBCPVUBWBSJFUZPGQP- which Founding Father’s personality most resembles
litical issues. Do you have a sense of where your views your own.
place you on the political map? Get a feel for your ideo- t 5IF64$POTUJUVUJPOJTBOJNQPSUBOUQBSUPGUIFDPOUFYU
logical leanings by taking The World’s Smallest Political in which American politics takes place. Do you know
Quiz: www.theadvocates.org/quiz/. what the Constitution says? Take the Constitution I.Q.
t 8IJDI 'PVOEJOH 'PVOEFS "SF :PV 5IF /BUJPOBM Quiz: www.constitutionfacts.com/. Was your score
Constitutional Center can help you with that. Go to higher than the national average?
xxii
Take Action | A Guide to Political Participation
t "UUIF/BUJPOBM$POTUJUVUJPO$FOUFSZPVDBOFYQMPSFUIF
com
interactive Constitution and learn more about provisions
tterstock.
in that document: constitutioncenter.org/interactive
l.com/Shu
-constitution.
t 'JOE PVU XIBU UIPTF XIP XBOU UP CFDPNF 64 DJUJ-
Rawpixe
zens have to do—and what they have to know. Go to
the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services website
at www.uscis.gov/. What is involved in applying for
citizenship? Take the Naturalization Self-Test at https://
myuscis.gov/preptest/civics. How did you do?
Think about How Your Political Views

Have Been Shaped
GET
t (JWJOH TPNF UIPVHIU UP
how agents of political
socialization—your family,
your schools, your peers,
for example—have con-
tributed to your political
beliefs and attitudes may
help you understand why
CONNECTED.
others might not share your views on politics. Then different ways. Don’t avoid certain news sources be-
have conversations with people in your classes or in cause you think you might not agree with the way
your residence hall about the people, institutions, they report the news. It’s just as important to know
and experiences that influenced the way they view how people are talking about issues as it is to know
the political world. about the issues themselves.
t &YQMPSFIPXZPVSWJFXTPOQPMJUJDBMJTTVFTDPNQBSFXJUI ▫ One of the best ways to get to the source of the
those of a majority of Americans. There are a number of news is to get your information from the same
good polling sites that report public opinion on a range place that journalists do. Often they take their
of topics. cues or are alerted to news events by news agen-
▫ The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press cies like the nonprofit cooperative, Associated Press:
conducts regular polls on politics and policy issues: ap.org/.
www.people-press.org/. ▫ Installing a few key apps on your phone or tablet can
▫ Public Agenda reports poll data and material on ma- make all the difference in being informed. Try down-
jor issues: publicagenda.org/. loading the Associated Press (AP) app for short up-
▫ The results of recent polls and an archive of past polls dates from news around the world, as they happen.
can be found at Gallup: www.gallup.com/. There are tons of other great political apps, some of
which are fairly polarized, others that are neutral,
▫ The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research is
and still others that are just plain silly.
a leading archive of data from surveys of public
opinion: ropercenter.cornell.edu/.
▫ PollingReport organizes public opinion data from Blogs
various sources by keyword: pollingreport.com/. The blogosphere affords views of politics that may be
t ,FFQ VQ XJUI OFXTQSJOU CSPBEDBTU BOE POMJOF presented differently than the way the mainstream media
Remember that different news organizations (or does it. In the last several decades, blogs have surged in
media brands) will report the same information in popularity as a source for political news and opinion.
xxiii
Social Media ▫ Polls for U.S. federal elections, including state-by-

state polls, can be found at electoral-vote.com/.
Staying connected can be as simple as following
local, national, or international politics on social ▫ HuffPost Pollster publishes pre-election poll results com-
media. U.S. House Majority Whip Kevin McCarthy, bined into interactive charts: elections.huffington
President Barack Obama, Senator Elizabeth Warren, post.com/pollster/. During presidential elections,
House Speaker Paul Ryan, and even the White House additional maps and electoral vote counts can be
have Instagram accounts worth following. Numerous found at HuffPost Politics Election Dashboard.
politicians and political outlets are also on Twitter and
Facebook. Monitor Money
and Influence in Politics
Check the Data The Center for Responsive Politics website is an excellent
t *UTOPUBMXBZTFBTZUPåHVSFPVUXIFUIFSBOFXTSFQPSU source for information about who’s contributing what
or public statement is accurate. PolitiFact, a project of amounts to which candidates: www.opensecrets.org/.
the Tampa Bay Times, is a good place to go to get the You can also use the lobbying database to identify the top
facts: www.politifact.com/. Check out the Truth-O- lobbying firms, the agencies most frequently lobbied, and
Meter, and get it on your smartphone or tablet. the industries that spend the most on lobbying activities.
t "QSPKFDUPGUIF"OOFOCFSH1VCMJD1PMJDZ$FOUFS www. Explore the site’s information on the revolving door, which
factcheck.org/ is a nonpartisan, nonprofit “consumer identifies the lobbying firms, agencies, and industries that
advocate” for voters that monitors the factual accuracy have the highest numbers of people who have moved
of what political players are saying in TV ads, speeches, between government and interest group positions.
and interviews.
Connect with Congress
Keep Up During Election Season You can, of course, learn a lot about what’s going on in
t 1SPKFDU7PUF4NBSUPGGFSTJOGPSNBUJPOPOFMFDUJPOTBOE Congress from the websites of the House of Represen-
candidates: votesmart.org/ tatives and the Senate: www.house.gov/ and www.
t /BUF 4JMWFST 'JWF5IJSUZ&JHIU GFBUVSFT FMFDUJPO BOBMZTJT
senate.gov/. But check out GovTrack to find out where
your representative and senators fall on the leadership
in addition to covering sports and economics: www.
and ideology charts, as well as their most recently spon-
fivethirtyeight.com/
sored bills and votes on legislation: www.govtrack.us/.
t 4UBZ DPOOFDUFE UP UIF IPSTFSBDF BTQFDU PG FMFDUPSBM
politics by tracking election polls. There are many good
sources:
Dra
gon
▫ For a comprehensive collection of election polls, Ima
ges
/Sh
utte
go to the RealClearPolitics website: rsto
ck.c
om
realclearpolitics.com/polls/ .
RealClearPolitics is a good source
for other political news and
opinions as well.
xxiv
ock.com
Shutterst
rlondon/
bikeride
GET INVOLVED.
Take an Interest in Your people on your campus who, because of a disability or
recent injury, need someone to help carry belongings,
Community—Offer to Help
open doors, or push wheelchairs.
Every community—large or small—can use energetic peo-
t %PZPVXBOUUPSBJTFBXBSFOFTTBCPVUBOJTTVF *TUIFSF
ple willing to help where there is a need. Local nonprofit
a cause that you think needs attention? Talk with friends.
agencies serving the homeless, battered women, or trou-
bled teens often welcome volunteers who are willing to Find out if they share your concerns. Turn your discus-
pitch in. You can learn a lot about the public policies that sions into a blog. Create videos of events you think are
focus on social services while doing some good for others. newsworthy and share them online.
The Internet also has abundant resources about non-
profits and charities and how you can get involved: Join a Group on Campus
You probably see fliers promoting groups and recruiting mem-
t *EFBMJTUPSHis a great place to find organizations and
events that are looking for employees, interns, and vol- bers posted all over campus—in the student center, in the
unteers. Filter by type and area of focus (women, disas- residence halls, in classroom buildings. Chances are, there’s
ter relief, animals, etc.) to find a cause that fits you. a group organized around something you’re interested in or
care about. Maybe it’s an organization that works to bring
t 5JOZTQBSLPSH is a watchdog for nonprofits and charity
clean water to remote parts of the world. Perhaps it’s an orga-
organizations. It highlights individuals and groups that
nization that works to foster tolerance on campus. The Ameri-
are doing good things in communities and around the
can Civil Liberties Union may have a chapter on your campus.
globe and checks on those who may not be doing as
The American Red Cross may be there, too. You’ll find College
much good as you’d think. Tinyspark also has a podcast.
Republicans, College Democrats, groups organized around
t $IBSJUZOBWJHBUPSPSH is another tool for checking on race or culture, groups that go on alternative spring break trips
charities. It reports on charities in terms of how much to give direct service to communities in need, service organi-
of their donations go to the cause, which charities are zations of all kinds; groups that serve to create community
in the red, which are worth promoting, and so on—it’s among culturally underrepresented students, and groups that
kind of like opensecrets.org for charities. care about the environment. The list goes on and on.
If you have an interest that isn’t represented by the
Design Your Own Ways groups on your campus, start your own. Your college or
to Take Action university should have an office of campus life (or some-
t 4UBSU B OFUXPSL UP NBUDI UIPTF XIP OFFE BTTJTUBODF thing similar) that can help you navigate the process for
and those who want to help. For example, there may be establishing a student organization.
xxv
Remember, too, that there are hundreds of political Try Your Hand at Governing
interest groups with national reach. Check out their Web
Get involved with student government. Serve on commit-
sites to see if you want to join. tees. Run for office.
Vote (But Don’t Forget Engage with Political Institutions,

to Register First) Government Agencies,
t 7PUJOH JT POF PG UIF NPTU XJEFMZ TIBSFE BDUT PG QBS- and Public Policymakers—
ticipation in American democracy. You can learn about
at Home and Abroad
the laws governing voting in your state—and all of
t 3FNFNCFS UIBU ZPVS 64 3FQSFTFOUBUJWF IBT EJTUSJDU
the others—by going to the Web site of the National
offices—one may be in the town in which you live.
Conference of State Legislatures and its link to Voter
Your U.S. Senators also have offices in various locations
Identification Requirements: www.ncsl.org/research/
around the state. Check to see if internships are avail-
elections-and-campaigns/voter-id/
able or if there are opportunities for volunteering. If you
t 3FHJTUFS &OUFS iSFHJTUFS UP WPUF JO <ZPVS TUBUF>w JO B plan to be in Washington, D.C. and want to visit Capitol
search engine. The office in your state that adminis- Hill, you can book a tour in advance through your sena-
ters voting and elections (in some states it’s the of- tors’ or representative’s offices. That’s where you get
fice of the Secretary of State, in others it might be gallery passes, too.
the State Board of Elections) will have a website that t 4QFOE TPNF UJNF JO 8BTIJOHUPO .BOZ DPMMFHFT BOE
outlines the steps you will need to follow. If you need universities have established internship programs with
to vote absentee, you’ll find out how to do that here, government agencies and institutions. Some have se-
too. mester-long programs that will bring you into contact
t *GZPVXBOUUPWJFXBTBNQMFCBMMPUUPGBNJMJBSJ[FZPVS- with policymakers in Congress and in the bureaucracy,
self with what you’ll be looking at when you go to the with journalists, and with a variety of other prominent
polls, you will probably be able to view one online. Just newsmakers. Politics and government come alive, and
enter “sample ballot” in a search engine. Your local the contacts you make while participating in such pro-
election board, the League of Women Voters, or your grams can often lead to jobs after graduation.
district library often post a sample ballot online. t *G ZPVSF JOUFSFTUFE JO UIF 4VQSFNF $PVSU BOE ZPVSF
planning a trip to Washington, try to watch oral ar-
t 7PUF.BLFTVSFZPVLOPXUIFMPDBUJPOBOEIPVSTGPS
gument. Go to the Court’s website to access the link
your polling place.
for oral arguments: www.supremecourt.gov/. You’ll
find the argument calendar and a visitor’s guide. (The
Work for a Campaign secret is to get in line early.)
Candidates welcome energetic volunteers. So do
groups that are supporting (or opposing) bal-
lot measures. While sometimes tiring and frus- om
k.c
trating, working in campaign politics can also rstoc
u tte
be exhilarating and very rewarding. Find the Sh
ka/
ain
contact information for a campaign you’re us
M
ark
M
interested in on their website and inquire
about volunteer opportunities.
Be Part of Campus Media

Do you have a nose for news and do you write
well? Try reporting for the university newspaper.
Work your way up to an editor’s position. If
broadcast media is your thing, get involved
with your college radio station or go on air
on campus TV.
xxvi
GET INFORMED.
GET CONNECTED.
GET INVOLVED.
t *GZPVDBOUNBLFJUUP8BTIJOHUPO %$GPSBTFNFTUFS programs that will take you virtually anywhere in the
long program or even a few days, become a virtual tour- world. Check with the Study Abroad Office at your col-
ist. Take the U.S. Capitol Virtual Tour: www.aoc.gov/ lege or university to find out more.
virtual-tours/capitolbldg/tourfiles/. t :PVDBOHBJOTPNFJOTJHIUJOUPEFBMJOHXJUIHMPCBMJT-
t :PVDBOUBLFBWJSUVBMUPVSPGUIF4VQSFNF$PVSUBUUIF sues even if you stay stateside. Participate in the Model
Web site of the Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College UN Club on your campus (or start a Model UN Club if
of Law: www.oyez.org/tour/. And you can listen to there isn’t one). By participating in Model UN, you will
Supreme Court oral arguments wherever you are. Go to become aware of international issues and conflicts and
the Oyez site and check ISCOTUSnow (blogs.kentlaw recognize the role that the United Nations can play in
.iit.edu/iscotus/). forging collective responses to global concerns. Model
t 4UVEZJOH BCSPBE PG DPVSTF JT B HSFBU XBZ UP FYQBOE UN conferences are simulations of a session of the Unit-
your horizons and to get a feel for different cultures and ed Nations; your work as part of a country’s UN delega-
the global nature of politics and the economy. There are tion will give you hands-on experience in diplomacy.
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com
1
THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

1
A voter-registration
drive on a university
campus. What do
we call a system
in which we elect
the people who
govern us?
Blend Images/Alamy
These five LEARNING OUTCOMES below are designed to help improve your understanding of this chapter:
1: Define the terms politics, government, order, liberty, authority, and legitimacy.
2: Distinguish the major features of direct democracy and representative democracy,
and describe majoritarianism, elite theory, and pluralism.
3: Summarize the conflicts that can occur between the values of liberty and order, and
between those of liberty and equality.
4: Discuss conservatism, liberalism, and other popular American ideological positions.
5: Explain how a changing American population and other social trends may affect the future
of our nation.
2
Part One | The American System
What if... We Had No Bill of Rights?

Background The Rights of
You know that you have the right to speak Criminal Defendants
freely about the government without fear of According to the Sixth Amendment, accused
being arrested for what you say. You have prob- individuals have the right to a speedy and pub-
ably heard of the right to bear arms. These lic trial. Also, according to the Fifth Amendment,
rights come from the Bill of Rights, the first ten no accused “shall be compelled in any criminal
amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Because case to be a witness against himself, nor be
of these amendments, the government may deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due
not pass laws that limit freedom of speech, reli- process of law.” These rules protect people who
gion, and many other freedoms. You will learn are accused of crimes. Certainly, without the Bill
more about the civil liberties guaranteed by the of Rights, we could imagine many more restric-
Bill of Rights in Chapter 4. tions on the rights of criminal defendants. Why?
The Bill of Rights is built into the founding Because those accused of crimes are not a pop-
document that guides our government. As a ular group of people. Many of the protections
result, it commands a certain reverence. Merely now given to criminal defendants would prob-
by its existence, it can dissuade citizens and ably not exist if there were no Bill of Rights.
government leaders from impairing the civil lib-
erties of fellow Americans. Free Speech
Tom Carter/Alamy
Without the Bill of Rights, we would probably

What If We Had see many more laws restricting political contri-
No Bill of Rights? butions and advertising. We could expect laws
Because the Bill of Rights protects our funda- against violent video games and pornography
Image 1–1 A conservative
mental liberties, some people jump to the con- on the Internet. In contrast, given current popu-
protester holds up a copy of
the Bill of Rights. Which of
clusion that, without it, we would have no lar attitudes, it is unlikely that “subversive” speech
the rights mentioned here rights. Consider, though, that almost all state would be greatly restricted. Most Americans and
might be especially popular constitutions enumerate many of the same their elected representatives support the right
with conservatives? rights. It is true that if the rights of the people to denounce the government.
were not written into state and national consti-
tutions, these rights would be entirely depen- For Critical Analysis
dent on the political process—on elections and ཀྵ The Fifth Amendment guarantees
on laws passed by the U.S. Congress and state that no one can lose her or his liberty
legislatures. Popular rights would still be safe. or property without due process. Yet,
Unpopular ones would be in danger.
during World War II, we imprisoned
The Right To Bear Arms tens of thousands of Japanese American
Take as an example the Second Amendment, citizens, based solely upon their race.
which guarantees to citizens the right to bear Could that happen today to some other
arms. If the Bill of Rights did not exist, would it group of citizens, such as Muslim
mean that individuals would be unable to keep Americans? Why or why not?
firearms in their homes? Probably not. Few ཀྵ Which of the rights mentioned in
localities in the United States have tried to ban
this feature do you think are the most
handguns completely. Almost all states have
important? Why?
gun laws that are far more permissive than they
have to be under the Constitution. Indeed, it
was not until 2008 and 2010 that the highest
court in the land, the Supreme Court, even
addressed this issue. The Court ruled that com-
plete bans on possessing handguns are
unconstitutional.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Mechanical Society was the improvement of the condition of the
workpeople, to induce workpeople to settle in the town, and to
procure manufactories to be established there.
The society was more than local in character, similar societies
being in existence in New York, Philadelphia, and in the neighboring
village of Washington. At a later day the Mechanical Society of
Pittsburgh produced plays, some of which were given in the grand-
jury room in the upper story of the new court house. The society also
had connected with it a circulating library, a cabinet of curiosities,
and a chemical laboratory.
REFERENCES
Chapter I
1
James Fearnly v. Patrick Murphy, Addison’s Reports,
Washington, 1800, p. 22; John Marie v. Samuel Semple,
ibid., p. 215.
2
Johann David Schoepf. Reise durch einige der mittlern und
südlichen vereinigten nordamerikanischen Staaten,
Erlangen, 1788, vol. i., p. 370.
3
F. A. Michaux. Travels to the Westward of the Alleghany
Mountains, London, 1805, p. 37.
4
Thaddeus Mason Harris. The Journal of a Tour, Boston,
1805, p. 42.
5
“A Sketch of Pittsburgh.” The Literary Magazine,
Philadelphia, 1806, p. 253.
6
Lewis Brantz. “Memoranda of a Journey in the Westerly
Parts of the United States of America in 1785.” In Henry
R. Schoolcraft’s Indian Antiquities, Philadelphia, Part III.,
pp. 335–351.
7
Niles’ Weekly Register, Baltimore, August 19, 1826, vol.
xxx., p. 436.
8
James Kenney. The Historical Magazine, New York, 1858,
vol. ii., pp. 273–274.
9
Rev. Cyrus Cort, D.D. Historical Sermon in the First
Reformed Church of Greensburgh, Pennsylvania,
October 13, 1907, pp. 11–12.
10
Johann David Schoepf. Reise durch einige der mittlern und
südlichen vereinigten nordamerikanischen Staaten,
Erlangen, 1788, vol. i., p. 247.
11
Carl August Voss. Gedenkschrift zur
Einhundertfuenfundzwanzig-jaehrigen Jubel-Feier,
Pittsburgh, Pa., 1907, p. 14.
12
Rev. Cyrus Cort, D.D. Historical Sermon in the First
Reformed Church of Greensburgh, Pennsylvania,
October 13, 1907, p. 20.
13
Samuel Harper. “Seniority of Lodge No. 45,” History of
Lodge No. 45, Free and Accepted Masons, 1785–1910,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, pp. 97–109.
14
Pittsburgh Gazette, June 15, 1799.
15
Tree of Liberty, June 6, 1801.
16
Tree of Liberty, June 12, 1802.
17
Diary of David McClure, New York, 1899, p. 53.
18
Perrin DuLac. Voyage dans les Deux Louisianes, Lyon, An
xiii-(1805), p. 132.
19
Pittsburgh Gazette, August 26, 1786.
20
Pittsburgh Gazette, November 18, 1786.
21
Pittsburgh Gazette, January 6, 1787.
22
Pittsburgh Gazette, December 2, 1786.
23
Pittsburgh Gazette, May 5, 1787.
24
25
Pittsburgh Gazette, July 26, 1788.
26
Pittsburgh Gazette, September 30, 1786.
27
Pittsburgh Gazette, March 24, 1787.
28
Pittsburgh Gazette, July 19, 1788.
CHAPTER II
A NEW COUNTY AND A NEW BOROUGH
The constantly rising tide of immigration required more territorial

subdivisions in the western part of the State. Westmoreland County
had been reduced in size on March 28, 1781, by the creation of
Washington County, but was still inordinately large. The clamor of
the inhabitants of Pittsburgh for a separate county was heeded at
last, and on September 24, 1788, Allegheny County was formed out
of Westmoreland and Washington Counties. To the new county was
added on September 17, 1789, other territory taken from
Washington County. In March, 1792, the State purchased from the
United States the tract of land adjoining Lake Erie, consisting of two
hundred and two thousand acres, which the national government
had recently acquired from the Indians. This was added to Allegheny
County on April 3, 1792. The county then extended northerly to the
line of the State of New York, and the border of Lake Erie, and
29
westerly to the present State of Ohio. On March 12, 1800, the
county was reduced by the creation of Beaver, Butler, Mercer,
Crawford, Erie, Warren, Venango, and Armstrong Counties, the area
of these counties being practically all taken from Allegheny County.
By Act of the General Assembly of March 12, 1803, a small part of
Allegheny County was added to Indiana County, and Allegheny
30
County was reduced to its present form and dimensions.
On the formation of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh became the
county seat. The county was divided into townships, Pittsburgh being
located in Pitt Township. Embraced in Pitt Township was all the
territory between the Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers, as far east
as Turtle Creek on the Monongahela River, and Plum Creek on the
Allegheny River, and all of the county north of the Allegheny and
Ohio Rivers. With the growth of prosperity in the county, petty
offenses became more numerous, and a movement was begun for
31
the erection of a jail in Pittsburgh.
Next to the establishment of the Pittsburgh Gazette, the
publication and sale of books, and the opening of the post route to
the eastern country, the most important event in the early social
advancement of Pittsburgh was the passage of an Act by the
General Assembly, on April 22, 1794, incorporating the place into a
borough. The township laws under which Pittsburgh had been
administered were crude and intended only for agricultural and wild
lands, and were inapplicable to the development of a town. Under
the code of laws which it now obtained, it possessed functions
suitable to the character which it assumed, and could perform acts
leading to its material and social progress. It was given the power to
open streets, to regulate and keep streets in order, to conduct
32
markets, to abate nuisances, and to levy taxes.
Before the incorporation of the borough, various steps had been
taken in anticipation of that event. The Pittsburgh Fire Company was
33
organized in 1793, with an engine house and a hand engine
brought from Philadelphia. A new era in transportation was
inaugurated on Monday, October 21, 1793, by the establishment of a
packet line on the Ohio River, between Pittsburgh and Cincinnati,
with boats “sailing” bi-weekly. The safety of the passengers from
attacks by hostile Indians infesting the Ohio Valley, was assured. The
boats were bullet-proof, and were armed with small cannon carrying
pound balls; muskets and ammunition were provided, and from
convenient portholes, passengers and crew could fire on the
34
enemy.
One of the first measures enacted after Pittsburgh was
35
incorporated, was that to prohibit hogs running at large. The
dissatisfaction occasioned by the imposition of the excise on whisky,
had caused a spirit of lawlessness to spring up in the country about
Pittsburgh. When this element appeared in the town, they were
disposed, particularly when inflamed with whisky, to show their
resentment toward the inhabitants, whom they regarded as being
unfriendly to the Insurgent cause, by galloping armed through the
streets, firing their pieces as they sped by, to the terror of the
townspeople. This was now made an offense punishable by a fine of
36
five shillings.
Literary culture was hardly to be expected on the frontier, yet a
gentleman resided in Pittsburgh who made some pretension in that
direction. Hugh Henry Brackenridge was the leading lawyer of the
town, and in addition to his other activities, was an author of note.
Before coming to Pittsburgh he had, jointly with Philip Freneau,
written a volume of poetry entitled, The Rising Glory of America, and
had himself written a play called The Battle of Bunker Hill. While a
resident in Pittsburgh he contributed many articles to the Pittsburgh
Gazette. His title to literary fame, however, results mainly from the
political satire that he wrote, which in its day created a sensation. It
was called Modern Chivalry, and as originally published was a small
affair. Only one of the four volumes into which it was divided was
printed in Pittsburgh, the first, second, and fourth being published in
Philadelphia. The third volume came out in Pittsburgh, in 1793, and
was printed by Scull, and was the first book published west of the
Alleghany Mountains. The work, as afterward rewritten and enlarged,
ran through more than half a dozen editions.
The interest in books increased. In 1793, William Semple began
selling “quarto pocket and school Bibles, spelling books, primers,
dictionaries, English and Dutch almanacs, with an assortment of
37
religious, historical, and novel books.” “Novel books” was no doubt
meant to indicate novels. In 1798 the town became possessed of a
store devoted exclusively to literature. It was conducted in a wing of
the house owned and partially occupied by Brackenridge on Market
Street.
John C. Gilkison had been a law student in Brackenridge’s office,
and had tutored his son. Abandoning the idea of becoming a lawyer,
38
he began with the aid of Brackenridge, to sell books as a business.
39
In his announcement to the public his plans were outlined: “John
C. Gilkison has just opened a small book and stationery store.... He
has a variety of books for sale, school books especially, an
assortment of which he means to increase, and keep up as
encouragement may enable him; he has also some books of general
instruction and amusement, which he will sell or lend out for a
reasonable time, at a reasonable price.”
Changes were made in the lines of the townships at an early
day. When the new century dawned, Pitt Township adjoined
Pittsburgh on the east. East of Pitt Township and between the
Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers were the Townships of Plum,
Versailles, and Elizabeth. On the south side of the Monongahela
River, extending from the westerly line of the county to Chartiers
Creek, was Moon Township. East of Chartiers Creek, and between
that stream and Streets Run was St. Clair Township, and east of
Streets Run, extending along the Monongahela River, was Mifflin
Township, which ran to the county line. Back of Moon Township was
Fayette Township. North of the Allegheny and Ohio Rivers were the
Townships of Pine and Deer. They were almost equal in area, Pine
being in the west, and Deer in the east, the dividing line being near
the mouth of Pine Creek in the present borough of Etna.
The merchants and manufacturers of Pittsburgh had been
accumulating money for a decade. In the East money was the
medium of exchange, and it was brought to the village by immigrants
and travelers, and began to circulate more freely than before. In
addition to the money put into circulation by the immigrants, the
United States Government had expended nearly eight hundred
thousand dollars on the expedition which was sent out to suppress
the Whisky Insurrection. At least half of this sum was spent in
Pittsburgh and its immediate vicinity, partly for supplies and partly by
the men composing the army. The expedition was also the means of
advertising the Western country in the East, and created a new
interest in the town. A considerable influx of new immigrants
resulted. With the growth in population, the number of the mercantile
establishments increased. Pittsburgh became more than ever the
metropolis of the surrounding country.
Ferries made intercourse with the districts across the rivers from
Pittsburgh easy, except perhaps in winter when ice was in the
streams. Three ferries were in operation on the Monongahela River.
40
That of Ephraim Jones at the foot of Liberty Street was called the
Lower Ferry. A short distance above the mouth of Wood Street was
Robert Henderson’s Ferry, formerly conducted by Jacob Bausman.
This was known as the Middle Ferry. Isaac Gregg’s Ferry, at this time
41
operated by Samuel Emmett, also called the Upper Ferry, was
located a quarter of a mile above the town, at the head of the Sand
Bar. Over the Allegheny River, connecting St. Clair Street with the
Franklin Road, now Federal Street, was James Robinson’s Ferry. As
an inducement to settle on the north side of the Allegheny River,
Robinson advertised that “All persons going to and returning from
42
sermon, and all funerals, ferriage free.”
The aspect of the town was changing. It was no longer the
village which Lewis Brantz saw on his visit in 1790, when he painted
the sketch which is the first pictorial representation of the place
43
extant. In the old Military Plan the ground was compactly built
upon. Outside of this plan the houses were sparse and few in
number, and cultivated grounds intervened. Thomas Chapman who
visited Pittsburgh in 1795, reported that out of the two hundred
44
houses in the village, one hundred and fifty were built of logs. They
were mainly of rough-hewn logs, only an occasional house being of
sawed logs. The construction of log houses was discontinued, the
new houses being generally frame. Houses of brick began to be
erected, the brick sold at the dismantling of Fort Pitt supplying the
first material for the purpose. The houses built of brick taken from
Fort Pitt were characterized by the whiteness of the brick of which
45
they were constructed. Brickyards were established. When
Chapman was in Pittsburgh, there were two brickyards in operation
46
in the vicinity of the town. With their advent brick houses increased
rapidly.
With the evolution in the construction of the houses, came
another advance conducive to both the health and comfort of the
occupants. While window glass was being brought from the East,
and was subject to the hazard of the long and rough haul over the
Alleghany Mountains, the windows in the houses were few, and the
panes of small dimensions; six inches in width by eight inches in
length was an ordinary size. The interior of the houses was dark,
cheerless, and damp. In the spring of 1797, Albert Gallatin, in
conjunction with his brother-in-law, James W. Nicholson, and two
Germans, Christian Kramer and Baltzer Kramer, who were
experienced glass-blowers, began making window glass at a
manufactory which they had established on the Monongahela River
47
at New Geneva in Fayette County. The same year that window
glass was first produced at New Geneva, Colonel James O’Hara and
Major Isaac Craig commenced the construction of a glass
manufactory on the south side of the Monongahela River, opposite
Pittsburgh, and made their first window glass in 1800. Both
manufactories produced window glass larger in size than that
brought from the East, O’Hara and Craig’s glass measuring as high
48
as eighteen by twenty-four inches. The price of the Western glass
was lower than that brought across the mountains. With cheaper
glass, windows became larger and more numerous, and a more
cheerful atmosphere prevailed in the houses.
All that remained of Pittsburgh’s former military importance were
49
the dry ditch and old ramparts of Fort Pitt, in the westerly extremity
of the town, together with some of the barracks and the stone
powder magazine, and Fort Fayette near the northeasterly limits,
50
now used solely as a military storehouse. Not a trace of
architectural beauty was evident in the houses. They were built
without regularity and were low and plain. In one block were one-
and two-story log and frame houses, some with their sides, others
with their gable ends, facing the street. In the next square there was
a brick building of two or possibly three stories in height; the rest of
the area was covered with wooden buildings of every size and
description. The Lombardy poplars and weeping willows which grew
51
along the streets softened the aspect of the houses before which
they were planted. The scattered houses on the sides of the hills
52
which commanded the town on the east were more attractive.
It was forty years before houses, even on the leading streets,
53
were numbered. The taverns and many of the stores, instead of
being known by the number of their location on the street, or by the
name of the owner, were recognized by their signs, which contained
characteristic pictures or emblems. The signs were selected
because associated with them was some well-known sentiment; or
the picture represented a popular hero. In the latter category was the
“Sign of General Washington,” conducted by Robert Campbell, at the
northeast corner of Wood Street and Diamond Alley. Sometimes the
signs were of a humorous character, as the “Whale and the Monkey”
with the added doggerel:
“Here the weary may rest,

The hungry feed,
And those who thirst,
May quaff the best,”
54
displayed by D. McLane when he conducted the tavern on Water
Street, afterward known as the “Sign of the Green Tree.” The sign
was hung either on the front of the house, or on a board attached to
a wooden or iron arm projecting from the building, or from a post
standing before it. The last was the manner in which most of the
tavern signs were displayed. This continued until 1816, when all
projecting or hanging signs were prohibited, except to taverns where
stabling and other accommodations for travelers could be obtained.
Only taverns located at street corners were thereafter permitted to
55
have signposts.
Not a street was paved, not even the footwalks, except for such
irregular slabs of stone, or brick, or planks as had been laid down by
the owners of adjoining houses. Major Thomas S. Forman who
passed through Pittsburgh in December, 1789, related that the town
56
was the muddiest place he was ever in. In 1800, there was little
improvement. Samuel Jones was the first Register and Recorder of
Allegheny County, and held those offices almost continuously well
into the nineteenth century. He resided in Pittsburgh during the entire
period, and his opportunities for observation were unexcelled. His
picture of the borough in 1800 is far from attractive. “The streets,” he
57
wrote, were “filled with hogs, dogs, drays, and noisy children.” At
night the streets were unlighted. “A solitary lamp twinkled here and
there, over the door of a tavern, or on a signpost, whenever the
moon was in its first or last quarter. The rest of the town was
involved in primeval darkness.”
REFERENCES
Chapter II
29
Laura G. Sanford. The History of Erie County,
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1862, p. 60.
30
Judge J. W. F. White. Allegheny County, its Early History
and Subsequent Development, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1888, pp.
70–71.
31
32
Act of April, 22, 1794; Act of September 12, 1782.
33
34
35
36
Pittsburgh Gazette, June 21, 1794.
37
Pittsburgh Gazette, November 2, 1793; Ibid., June 28, 1794.
38
H. M. Brackenridge. Recollections of Persons and Places
in the West, Philadelphia, 1868, pp. 44, 68.
39
40
Neville B. Craig. The History of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
1851, p. 295.
41
Pittsburgh Gazette, April 30, 1802; Ibid., April 16, 1802.
42
43
Lewis Brantz. “Memoranda of a Journey in the Westerly
Parts of the United States of America in 1785.” In Henry
R. Schoolcraft’s Indian Antiquities, Philadelphia, Part III.,
pp. 335–351.
44
Thomas Chapman. “Journal of a Journey through the United
States,” The Historical Magazine, Morrisania, N. Y., 1869,
vol. v., p. 359.
45
The Navigator for 1808, Pittsburgh, 1808, p. 33.
46
Thomas Chapman. “Journal of a Journey through the United
States,” The Historical Magazine, Morrisania, N. Y., 1869,
vol. v., p. 359.
47
Sherman Day. Historical Collections of the State of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, p. 345; Rev. William Hanna:
History of Green County, Pa., 1882, pp. 247, 248.
48
Pittsburgh Gazette, February 1, 1800.
49
F. Cuming. Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country, in
1807–1809, Pittsburgh, 1810, p. 225.
50
The Navigator for 1808, Pittsburgh, 1808, p. 33.
51
F. Cuming. Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country, in
1807–1809, Pittsburgh, 1810, p. 226.
52
F. A. Michaux. Travels to the Westward of the Alleghany
Mountains, London, 1805, p. 30.
53
Harris’s Pittsburgh and Allegheny Directory, for 1839, p. 3;
ibid., for 1841.
54
55
Ordinance City of Pittsburgh, September 7, 1816, Pittsburgh
Digest, 1849, p. 238.
56
Major Samuel S. Forman. “Autobiography,” The Historical
Magazine, Morrisania, N. Y., 1869, vol. vi., PP. 324–325.
57
S. Jones. Pittsburgh in the Year 1826, Pittsburgh, 1826, pp.
39–41.
CHAPTER III
THE MELTING POT
The population of Pittsburgh was composed of various

nationalities; those speaking the English language predominated. In
addition to the Germans and Swiss-Germans, there were French
and a few Italians. The majority of the English-speaking inhabitants
were of Irish or Scotch birth, or immediate extraction. Of those born
in Ireland or Scotland, some were old residents—so considered if
they had lived in Pittsburgh for ten years or more—while others were
recent immigrants. The Germans and French had come as early as
the Irish and Scotch. The Italians were later arrivals. There was also
a sprinkling of Welsh. The place contained a number of negroes,
nearly all of whom were slaves, there being in 1800 sixty-four negro
58
slaves in Allegheny County, most of whom were in Pittsburgh and
the immediate vicinity. A majority of the negroes had been brought
into the village in the early days by emigrants from Virginia and
Maryland. Their number was gradually decreasing. By Act of the
General Assembly of March 1, 1780, all negroes and mulattoes born
after that date, of slave mothers, became free upon arriving at the
age of twenty-eight years. Then on March 29, 1788, it was enacted
that any slaves brought into the State by persons resident thereof, or
59
intending to become such, should immediately be free. Also public
sentiment was growing hostile to the institution of negro slavery. The
few free negroes in Pittsburgh were engaged in menial occupations,
and the name of only one, whose vocation was somewhat higher,
has been handed down to the present time. This was Charles
Richards, commonly called “Black Charley,” who conducted an inn in
the log house, at the northwest corner of Second and Ferry Streets.
Among themselves the Germans and the French spoke the
language of their fathers, but in their intercourse with their English-
speaking neighbors they used English. The language of the street
varied from the English of New England and Virginia, to the brogue
of the Irish and Scotch, or the broken enunciation of the newer
Germans and French. Being in a majority the English-speaking
population controlled to a considerable extent the destinies of the
community. Their manufactories were the most extensive, the
merchandise in their stores was in greater variety, and the stocks
larger than those carried in other establishments.
Next in numbers to those whose native language was English,
were the German-speaking inhabitants. They constituted the skilled
mechanics; some were merchants, and many were engaged in
farming in the neighboring townships. They were all more or less
closely connected with the German church. Only the names of their
leading men have survived the obliterating ravages of time. Among
the mechanics of the higher class were Jacob Haymaker, William
Eichbaum, and John Hamsher. The first was a boatbuilder, whose
boatyard was located on the south side of the Monongahela River at
the Middle Ferry; Eichbaum was employed by O’Hara and Craig in
the construction and operation of their glass works. John Hamsher
was a coppersmith and tin-worker, whose diversion was to serve in
60
the militia, in which he was captain.
Conrad Winebiddle, Jonas Roup, Alexander Negley, and his son,
Jacob Negley, were well-to-do farmers in Pitt Township. Winebiddle
was a large holder of real estate, who died in 1795, and enjoyed the
unique distinction of being the only German who ever owned negro
slaves in Allegheny County. Nicholas Bausman and Melchoir
Beltzhoover were farmers in St. Clair Township; and Casper Reel
was a farmer and trapper in Pine Township, where he was also tax
collector. Samuel Ewalt kept a tavern in Pittsburgh in 1775, and was
afterward a merchant. He was Sheriff of Allegheny County during the
dark days of the Whisky Insurrection, and later was inspector of the
Allegheny County brigade of militia. He was several times a member
of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives. William Wusthoff was
Sheriff of Allegheny County in 1801. Jacob Bausman had a varied
career. He was a resident of Pittsburgh as far back as 1771, and was
perhaps the most prominent German in the place. As a young man
he was an ensign in the Virginia militia, during the Virginia
contention. He established the first ferry on the Monongahela River,
which ran to his house on the south side of the stream, where the
southern terminus of the Smithfield Street bridge is now located. The
right to operate the ferry was granted to him by the Virginia Court on
February 23, 1775, and was confirmed by the General Assembly of
Pennsylvania ten years later. At his ferry house he also conducted a
tavern. His energies were not confined to his private affairs. Under
the Act of the General Assembly incorporating Allegheny County, he
was named as one of the trustees to select land for a court house in
the tract reserved by the State, in Pine Township, and was again,
under the Act of April 13, 1791, made a trustee to purchase land in
Pittsburgh for the same purpose. He was treasurer of the German
church and, jointly with Jacob Haymaker, was trustee, on the part of
the church, of the land deeded by the Penns to that congregation for
church purposes at the northeast corner of Smithfield and Sixth
Streets, where the congregation’s second and all subsequent
churches were built. Michael Hufnagle was a member of the
Allegheny County Bar, being one of the first ten men to be admitted
to practice, upon the organization of the county. He was the only
lawyer of German nationality in the county. He had been a captain in
the Revolution, and prothonotary of Westmoreland County. On July
13, 1782, when the Indians and Tories attacked Hannastown, he
occupied a farm situated a mile and a half north of that place, which
has ever since been known in frontier history as the place where the
61
townsfolk were harvesting when the attack began.
By their English-speaking neighbors the Germans were
generally designated as “Dutch.” In the references to them in the
Pittsburgh Gazette and other early publications, they were likewise
called “Dutch.” Books printed in the German language were
advertised as “Dutch” books. The custom of speaking of the
Germans as “Dutch” was however not confined to Pittsburgh, but
was universal in America. The Dutch inhabitants of New York and
elsewhere, were the first settlers in the colonies, whose language
was other than English. The bulk of the English-speaking population,
wholly ignorant of any language except their own, were easily led
into the error of confusing the newer German immigrants with the
Dutch, the only persons speaking a foreign tongue with whom they
had come in contact. Nor were the uneducated classes the only
transgressors in this respect. The Rev. Dr. William Smith, the
scholarly Provost of the College of Philadelphia, writing during the
French and Indian War, spoke of the Germans as “the Dutch or
62
Germans.” Also “Dutch” bears a close resemblance to “Deutsch,”
the German name for people of the German race, which may
account, to some extent, for the misuse of the word.
The Germans were in Pittsburgh to stay. Their efforts were
directed largely toward private ends. When men of other blood made
records in public life, the Germans made theirs in the limited sphere
of their own employment or enterprises. Owing to their inability to
speak the English language, their position was more isolated than
that of the greenest English-speaking immigrant in the village. That
they were clannish was a natural consequence. This disposition was
accentuated when a newspaper printed in the German language was
established on November 22, 1800, in the neighboring borough of
Greensburgh, entitled The German Farmers’ Register, being the first
German paper published in the Western country. Subscriptions were
63
received in Pittsburgh at the office of the Tree of Liberty, then
recently established, and the effort to acquire a knowledge of English
in order to be able to read the news of the day in the Pittsburgh
newspapers, was for the time being largely abandoned. As the
Germans learned to speak and read English, their social intercourse
was no longer restricted to persons of their own nationality. With the
next generation, intermarriages with persons of other descent took
place. The German language ceased to be cultivated; they forsook
the German church for one where English was the prevailing
language. It is doubtful if a single descendant of the old Germans is
now able to speak the language of his forbears unless it was learned
at school, or that he is a member of or attends the services of the
German church.
The French element was an almost negligible quantity, yet it
exerted an influence far beyond what might be expected when its
numbers are considered. So strong was the tide of public opinion in
favor of all things French, occasioned by the events of the French
Revolution, that Albert Gallatin, a French-Swiss, who had just been
naturalized, and still spoke English with a decided foreign accent,
attained high political honors. To the people he was essentially a
Frenchman, and in 1794, he was elected to the Pennsylvania House
of Representatives, from Fayette County where he lived. At the
same time he was elected to Congress from the district consisting of
Allegheny and Washington Counties; and was twice re-elected from
the same district, which included Greene County after the separation
from Washington County in 1796, and its erection into a separate
county. It was while serving this constituency that Gallatin developed
those powers in finance and statesmanship which caused his
appointment as Secretary of the Treasury by President Jefferson,
and by Jefferson’s successor, President Madison. From the
politicians of this Congressional District, Gallatin learned those
lessons in diplomacy which enabled him, while joint commissioner of
the United States, to secure the signature of England to the Treaty of
Ghent, by which the War of 1812 was brought to a close, and which
led to his becoming United States Minister to France and to England.
The training of those early days finally made him the most famous of
all Americans of European birth, and brought about his nomination
for Vice-President by the Congressional caucus of the Republican
64
party, an honor which he first accepted, but later declined.
Another prominent Frenchman was John B. C. Lucus. In 1796,
he lived on a farm on Coal Hill on the south side of the Monongahela
River, in St. Clair Township, five miles above Pittsburgh. It was said
of him that he was an atheist and that his wife plowed on Sundays,
in spite of which he was several times elected to the General
65
Assembly. In 1800, he was appointed an associate judge for the
county. He quarrelled with Alexander Addison, the president judge of
the judicial district to which Allegheny County was attached, yet he
had sufficient standing in the State to cause Judge Addison’s
impeachment and removal from the Bench. In 1802, Lucus was

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Part 1 The American System

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Part 3 People and Politics

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A Letter to Instructors xi Chapter 2

Civil Rights and Liberties De Jure and De Facto Segregation 120

CIVIL LIBERTIES 85 Civil Rights and the Courts 124

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