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 TO JULIE –Jon
TO ALEXA AND COLTON –Colin

Publisher: Terri Ward

Developmental Editors: Tony Palermino, Katrina Wilhelm
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Library of Congress Preassigned Control Number: 2014959514

Instructor Complimentary Copy:

ISBN-13: 978-1-4641-9379-8
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© 2015, 2012, 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company

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First printing

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
COLIN ADAMS

C olin Adams is the Thomas T. Read professor of Mathematics at Williams College,

where he has taught since 1985. Colin received his undergraduate degree from MIT
and his PhD from the University of Wisconsin. His research is in the area of knot theory
and low-dimensional topology. He has held various grants to support his research, and
written numerous research articles.
Colin is the author or co-author of The Knot Book, How to Ace Calculus: The Streetwise
Guide, How to Ace the Rest of Calculus: The Streetwise Guide, Riot at the Calc Exam
and Other Mathematically Bent Stories, Why Knot?, Introduction to Topology: Pure and
Applied, and Zombies & Calculus. He co-wrote and appears in the videos “The Great Pi
vs. E Debate” and “Derivative vs. Integral: the Final Smackdown.”
He is a recipient of the Haimo National Distinguished Teaching Award from the
Mathematical Association of America (MAA) in 1998, an MAA Polya Lecturer for 1998-
2000, a Sigma Xi Distinguished Lecturer for 2000-2002, and the recipient of the Robert
Foster Cherry Teaching Award in 2003.
Colin has two children and one slightly crazy dog, who is great at providing the
entertainment.

JON ROGAWSKI

A s a successful teacher for more than 30 years, Jon Rogawski listened and learned
much from his own students. These valuable lessons made an impact on his thinking,
his writing, and his shaping of a calculus text.
Jon Rogawski received his undergraduate and master’s degrees in mathematics si-
multaneously from Yale University, and he earned his PhD in mathematics from Princeton
University, where he studied under Robert Langlands. Before joining the Department of
Mathematics at UCLA in 1986, where he was a full professor, he held teaching and visiting
positions at the Institute for Advanced Study, the University of Bonn, and the University
of Paris at Jussieu and Orsay.
Jon’s areas of interest were number theory, automorphic forms, and harmonic analy-
sis on semisimple groups. He published numerous research articles in leading mathemat-
ics journals, including the research monograph Automorphic Representations of Unitary
Groups in Three Variables (Princeton University Press). He was the recipient of a Sloan
Fellowship and an editor of the Pacific Journal of Mathematics and the Transactions of
the AMS.
Sadly, Jon Rogawski passed away in September 2011. Jon’s commitment to present-
ing the beauty of calculus and the important role it plays in students’ understanding of the
wider world is the legacy that lives on in each new edition of Calculus.
 CONTENTS CALCULUS

Chapter 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW 1 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I 254
5.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II 259
1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 1 5.6 Net Change as the Integral of a Rate of Change 264
1.2 Linear and Quadratic Functions 12 5.7 Substitution Method 270
1.3 The Basic Classes of Functions 19 Chapter Review Exercises 277
1.4 Trigonometric Functions 23
1.5 Technology: Calculators and Computers 32 Chapter 6 APPLICATIONS OF THE INTEGRAL 281
Chapter Review Exercises 36
6.1 Area Between Two Curves 281
Chapter 2 LIMITS 39 6.2 Setting Up Integrals: Volume, Density, Average Value 289
6.3 Volumes of Revolution 299
2.1 Limits, Rates of Change, and Tangent Lines 39 6.4 The Method of Cylindrical Shells 307
2.2 Limits: A Numerical and Graphical Approach 47 6.5 Work and Energy 313
2.3 Basic Limit Laws 56 Chapter Review Exercises 319
2.4 Limits and Continuity 59
2.5 Evaluating Limits Algebraically 68 Chapter 7 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 321
2.6 Trigonometric Limits 73
2.7 Limits at Infinity 78 7.1 Derivative of f (x) = bx and the Number e 321
2.8 Intermediate Value Theorem 84 7.2 Inverse Functions 329
2.9 The Formal Definition of a Limit 87 7.3 Logarithms and Their Derivatives 336
Chapter Review Exercises 94 7.4 Exponential Growth and Decay 345
7.5 Compound Interest and Present Value 351
Chapter 3 DIFFERENTIATION 97 7.6 Models Involving y ′ = k(y − b) 356
7.7 L’Hôpital’s Rule 361
3.1 Definition of the Derivative 97 7.8 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 368
3.2 The Derivative as a Function 105 7.9 Hyperbolic Functions 376
3.3 Product and Quotient Rules 117 Chapter Review Exercises 386
3.4 Rates of Change 123
3.5 Higher Derivatives 132 Chapter 8 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 391
3.6 Trigonometric Functions 137
3.7 The Chain Rule 141 8.1 Integration by Parts 391
3.8 Implicit Differentiation 148 8.2 Trigonometric Integrals 397
3.9 Related Rates 155 8.3 Trigonometric Substitution 405
Chapter Review Exercises 162 8.4 Integrals Involving Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic
Functions 411
Chapter 4 APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 167 8.5 The Method of Partial Fractions 416
8.6 Strategies for Integration 424
4.1 Linear Approximation and Applications 167 8.7 Improper Integrals 432
4.2 Extreme Values 174 8.8 Probability and Integration 443
4.3 The Mean Value Theorem and Monotonicity 184 8.9 Numerical Integration 450
4.4 The Shape of a Graph 190 Chapter Review Exercises 459
4.5 Graph Sketching and Asymptotes 197
4.6 Applied Optimization 204 Chapter 9 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE
4.7 Newton’s Method 216 INTEGRAL AND TAYLOR
Chapter Review Exercises 221 POLYNOMIALS 463

Chapter 5 THE INTEGRAL 225 9.1 Arc Length and Surface Area 463
9.2 Fluid Pressure and Force 470
5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 225 9.3 Center of Mass 476
5.2 The Definite Integral 237 9.4 Taylor Polynomials 485
5.3 The Indefinite Integral 247 Chapter Review Exercises 496
iv
 CONTENTS v

Chapter 10 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL 15.3 Partial Derivatives 773

EQUATIONS 499 15.4 Differentiability and Tangent Planes 783
15.5 The Gradient and Directional Derivatives 790
10.1 Solving Differential Equations 499 15.6 The Chain Rule 803
10.2 Graphical and Numerical Methods 507 15.7 Optimization in Several Variables 811
10.3 The Logistic Equation 515 15.8 Lagrange Multipliers: Optimizing with a Constraint 825
10.4 First-Order Linear Equations 519 Chapter Review Exercises 834
Chapter Review Exercises 525
Chapter 16 MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 837
Chapter 11 INFINITE SERIES 529
16.1 Integration in Two Variables 837
11.1 Sequences 529 16.2 Double Integrals over More General Regions 848
11.2 Summing an Infinite Series 539 16.3 Triple Integrals 861
11.3 Convergence of Series with Positive Terms 550 16.4 Integration in Polar, Cylindrical, and Spherical
11.4 Absolute and Conditional Convergence 559 Coordinates 872
11.5 The Ratio and Root Tests and Strategies for Choosing 16.5 Applications of Multiple Integrals 882
Tests 564 16.6 Change of Variables 894
11.6 Power Series 569 Chapter Review Exercises 907
11.7 Taylor Series 579
Chapter Review Exercises 591 Chapter 17 LINE AND SURFACE INTEGRALS 911
Chapter 12 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS, POLAR 17.1 Vector Fields 911
COORDINATES, AND CONIC 17.2 Line Integrals 921
SECTIONS 595 17.3 Conservative Vector Fields 935
17.4 Parametrized Surfaces and Surface Integrals 946
12.1 Parametric Equations 595 17.5 Surface Integrals of Vector Fields 960
12.2 Arc Length and Speed 606 Chapter Review Exercises 970
12.3 Polar Coordinates 612
12.4 Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 620 Chapter 18 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS OF
12.5 Conic Sections 625
VECTOR ANALYSIS 973
Chapter Review Exercises 638
18.1 Green’s Theorem 973
Chapter 13 VECTOR GEOMETRY 641 18.2 Stokes’ Theorem 987
18.3 Divergence Theorem 997
13.1 Vectors in the Plane 641
Chapter Review Exercises 1009
13.2 Vectors in Three Dimensions 651
13.3 Dot Product and the Angle Between Two Vectors 661 APPENDICES A1
13.4 The Cross Product 669 A. The Language of Mathematics A1
13.5 Planes in 3-Space 680 B. Properties of Real Numbers A7
13.6 A Survey of Quadric Surfaces 686 C. Induction and the Binomial Theorem A12
13.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 694 D. Additional Proofs A16
Chapter Review Exercises 701
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES ANS1
Chapter 14 CALCULUS OF VECTOR-VALUED
REFERENCES R1
FUNCTIONS 705
INDEX I1
14.1 Vector-Valued Functions 705
14.2 Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions 713
14.3 Arc Length and Speed 722
Additional content can be accessed online via LaunchPad:
14.4 Curvature 727 ADDITIONAL PROOFS
14.5 Motion in 3-Space 738
14.6 Planetary Motion According to Kepler and Newton 747
• L’Hôpital’s Rule
Chapter Review Exercises 753 • Error Bounds for Numerical Integration
• Comparison Test for Improper Integrals
Chapter 15 DIFFERENTIATION IN SEVERAL
VARIABLES 755 ADDITIONAL CONTENT

15.1 Functions of Two or More Variables 755 • Second Order Differential Equations
15.2 Limits and Continuity in Several Variables 766 • Complex Numbers
 PREFACE

ABOUT CALCULUS
On Teaching Mathematics
I consider myself very lucky to have a career as a teacher and practitioner of mathematics.
When I was young, I decided I wanted to be a writer. I loved telling stories. But I was also
good at math, and, once in college, it didn’t take me long to become enamored with it. I
loved the fact that success in mathematics does not depend on your presentation skills or
your interpersonal relationships. You are either right or you are wrong and there is little
subjective evaluation involved. And I loved the satisfaction of coming up with a solution.
That intensified when I started solving problems that were open research questions that
had previously remained unsolved.
So, I became a professor of mathematics. And I soon realized that teaching mathe-
matics is about telling a story. The goal is to explain to students in an intriguing manner, at
the right pace, and in as clear a way as possible, how mathematics works and what it can
do for you. I find mathematics immensely beautiful. I want students to feel that way, too.

On Writing a Calculus Text

I had always thought I might write a calculus text. But that is a daunting task. These days,
calculus books average over a thousand pages. And I would need to convince myself
that I had something to offer that was different enough from what already appears in the
existing books. Then, I was approached about writing the third edition of Jon Rogawski’s
calculus book. Here was a book for which I already had great respect. Jon’s vision of
what a calculus book should be fit very closely with my own. Jon believed that as math
teachers, how we say it is as important as what we say. Although he insisted on rigor at
all times, he also wanted a book that was written in plain English, a book that could be
read and that would entice students to read further and learn more. Moreover, Jon strived
to create a text in which exposition, graphics, and layout would work together to enhance
all facets of a student’s calculus experience.
In writing his book, Jon paid special attention to certain aspects of the text:

1. Clear, accessible exposition that anticipates and addresses student difficulties.

2. Layout and figures that communicate the flow of ideas.
3. Highlighted features that emphasize concepts and mathematical reasoning: Conceptual
Insight, Graphical Insight, Assumptions Matter, Reminder, and Historical Perspective.
4. A rich collection of examples and exercises of graduated difficulty that teach basic
skills, problem-solving techniques, reinforce conceptual understanding, and motivate cal-
culus through interesting applications. Each section also contains exercises that develop
additional insights and challenge students to further develop their skills.

Coming into the project of creating the third edition, I was somewhat apprehensive.
Here was an already excellent book that had attained the goals set for it by its author. First
and foremost, I wanted to be sure that I did it no harm. On the other hand, I have been
teaching calculus now for 30 years, and in that time, I have come to some conclusions
about what does and does not work well for students.
As a mathematician, I want to make sure that the theorems, proofs, arguments and
development are correct. There is no place in mathematics for sloppiness of any kind.
As a teacher, I want the material to be accessible. The book should not be written at the
mathematical level of the instructor. Students should be able to use the book to learn the
material, with the help of their instructor. Working from the high standard that Jon set, I
have tried hard to maintain the level of quality of the previous edition while making the
changes that I believe will bring the book to the next level.
vi
 PREFACE vii

Placement of Taylor Polynomials

Taylor polynomials appear in Chapter 9, before infinite series in Chapter 11. The goal
here is to present Taylor polynomials as a natural extension of linear approximation.
When teaching infinite series, the primary focus is on convergence, a topic that many
students find challenging. By the time we have covered the basic convergence tests and
studied the convergence of power series, students are ready to tackle the issues involved
in representing a function by its Taylor series. They can then rely on their previous work
with Taylor polynomials and the error bound from Chapter 9. However, the section on
Taylor polynomials is written so that you can cover this topic together with the materials
on infinite series if this order is preferred.

Careful, Precise Development

W. H. Freeman is committed to high quality and precise textbooks and supplements.
From this project’s inception and throughout its development and production, quality and
precision have been given significant priority. We have in place unparalleled procedures
to ensure the accuracy of the text:
• Exercises and Examples
• Exposition
• Figures
• Editing
• Composition
Together, these procedures far exceed prior industry standards to safeguard the quality
and precision of a calculus textbook.

New to the Third Edition

There are a variety of changes that have been implemented in this edition. Following are
some of the most important.

MORE FOCUS ON CONCEPTS The emphasis has been shifted to focus less on the memo-
rization of specific formulas, and more on understanding the underlying concepts. Memo-
rization can never be completely avoided, but it is in no way the crux of calculus. Students
will remember how to apply a procedure or technique if they see the logical progression
that generates it. And they then understand the underlying concepts rather than seeing the
topic as a black box in which you insert numbers. Specific examples include:
• (Section 1.2) Removed the general formula for the completion of a square and
instead, emphasized the method so students need not memorize the formula.
• (Section 8.2) Changed the methods for evaluating trigonometric integrals to focus
on techniques to apply rather than formulas to memorize.
• (Chapter 10) Discouraged the memorization of solutions of specific types of dif-
ferential equations and instead, encouraged the use of methods of solution.
• (Section 13.2) Decreased number of formulas for parametrizing a line from two to
one, as the second can easily be derived from the first.
• (Section 13.6) De-emphasized the memorization of the various formulas for quadric
surfaces. Instead, moved the focus to slicing with planes to find curves and using
those to determine the shape of the surface. These methods will be useful regardless
of the type of surface it is.
• (Section 15.4) Decreased the number of essential formulas for linear approximation
of functions of two variables from four to two, providing the background to derive
the others from these.

CHANGES IN NOTATION There are numerous notational changes. Some were made to
bring the notation more into line with standard usage in mathematics and other fields in
which mathematics is applied. Some were implemented to make it easier for students to
remember the meaning of the notation. Some were made to help make the corresponding
concepts that are represented more transparent. Specific examples include:
viii PREFACE

• (Section 4.5) Presented a new notation for graphing that gives the signs of the first
and second derivative and then simple symbols (slanted up and down arrows and
up and down u’s) to help the student keep track of when the graph is increasing or
decreasing and concave up or concave down over the given interval.
• (Section 8.1) Simplified the notation for integration by parts and provided a visual
method for remembering it.
• (Chapter 11) Changed names of the various tests for convergence/divergence of
infinite series to evoke the usage of the test and thereby make it easier for students
to remember them.
• (Chapters 14–18) Rather than using c(t) for a path, we consistently switched to
the vector-valued function r(t). This also allowed us to replace ds with dr as a
differential, which means there is less likely to be confusion with ds, dS and dS.

MORE EXPLANATIONS OF DERIVATIONS Occasionally, in the previous edition, a result

was given and verified, without motivating where the derivation came from. I believe it is
important for students to understand how someone might come up with a particular result,
thereby helping them to picture how they might themselves one day be able to derive
results.
• (Section 9.3) Developed the center of mass formulas by first discussing the one-
dimensional case of a seesaw.
• (Section 15.4) Developed the equation of the tangent plane in a manner that makes
geometric sense.
• (Section 15.5) Included a proof of the fact the gradient of a function f of three
variables is orthogonal to the surfaces that are the level sets of f .
• (Section 15.8) Gave an intuitive explanation for why the Method of Lagrange
Multipliers works.

REORDERING AND ADDING TOPICS There were some specific rearrangements among the
sections and additions. These include:
• A subsection on piecewise-defined functions has been added to Section 1.3.
• The section on indefinite integrals (previously Section 4.8) has been moved from
Chapter 4 (Applications of the Derivative) to Chapter 5 (The Integral). This is a
more natural placement for it.
• A new section on choosing from amongst the various methods of integration has
been added to Chapter 8.
• A subsection on choosing the appropriate convergence/divergence test has been
added to Section 11.5.
• An explanation of how to find indefinite limits using power series has been added
to Section 10.6.
• The definitions of divergence and curl have been moved from Chapter 18 to Section
17.1. This allows us to utilize them at an appropriate earlier point in the text.
• A list all of the different types of integrals that have been introduced in Chapter 17
has been added to Section 17.5.
• A subsection on the Vector Form of Green’s Theorem has been added to Section
18.1.

NEW EXAMPLES, FIGURES, AND EXERCISES Numerous examples and accompanying

figures have been added to clarify concepts. A variety of exercises have also been added
throughout the text, particularly where new applications are available or further conceptual
development is advantageous. Figures marked with a icon have been made dynamic
and can be accessed via LaunchPad. A selection of these figures also includes brief tutorial
videos explaining the concepts at work.
 ONLINE HOMEWORK OPTIONS ix

SUPPLEMENTS
For Instructors For Students
Instructor’s Solutions Manual Student Solutions Manual
Contains worked-out solutions to all exercises in the text. Single Variable ISBN: 1-4641-7503-9
Multivariable ISBN: 1-4641-7504-7
Test Bank Contains worked-out solutions to all odd-numbered exercises in
Includes a comprehensive set of multiple-choice test items. the text.

Instructor’s Resource Manual Software Manuals

Provides sample course outlines, suggested class time, key Maple™ and Mathematica® software manuals serve as basic
points, lecture material, discussion topics, class activities, work- introductions to popular mathematical software options.
sheets, projects, and questions to accompany the Dynamic Fig-
ures.

ONLINE HOMEWORK OPTIONS

Our new course space, LaunchPad, combines an interactive e-Book with high-quality
multimedia content and ready-made assessment options, including LearningCurve adap-
tive quizzing. Pre-built, curated units are easy to assign or adapt with your own material,
such as readings, videos, quizzes, discussion groups, and more. LaunchPad includes a
gradebook that provides a clear window on performance for your whole class, for individ-
ual students, and for individual assignments. While a streamlined interface helps students
focus on what’s due next, social commenting tools let them engage, make connections,
and learn from each other. Use LaunchPad on its own or integrate it with your school’s
learning management system so your class is always on the same page. Contact your rep
to make sure you have access.

Assets integrated into LaunchPad include:

Interactive e-Book: Every LaunchPad e-Book comes with powerful study tools for stu-
dents, video and multimedia content, and easy customization for instructors. Students can
search, highlight, and bookmark, making it easier to study and access key content. And
instructors can make sure their class gets just the book they want to deliver: customize and
rearrange chapters, add and share notes and discussions, and link to quizzes, activities,
and other resources.

LearningCurve provides students and instructors with powerful adaptive quizzing, a

game-like format, direct links to the e-Book, and instant feedback. The quizzing system
features questions tailored specifically to the text and adapts to students’ responses, pro-
viding material at different difficulty levels and topics based on student performance.

Dynamic Figures: Over 250 figures from the text have been recreated in a new interactive
format for students and instructors to manipulate and explore, making the visual aspects
and dimensions of calculus concepts easier to grasp. Brief tutorial videos accompany
selected figures and explain the concepts at work.

CalcClips: These whiteboard tutorials provide animated and narrated step-by-step solu-
tions to exercises that are based on key problems in the text.

SolutionMaster offers an easy-to-use Web-based version of the instructor’s solutions,

allowing instructors to generate a solution file for any set of homework exercises.
x FEATURES

www.webassign.net/freeman.com
WebAssign Premium integrates the book’s exercises into the world’s most popular and
trusted online homework system, making it easy to assign algorithmically generated
homework and quizzes. Algorithmic exercises offer the instructor optional algorith-
mic solutions. WebAssign Premium also offers access to resources, including Dynamic
Figures, CalcClips whiteboard tutorials, and a “Show My Work” feature. In addition,
WebAssign Premium is available with a fully customizable e-Book option.

webwork.maa.org
W. H. Freeman offers thousands of algorithmically generated questions (with full solu-
tions) through this free, open-source online homework system created at the University
of Rochester. Adopters also have access to a shared national library test bank with thou-
sands of additional questions, including 2,500 problem sets matched to the book’s table
of contents.

FEATURES
Conceptual Insights
encourage students to develop
a conceptual understanding of
calculus by explaining
important ideas clearly but
informally.
CONCEPTUAL INSIGHT Leibniz notation is widely used for several reasons. First, it re-
minds us that the derivative df/dx, although not itself a ratio, is in fact a limit of ratios
. Second, the notation specifies the independent variable. This is useful when
variables other than x are used. For example, if the independent variable is t, we write
df/dt. Third, we often think of d/dx as an “operator” that performs differentiation on
functions. In other words, we apply the operator d/dx to f to obtain the derivative
df/dx. We will see other advantages of Leibniz notation when we discuss the Chain
Rule in Section 3.7.
Ch. 3, p. 107

Graphical Insights enhance

GRAPHICAL INSIGHT Can we visualize the rate represented by f (x)? The second students’ visual understanding
derivative is the rate at which f (x) is changing, so f (x) is large if the slopes of by making the crucial
the tangent lines change rapidly, as in Figure 3(A). Similarly, f (x) is small if the connections between graphical
slopes of the tangent lines change slowly—in this case, the curve is relatively flat, as properties and the underlying
in Figure 3(B). If f is a linear function [Figure 3(C)], then the tangent line does not concepts.
change at all and f (x) = 0. Thus, f (x) measures the “bending” or concavity of the
graph.

(A) Large second derivative: (B) Smaller second derivative: (C) Second derivative is zero:
Tangent lines turn rapidly. Tangent lines turn slowly. Tangent line does not change.
FIGURE 3
Ch. 3, p. 134
 FEATURES xi

E X A M P L E 3 Evaluate sin2 x dx.

Solution We could apply the reduction formula Eq. (5) from the last section. However,
instead, we apply a method that does not rely on knowing that formula. We utilize the
trigonometric identity called the double angle formula sin2 x = 12 (1 − cos 2x). Then
1 x sin 2x
sin2 x dx = (1 − cos 2x) dx = − +C
2 2 4

Using the trigonometric identities in the margin, we can also integrate cos2 x, obtain-
REMINDER Useful Identities: ing the following:
Reminders sin2 x =
1
(1 − cos 2x) x sin 2x x 1
are margin notes that 2 sin2 x dx = − + C = − sin x cos x + C 1
1
2 4 2 2
link the current cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)
2
discussion to important sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x x sin 2x x 1
cos2 x dx = + + C = + sin x cos x + C 2
concepts introduced 2 2
2 4 2 2
cos 2x = cos x − sin x
earlier in the text to give
students a quick review Ch. 8, p. 398
and make connections
with related ideas.

x3 − 8 Caution Notes
CAUTION When using L’Hôpital’s Rule, be E X A M P L E 1 Use L’Hôpital’s Rule to evaluate lim .
sure to take the derivative of the numerator x→2 x 4 + 2x − 20 warn students of
and denominator separately:
x3 x4
Solution Let f (x) = − 8 and g(x) = + 2x − 20. Both f and g are differentiable common pitfalls
lim
f (x)
= lim
f (x) and f (x)/g(x) is indeterminate of type 0/0 at a = 2 because f (2) = g(2) = 0: they may encounter
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
• Numerator: f (2) = 23 − 1 = 0 in understanding the
Do not differentiate the quotient function • Denominator: g(2) = 24 + 2(2) − 20 = 0 material.
y = f (x)/g(x).
Furthermore, g (x) = 4x 3 + 2 is nonzero near x = 2, so L’Hôpital’s Rule applies. We
may replace the numerator and denominator by their derivatives to obtain

x3 − 8 (x 3 − 8) 3x 2 3(22 ) 12 6
lim = lim = lim = = =
x→2 x 4 + 2x − 2 x→2 (x 4 + 2x − 2) x→2 4x 3 + 2 4(23 ) + 2 34 17
L’Hôpital’s Rule
Ch. 7, p. 362

HISTORICAL medes is ranked together with Newton and

PERSPECTIVE
(Mechanics Magazine London, 1824)
Historical Perspectives Geometric series were used as early as the third
century bce by Archimedes in a brilliant argu-
are brief vignettes that place key ment for determining the area S of a “parabolic
discoveries and conceptual segment” (shaded region in Figure 3). Given two
points A and C on a parabola, there is a point B
advances in their historical between A and C where the tangent line is paral-
context. They give students a lel to AC (apparently, Archimedes was aware of
the Mean Value Theorem more than 2000 years
glimpse into some of the before the invention of calculus). Let T be the
accomplishments of great area of triangle ABC. Archimedes proved that
if D is chosen in a similar fashion relative to AB
mathematicians and an
and E is chosen relative to BC, then
appreciation for their significance. 1
T = Area( ADB) + Area( BEC) 6 solution for nearly a century. In 1735 the great
4 master Leonhard Euler (at the time, 28 years old)
This construction of triangles can be continued.
The next step would be to construct the four tri-
angles on the segments AD, DB, BE, EC, of
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ··· =
total area 14 T . Then construct eight triangles
3
of total area 14 T , etc. In this way, we obtain in-
finitely many triangles that completely fill up the
parabolic segment. By the formula for the sum
of a geometric series, we get
∞
1 1 1 4
S = T + T + T + ··· = T = T
4 16 4n 3 Euler’s result). On the other hand, Euler’s re-
n=0
For this and many other achievements, Archi-
Gauss as one of the greatest scientists of all time.
The modern study of infinite series began
in the seventeenth century with Newton, Leib-
niz, and their contemporaries. The divergence
∞
of 1/n (called the harmonic series) was
n=1
known to the medieval scholar Nicole d’Oresme
(1323–1382), but his proof was lost for cen-
turies, and the result was rediscovered on more
than one occasion. It was also known that the
∞
sum of the reciprocal squares 1/n2 con-
n=1
verges, and in the 1640s, the Italian Pietro Men-
goli put forward the challenge of finding its sum.
Despite the efforts of the best mathematicians
of the day, including Leibniz and the Bernoulli
brothers Jakob and Johann, the problem resisted
astonished his contemporaries by proving that
1 1 1 1 1 1 π2
12 2 3 4 5 6 6
This formula, surprising in itself, plays a role
in a variety of mathematical fields. A theorem
from number theory states that two whole num-
bers, chosen randomly, have no common factor
with probability 6/π 2 ≈ 0.6 (the reciprocal of
sult and its generalizations appear in the field of
statistical mechanics.

Ch. 11, p. 546

xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Assumptions Matter E X A M P L E 3 Assumptions Matter Show that the Product Law cannot be applied to
uses short explanations and lim f (x)g(x) if f (x) = x and g(x) = x −1 .
x→0
well-chosen counterexamples to Solution For all x = 0, we have f (x)g(x) = x · x −1 = 1, so the limit of the product
help students appreciate why exists:
hypotheses are needed in lim f (x)g(x) = lim 1 = 1
theorems. x→0 x→0

However, lim x −1 does not exist because g(x) = x −1 approaches ∞ as x → 0+ and

x→0
it approaches −∞ as x → 0− . Therefore, the Product Law cannot be applied and its
conclusion does not hold:
lim f (x) lim g(x) = lim x lim x −1
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0

Does not exist

Ch. 2, p. 58

Section Summaries summarize a section’s key points in a concise and useful way and
emphasize for students what is most important in each section.

Section Exercise Sets offer a comprehensive set of exercises closely coordinated with
the text. These exercises vary in difficulty from routine, to moderate, to more challenging.
Also included are icons indicating problems that require the student to give a written
response or require the use of technology .

Chapter Review Exercises offer a comprehensive set of exercises closely coordinated with
the chapter material to provide additional problems for self-study or assignments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Colin Adams and W. H. Freeman and Company are grateful to the many instructors
from across the United States and Canada who have offered comments that assisted in
the development and refinement of this book. These contributions included class testing,
manuscript reviewing, problems reviewing, and participating in surveys about the book
and general course needs.

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erg Feldvoss, University of South Alabama ALASKA Mark A. Fitch,
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lege; Jennifer Jameson, Coconino College; George Cole, Mesa Com-
munity College; David Schultz, Mesa Community College; Michael
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penter, Pima Community College, Northwest Campus; Paul Flasch, Pima
County Community College; Jessica Knapp, Pima Community College,
Northwest Campus; Roger Werbylo, Pima County Community College;
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ern Arizona University; Donna M. Krawczyk, The University of Ari-
zona ARKANSAS Deborah Parker, Arkansas Northeastern College;
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sity; Katherine Pinzon, University of Arkansas at Fort Smith; Denise
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of Arkansas at Monticello; Erin Haller, University of Arkansas, Fayet-
teville; Shannon Dingman, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville; Daniel
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nic State University, San Luis Obispo; Colleen Margarita Kirk, California
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nia Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; James R. McKinney,
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fornia State Polytechnic University, Pomona; Charles Lam, California
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Long Beach; Melvin Lax, California State University, Long Beach; Wal-
lace A. Etterbeek, California State University, Sacramento; Mohamed Al-
lali, Chapman University; George Rhys, College of the Canyons; Janice
Hector, DeAnza College; Isabelle Saber, Glendale Community College;

Peter Stathis, Glendale Community College; Douglas B. Lloyd, Golden
West College; Thomas Scardina, Golden West College; Kristin Hartford,
Long Beach City College; Eduardo Arismendi-Pardi, Orange Coast Col-
lege; Mitchell Alves, Orange Coast College; Yenkanh Vu, Orange Coast
College; Yan Tian, Palomar College; Donna E. Nordstrom, Pasadena
City College; Don L. Hancock, Pepperdine University; Kevin Iga, Pep-
perdine University; Adolfo J. Rumbos, Pomona College; Virginia May,
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cisco State University; Nick Bykov, San Joaquin Delta College; Eleanor
Lang Kendrick, San Jose City College; Elizabeth Hodes, Santa Barbara
City College; William Konya, Santa Monica College; John Kennedy,
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Elaine McDonald, Sonoma State University; John D. Eggers, University
of California, San Diego; Adam Bowers, University of California, San
Diego; Bruno Nachtergaele, University of California, Davis; Boumedi-
ene Hamzi, University of California, Davis; Olga Radko, University of
California, Los Angeles; Richard Leborne, University of California, San
Diego; Peter Stevenhagen, University of California, San Diego; Jeffrey
Stopple, University of California, Santa Barbara; Guofang Wei, Uni-
versity of California, Santa Barbara; Rick A. Simon, University of La
Verne; Alexander E. Koonce, University of Redlands; Mohamad A. Al-
wash, West Los Angeles College; Calder Daenzer, University of California,
Berkeley; Jude Thaddeus Socrates, Pasadena City College; Cheuk Ying
Lam, California State University Bakersfield ; Borislava Gutarts, Califor-
nia State University, Los Angeles; Daniel Rogalski, University of Cali-
fornia, San Diego; Don Hartig, California Polytechnic State University;
Anne Voth, Palomar College; Jay Wiestling, Palomar College; Lindsey
Bramlett-Smith, Santa Barbara City College; Dennis Morrow, College of
the Canyons; Sydney Shanks, College of the Canyons; Bob Tolar, College
of the Canyons; Gene W. Majors, Fullerton College; Robert Diaz, Fuller-
ton College; Gregory Nguyen, Fullerton College; Paul Sjoberg, Fullerton
College; Deborah Ritchie, Moorpark College; Maya Rahnamaie, Moor-
park College; Kathy Fink, Moorpark College; Christine Cole, Moor-
park College; K. Di Passero, Moorpark College; Sid Kolpas, Glendale
Community College; Miriam Castrconde, Irvine Valley College; Ilkner
Erbas-White, Irvine Valley College; Corey Manchester, Grossmont Col-
lege; Donald Murray, Santa Monica College; Barbara McGee, Cuesta
College; Marie Larsen, Cuesta College; Joe Vasta, Cuesta College; Mike
Kinter, Cuesta College; Mark Turner, Cuesta College; G. Lewis, Cuesta
College; Daniel Kleinfelter, College of the Desert; Esmeralda Medrano,
Citrus College; James Swatzel, Citrus College; Mark Littrell, Rio Hondo
College; Rich Zucker, Irvine Valley College; Cindy Torigison, Palomar
College; Craig Chamberline, Palomar College; Lindsey Lang, Diablo
Valley College; Sam Needham, Diablo Valley College; Dan Bach, Dia-
blo Valley College; Ted Nirgiotis, Diablo Valley College; Monte Collazo,
Diablo Valley College; Tina Levy, Diablo Valley College; Mona Pan-
chal, East Los Angeles College; Ron Sandvick, San Diego Mesa College;
Larry Handa, West Valley College; Frederick Utter, Santa Rose Junior
College; Farshod Mosh, DeAnza College; Doli Bambhania, DeAnza Col-
lege; Charles Klein, DeAnza College; Tammi Marshall, Cauyamaca Col-
lege; Inwon Leu, Cauyamaca College; Michael Moretti, Bakersfield Col-
lege; Janet Tarjan, Bakersfield College; Hoat Le, San Diego City College;
Richard Fielding, Southwestern College; Shannon Gracey, Southwestern
College; Janet Mazzarella, Southwestern College; Christina Soderlund,
California Lutheran University; Rudy Gonzalez, Citrus College; Robert
Crise, Crafton Hills College; Joseph Kazimir, East Los Angeles College;
Randall Rogers, Fullerton College; Peter Bouzar, Golden West College;
Linda Ternes, Golden West College; Hsiao-Ling Liu, Los Angeles Trade
Tech Community College; Yu-Chung Chang-Hou, Pasadena City College;
Guillermo Alvarez, San Diego City College; Ken Kuniyuki, San Diego
Mesa College; Laleh Howard, San Diego Mesa College; Sharareh Ma-
sooman, Santa Barbara City College; Jared Hersh, Santa Barbara City
College; Betty Wong, Santa Monica College; Brian Rodas, Santa Monica
College; Veasna Chiek, Riverside City College COLORADO Tony
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii
Weathers, Adams State College; Erica Johnson, Arapahoe Community
College; Karen Walters, Arapahoe Community College; Joshua D. Lai-
son, Colorado College; G. Gustave Greivel, Colorado School of Mines;
Holly Eklund, Colorado School of the Mines; Mike Nicholas, Colorado
School of the Mines; Jim Thomas, Colorado State University; Eleanor
Storey, Front Range Community College; Larry Johnson, Metropolitan
State College of Denver; Carol Kuper, Morgan Community College; Larry
A. Pontaski, Pueblo Community College; Terry Chen Reeves, Red Rocks
Community College; Debra S. Carney, Colorado School of the Mines;
Louis A. Talman, Metropolitan State College of Denver; Mary A. Nel-
son, University of Colorado at Boulder; J. Kyle Pula, University of Den-
ver; Jon Von Stroh, University of Denver; Sharon Butz, University of
Denver; Daniel Daly, University of Denver; Tracy Lawrence, Arapa-
hoe Community College; Shawna Mahan, University of Colorado Den-
ver; Adam Norris, University of Colorado at Boulder; Anca Radulescu,
University of Colorado at Boulder; Mike Kawai, University of Colorado
Denver; Janet Barnett, Colorado State University–Pueblo; Byron Hur-
ley, Colorado State University–Pueblo; Jonathan Portiz, Colorado State
University–Pueblo; Bill Emerson, Metropolitan State College of Denver;
Suzanne Caulk, Regis University; Anton Dzhamay, University of Northern
Colorado CONNECTICUT Jeffrey McGowan, Central Connecticut
State University; Ivan Gotchev, Central Connecticut State University;
Charles Waiveris, Central Connecticut State University; Christopher Ham-
mond, Connecticut College; Anthony Y. Aidoo, Eastern Connecticut
State University; Kim Ward, Eastern Connecticut State University; Joan
W. Weiss, Fairfield University; Theresa M. Sandifer, Southern Connecti-
cut State University; Cristian Rios, Trinity College; Melanie Stein, Trinity
College; Steven Orszag, Yale University DELAWARE Patrick F. Mw-
erinde, University of Delaware DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Jef-
frey Hakim, American University; Joshua M. Lansky, American Univer-
sity; James A. Nickerson, Gallaudet University FLORIDA Gregory
Spradlin, Embry-Riddle University at Daytona Beach; Daniela Popova,
Florida Atlantic University; Abbas Zadegan, Florida International Uni-
versity; Gerardo Aladro, Florida International University; Gregory Hen-
derson, Hillsborough Community College; Pam Crawford, Jacksonville
University; Penny Morris, Polk Community College; George Schultz,
St. Petersburg College; Jimmy Chang, St. Petersburg College; Carolyn
Kistner, St. Petersburg College; Aida Kadic-Galeb, The University of
Tampa; Constance Schober, University of Central Florida; S. Roy Choud-
hury, University of Central Florida; Kurt Overhiser, Valencia Commu-
nity College; Jiongmin Yong, University of Central Florida; Giray Okten,
The Florida State University; Frederick Hoffman, Florida Atlantic Uni-
versity; Thomas Beatty, Florida Gulf Coast University; Witny Librun,
Palm Beach Community College North; Joe Castillo, Broward County
College; Joann Lewin, Edison College; Donald Ransford, Edison Col-
lege; Scott Berthiaume, Edison College; Alexander Ambrioso, Hillsbor-
ough Community College; Jane Golden, Hillsborough Community Col-
lege; Susan Hiatt, Polk Community College–Lakeland Campus; Li Zhou,
Polk Community College–Winter Haven Campus; Heather Edwards, Semi-
nole Community College; Benjamin Landon, Daytona State College; Tony
Malaret, Seminole Community College; Lane Vosbury, Seminole Commu-
nity College; William Rickman, Seminole Community College; Cheryl
Cantwell, Seminole Community College; Michael Schramm, Indian River
State College; Janette Campbell, Palm Beach Community College–Lake
Worth; Kwai-Lee Chui, University of Florida; Shu-Jen Huang, Univer-
sity of Florida GEORGIA Christian Barrientos, Clayton State Uni-
versity; Thomas T. Morley, Georgia Institute of Technology; Doron Lu-
binsky, Georgia Institute of Technology; Ralph Wildy, Georgia Military
College; Shahram Nazari, Georgia Perimeter College; Alice Eiko Pierce,
Georgia Perimeter College, Clarkson Campus; Susan Nelson, Georgia
Perimeter College, Clarkson Campus; Laurene Fausett, Georgia South-
ern University; Scott N. Kersey, Georgia Southern University; Jimmy
L. Solomon, Georgia Southern University; Allen G. Fuller, Gordon Col-
lege; Marwan Zabdawi, Gordon College; Carolyn A. Yackel, Mercer Uni-
versity; Blane Hollingsworth, Middle Georgia State College; Shahryar
Heydari, Piedmont College; Dan Kannan, The University of Georgia; June
xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Jones, Middle Georgia State College; Abdelkrim Brania, Morehouse Col-
lege; Ying Wang, Augusta State University; James M. Benedict, Augusta
State University; Kouong Law, Georgia Perimeter College; Rob Williams,
Georgia Perimeter College; Alvina Atkinson, Georgia Gwinnett Col-
lege; Amy Erickson, Georgia Gwinnett College HAWAII Shuguang
Li, University of Hawaii at Hilo; Raina B. Ivanova, University of Hawaii
at Hilo IDAHO Uwe Kaiser, Boise State University; Charles Kerr,
Boise State University; Zach Teitler, Boise State University; Otis Kenny,
Boise State University; Alex Feldman, Boise State University; Doug Bul-
lock, Boise State University; Brian Dietel, Lewis-Clark State College; Ed
Korntved, Northwest Nazarene University; Cynthia Piez, University of
Idaho ILLINOIS Chris Morin, Blackburn College; Alberto L. Del-
gado, Bradley University; John Haverhals, Bradley University; Herbert
E. Kasube, Bradley University; Marvin Doubet, Lake Forest College;
Marvin A. Gordon, Lake Forest Graduate School of Management; Richard
J. Maher, Loyola University Chicago; Joseph H. Mayne, Loyola University
Chicago; Marian Gidea, Northeastern Illinois University; John M. Alongi,
Northwestern University; Miguel Angel Lerma, Northwestern Univer-
sity; Mehmet Dik, Rockford College; Tammy Voepel, Southern Illinois
University Edwardsville; Rahim G. Karimpour, Southern Illinois Univer-
sity; Thomas Smith, University of Chicago; Laura DeMarco, University
of Illinois; Evangelos Kobotis, University of Illinois at Chicago; Jennifer
McNeilly, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Timur Oikhberg,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Manouchehr Azad, Harper
College; Minhua Liu, Harper College; Mary Hill, College of DuPage;
Arthur N. DiVito, Harold Washington College INDIANA Vania Mas-
cioni, Ball State University; Julie A. Killingbeck, Ball State University;
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P. Boardman, Franklin College; Robert N. Talbert, Franklin College;
Robin Symonds, Indiana University Kokomo; Henry L. Wyzinski, In-
diana University Northwest; Melvin Royer, Indiana Wesleyan Univer-
sity; Gail P. Greene, Indiana Wesleyan University; David L. Finn, Rose-
Hulman Institute of Technology; Chong Keat Arthur Lim, University of
Notre Dame IOWA Nasser Dastrange, Buena Vista University; Mark
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ras College; Eric Robert Westlund, Luther College; Weimin Han, The
University of Iowa KANSAS Timothy W. Flood, Pittsburg State Uni-
versity; Sarah Cook, Washburn University; Kevin E. Charlwood, Wash-
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N. Yetter, Kansas State University KENTUCKY Alex M. McAllister,
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Leanne Faulkner, Kentucky Wesleyan College; Donald O. Clayton, Madis-
onville Community College; Thomas Riedel, University of Louisville;
Manabendra Das, University of Louisville; Lee Larson, University of
Louisville; Jens E. Harlander, Western Kentucky University; Philip Mc-
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University; Omer Yayenie, Murray State University; Donald Krug, North-
ern Kentucky University LOUISIANA William Forrest, Baton Rouge
Community College; Paul Wayne Britt, Louisiana State University; Galen
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University; Kent Neuerburg, Southeastern Louisiana University; Guoli
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sity; Brent Strunk, University of Louisiana at Monroe MAINE An-
drew Knightly, The University of Maine; Sergey Lvin, The University
of Maine; Joel W. Irish, University of Southern Maine; Laurie Woodman,
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William O. Bray, The University of Maine MARYLAND Leonid
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more County; Mark E. Williams, University of Maryland Eastern Shore;
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munity College; Fary Sami, Harford Community College; Andrew Bulleri,
Howard Community College MASSACHUSETTS Sean McGrath,
Algonquin Regional High School; Norton Starr, Amherst College; Re-
nato Mirollo, Boston College; Emma Previato, Boston University; Laura
K Gross, Bridgewater State University; Richard H. Stout, Gordon Col-
lege; Matthew P. Leingang, Harvard University; Suellen Robinson, North
Shore Community College; Walter Stone, North Shore Community Col-
lege; Barbara Loud, Regis College; Andrew B. Perry, Springfield College;
Tawanda Gwena, Tufts University; Gary Simundza, Wentworth Institute of
Technology; Mikhail Chkhenkeli, Western New England College; David
Daniels, Western New England College; Alan Gorfin, Western New Eng-
land College; Saeed Ghahramani, Western New England College; Julian
Fleron, Westfield State College; Maria Fung, Worchester State University;
Brigitte Servatius, Worcester Polytechnic Institute; John Goulet, Worces-
ter Polytechnic Institute; Alexander Martsinkovsky, Northeastern Uni-
versity; Marie Clote, Boston College; Alexander Kastner, Williams Col-
lege; Margaret Peard, Williams College; Mihai Stoiciu, Williams College
MICHIGAN Mark E. Bollman, Albion College; Jim Chesla, Grand
Rapids Community College; Jeanne Wald, Michigan State University; Al-
lan A. Struthers, Michigan Technological University; Debra Pharo, North-
western Michigan College; Anna Maria Spagnuolo, Oakland University;
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Western Michigan University MINNESOTA Bruce Bordwell, Anoka-
Ramsey Community College; Robert Dobrow, Carleton College; Jessie
K. Lenarz, Concordia College–Moorhead Minnesota; Bill Tomhave, Con-
cordia College; David L. Frank, University of Minnesota; Steven I. Sper-
ber, University of Minnesota; Jeffrey T. McLean, University of St. Thomas;
Chehrzad Shakiban, University of St. Thomas; Melissa Loe, University
of St. Thomas; Nick Christopher Fiala, St. Cloud State University; Vic-
tor Padron, Normandale Community College; Mark Ahrens, Normandale
Community College; Gerry Naughton, Century Community College; Car-
rie Naughton, Inver Hills Community College MISSISSIPPI Vivien
G. Miller, Mississippi State University; Ted Dobson, Mississippi State Uni-
versity; Len Miller, Mississippi State University; Tristan Denley, The Uni-
versity of Mississippi MISSOURI Robert Robertson, Drury Univer-
sity; Gregory A. Mitchell, Metropolitan Community College–Penn Valley;
Charles N. Curtis, Missouri Southern State University; Vivek Narayanan,
Moberly Area Community College; Russell Blyth, Saint Louis University;
Julianne Rainbolt, Saint Louis University; Blake Thornton, Saint Louis
University; Kevin W. Hopkins, Southwest Baptist University; Joe Howe,
St. Charles Community College; Wanda Long, St. Charles Community
College; Andrew Stephan, St. Charles Community College MONTANA
Kelly Cline, Carroll College; Veronica Baker, Montana State University,
Bozeman; Richard C. Swanson, Montana State University; Thomas Hayes-
McGoff, Montana State University; Nikolaus Vonessen, The University of
Montana NEBRASKA Edward G. Reinke Jr., Concordia University;
Judith Downey, University of Nebraska at Omaha NEVADA Jennifer
Gorman, College of Southern Nevada; Jonathan Pearsall, College of South-
ern Nevada; Rohan Dalpatadu, University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Paul Ai-
zley, University of Nevada, Las Vegas NEW HAMPSHIRE Richard
Jardine, Keene State College; Michael Cullinane, Keene State College;
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Van Erp, Dartmouth College NEW JERSEY Paul S. Rossi, College
of Saint Elizabeth; Mark Galit, Essex County College; Katarzyna Potocka,
Ramapo College of New Jersey; Nora S. Thornber, Raritan Valley Com-
munity College; Abdulkadir Hassen, Rowan University; Olcay Ilicasu,
Rowan University; Avraham Soffer, Rutgers, The State University of New
Jersey; Chengwen Wang, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey;
Shabnam Beheshti, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jer-
sey; Stephen J. Greenfield, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey;
John T. Saccoman, Seton Hall University; Lawrence E. Levine, Stevens
Institute of Technology; Jana Gevertz, The College of New Jersey; Barry
Burd, Drew University; Penny Luczak, Camden County College; John
Climent, Cecil Community College; Kristyanna Erickson, Cecil Commu-
nity College; Eric Compton, Brookdale Community College; John Atsu-
Swanzy, Atlantic Cape Community College NEW MEXICO Kevin
Leith, Central New Mexico Community College; David Blankenbaker,
Central New Mexico Community College; Joseph Lakey, New Mexico
State University; Kees Onneweer, University of New Mexico; Jurg Bolli,

The University of New Mexico NEW YORK Robert C. Williams, Al-
fred University; Timmy G. Bremer, Broome Community College State
University of New York; Joaquin O. Carbonara, Buffalo State College;
Robin Sue Sanders, Buffalo State College; Daniel Cunningham, Buffalo
State College; Rose Marie Castner, Canisius College; Sharon L. Sullivan,
Catawba College; Fabio Nironi, Columbia University; Camil Muscalu,
Cornell University; Maria S. Terrell, Cornell University; Margaret Mulli-
gan, Dominican College of Blauvelt; Robert Andersen, Farmingdale State
University of New York; Leonard Nissim, Fordham University; Jennifer
Roche, Hobart and William Smith Colleges; James E. Carpenter, Iona Col-
lege; Peter Shenkin, John Jay College of Criminal Justice/CUNY ; Gordon
Crandall, LaGuardia Community College/CUNY ; Gilbert Traub, Maritime
College, State University of New York; Paul E. Seeburger, Monroe Commu-
nity College Brighton Campus; Abraham S. Mantell, Nassau Community
College; Daniel D. Birmajer, Nazareth College; Sybil G. Shaver, Pace Uni-
versity; Margaret Kiehl, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Carl V. Lutzer,
Rochester Institute of Technology; Michael A. Radin, Rochester Institute
of Technology; Hossein Shahmohamad, Rochester Institute of Technology;
Thomas Rousseau, Siena College; Jason Hofstein, Siena College; Leon
E. Gerber, St. Johns University; Christopher Bishop, Stony Brook Univer-
sity; James Fulton, Suffolk County Community College; John G. Michaels,
SUNY Brockport; Howard J. Skogman, SUNY Brockport; Cristina Ba-
cuta, SUNY Cortland ; Jean Harper, SUNY Fredonia; David Hobby, SUNY
New Paltz; Kelly Black, Union College; Thomas W. Cusick, University
at Buffalo/The State University of New York; Gino Biondini, University
at Buffalo/The State University of New York; Robert Koehler, University
at Buffalo/The State University of New York; Donald Larson, University
of Rochester; Robert Thompson, Hunter College; Ed Grossman, The City
College of New York NORTH CAROLINA Jeffrey Clark, Elon Uni-
versity; William L. Burgin, Gaston College; Manouchehr H. Misaghian,
Johnson C. Smith University; Legunchim L. Emmanwori, North Carolina
A&T State University; Drew Pasteur, North Carolina State University;
Demetrio Labate, North Carolina State University; Mohammad Kazemi,
The University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Richard Carmichael, Wake
Forest University; Gretchen Wilke Whipple, Warren Wilson College; John
Russell Taylor, University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Mark Ellis,
Piedmont Community College NORTH DAKOTA Jim Coykendall,
North Dakota State University; Anthony J. Bevelacqua, The University of
North Dakota; Richard P. Millspaugh, The University of North Dakota;
Thomas Gilsdorf, The University of North Dakota; Michele Iiams, The
University of North Dakota; Mohammad Khavanin, University of North
Dakota OHIO Christopher Butler, Case Western Reserve University;
Pamela Pierce, The College of Wooster; Barbara H. Margolius, Cleveland
State University; Tzu-Yi Alan Yang, Columbus State Community College;
Greg S. Goodhart, Columbus State Community College; Kelly C. Stady,
Cuyahoga Community College; Brian T. Van Pelt, Cuyahoga Commu-
nity College; David Robert Ericson, Miami University; Frederick S. Gass,
Miami University; Thomas Stacklin, Ohio Dominican University; Vitaly
Bergelson, The Ohio State University; Robert Knight, Ohio University;
John R. Pather, Ohio University, Eastern Campus; Teresa Contenza, Ot-
terbein College; Ali Hajjafar, The University of Akron; Jianping Zhu, The
University of Akron; Ian Clough, University of Cincinnati Clermont Col-
lege; Atif Abueida, University of Dayton; Judith McCrory, The Univer-
sity at Findlay; Thomas Smotzer, Youngstown State University; Angela
Spalsbury, Youngstown State University; James Osterburg, The University
of Cincinnati; Mihaela A. Poplicher, University of Cincinnati; Frederick
Thulin, University of Illinois at Chicago; Weimin Han, The Ohio State Uni-
versity; Crichton Ogle, The Ohio State University; Jackie Miller, The Ohio
State University; Walter Mackey, Owens Community College; Jonathan
Baker, Columbus State Community College OKLAHOMA Christo-
pher Francisco, Oklahoma State University; Michael McClendon, Univer-
sity of Central Oklahoma; Teri Jo Murphy, The University of Oklahoma;
Kimberly Adams, University of Tulsa; Shirley Pomeranz, University of
Tulsa OREGON Lorna TenEyck, Chemeketa Community College;
Angela Martinek, Linn-Benton Community College; Filix Maisch, Oregon
State University; Tevian Dray, Oregon State University; Mark Ferguson,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv
Chemekata Community College; Andrew Flight, Portland State Univer-
sity; Austina Fong, Portland State University; Jeanette R. Palmiter, Port-
land State University PENNSYLVANIA John B. Polhill, Bloomsburg
University of Pennsylvania; Russell C. Walker, Carnegie Mellon Univer-
sity; Jon A. Beal, Clarion University of Pennsylvania; Kathleen Kane,
Community College of Allegheny County; David A. Santos, Community
College of Philadelphia; David S. Richeson, Dickinson College; Chris-
tine Marie Cedzo, Gannon University; Monica Pierri-Galvao, Gannon
University; John H. Ellison, Grove City College; Gary L. Thompson,
Grove City College; Dale McIntyre, Grove City College; Dennis Ben-
choff, Harrisburg Area Community College; William A. Drumin, King’s
College; Denise Reboli, King’s College; Chawne Kimber, Lafayette Col-
lege; Elizabeth McMahon, Lafayette College; Lorenzo Traldi, Lafayette
College; David L. Johnson, Lehigh University; Matthew Hyatt, Lehigh
University; Zia Uddin, Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania; Donna
A. Dietz, Mansfield University of Pennsylvania; Samuel Wilcock, Mes-
siah College; Richard R. Kern, Montgomery County Community College;
Michael Fraboni, Moravian College; Neena T. Chopra, The Pennsylva-
nia State University; Boris A. Datskovsky, Temple University; Dennis
M. DeTurck, University of Pennsylvania; Jacob Burbea, University of
Pittsburgh; Mohammed Yahdi, Ursinus College; Timothy Feeman, Vil-
lanova University; Douglas Norton, Villanova University; Robert Styer,
Villanova University; Michael J. Fisher, West Chester University of Penn-
sylvania; Peter Brooksbank, Bucknell University; Emily Dryden, Bucknell
University; Larry Friesen, Butler County Community College; Lisa An-
gelo, Bucks County College; Elaine Fitt, Bucks County College; Pauline
Chow, Harrisburg Area Community College; Diane Benner, Harrisburg
Area Community College; Emily B. Dryden, Bucknell University; Erica
Chauvet, Waynesburg University RHODE ISLAND Thomas F. Ban-
choff, Brown University; Yajni Warnapala-Yehiya, Roger Williams Uni-
versity; Carol Gibbons, Salve Regina University; Joe Allen, Community
College of Rhode Island ; Michael Latina, Community College of Rhode
Island SOUTH CAROLINA Stanley O. Perrine, Charleston South-
ern University; Joan Hoffacker, Clemson University; Constance C. Ed-
wards, Coastal Carolina University; Thomas L. Fitzkee, Francis Mar-
ion University; Richard West, Francis Marion University; John Harris,
Furman University; Douglas B. Meade, University of South Carolina;
GeorgeAndroulakis, University of South Carolina;Art Mark, University of
South Carolina Aiken; Sherry Biggers, Clemson University; Mary Zachary
Krohn, Clemson University; Andrew Incognito, Coastal Carolina Univer-
sity; Deanna Caveny, College of Charleston SOUTH DAKOTA Dan
Kemp, South Dakota State University TENNESSEE Andrew Miller,
Belmont University; Arthur A. Yanushka, Christian Brothers University;
Laurie Plunk Dishman, Cumberland University; Maria Siopsis, Maryville
College; Beth Long, Pellissippi State Technical Community College; Ju-
dith Fethe, Pellissippi State Technical Community College;Andrzej Gutek,
Tennessee Technological University; Sabine Le Borne, Tennessee Tech-
nological University; Richard Le Borne, Tennessee Technological Uni-
versity; Maria F. Bothelho, University of Memphis; Roberto Triggiani,
University of Memphis; Jim Conant, The University of Tennessee; Pavlos
Tzermias, The University of Tennessee; Luis Renato Abib Finotti, Uni-
versity of Tennessee, Knoxville; Jennifer Fowler, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville; Jo Ann W. Staples, Vanderbilt University; Dave Vinson, Pellis-
sippi State Community College; Jonathan Lamb, Pellissippi State Com-
munity College TEXAS Sally Haas, Angelina College; Karl Havlak,
Angelo State University; Michael Huff, Austin Community College; John
M. Davis, Baylor University; Scott Wilde, Baylor University and The Uni-
versity of Texas at Arlington; Rob Eby, Blinn College; Tim Sever, Hous-
ton Community College–Central; Ernest Lowery, Houston Community
College–Northwest; Brian Loft, Sam Houston State University; Jianzhong
Wang, Sam Houston State University; Shirley Davis, South Plains Col-
lege; Todd M. Steckler, South Texas College; Mary E. Wagner-Krankel,
St. Mary’s University; Elise Z. Price, Tarrant County College, Southeast
Campus; David Price, Tarrant County College, Southeast Campus; Run-
chang Lin, Texas A&M University; Michael Stecher, Texas A&M Univer-
sity; Philip B. Yasskin, Texas A&M University; Brock Williams, Texas
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Tech University; I. Wayne Lewis, Texas Tech University; Robert E. By-
erly, Texas Tech University; Ellina Grigorieva, Texas Woman’s Univer-
sity; Abraham Haje, Tomball College; Scott Chapman, Trinity University;
Elias Y. Deeba, University of Houston Downtown; Jianping Zhu, The Uni-
versity of Texas at Arlington; Tuncay Aktosun, The University of Texas
at Arlington; John E. Gilbert, The University of Texas at Austin; Jorge
R. Viramontes-Olivias, The University of Texas at El Paso; Fengxin Chen,
University of Texas at San Antonio; Melanie Ledwig, The Victoria College;
Gary L. Walls, West Texas A&M University; William Heierman, Whar-
ton County Junior College; Lisa Rezac, University of St. Thomas; Ray-
mond J. Cannon, Baylor University; Kathryn Flores, McMurry University;
Jacqueline A. Jensen, Sam Houston State University; James Galloway,
Collin County College; Raja Khoury, Collin County College; Annette Ben-
bow, Tarrant County College–Northwest; Greta Harland, Tarrant County
College–Northeast; Doug Smith, Tarrant County College–Northeast;
Marcus McGuff, Austin Community College; Clarence McGuff, Austin
Community College; Steve Rodi, Austin Community College; Vicki Payne,
Austin Community College; Anne Pradera, Austin Community College;
Christy Babu, Laredo Community College; Deborah Hewitt, McLennan
Community College; W. Duncan, McLennan Community College; Hugh
Griffith, Mt. San Antonio College UTAH Ruth Trygstad, Salt Lake
City Community College VIRGINIA Verne E. Leininger, Bridgewa-
ter College; Brian Bradie, Christopher Newport University; Hongwei
Chen, Christopher Newport University; John J. Avioli, Christopher New-
port University; James H. Martin, Christopher Newport University; David
Walnut, George Mason University; Mike Shirazi, Germanna Community
College; Julie Clark, Hollins University; Ramon A. Mata-Toledo, James
Madison University; Adrian Riskin, Mary Baldwin College; Josephine
Letts, Ocean Lakes High School; Przemyslaw Bogacki, Old Dominion
University; Deborah Denvir, Randolph-Macon Woman’s College; Linda
Powers, Virginia Tech; Gregory Dresden, Washington and Lee University;
Jacob A. Siehler, Washington and Lee University; Yuan-Jen Chiang, Uni-
versity of Mary Washington; Nicholas Hamblet, University of Virginia;
Bernard Fulgham, University of Virginia; Manouchehr “Mike” Moha-
jeri, University of Virginia; Lester Frank Caudill, University of Richmond
VERMONT David Dorman, Middlebury College; Rachel Repstad, Ver-
mont Technical College WASHINGTON Jennifer Laveglia, Belle-
vue Community College; David Whittaker, Cascadia Community Col-
lege; Sharon Saxton, Cascadia Community College; Aaron Montgomery,
Central Washington University; Patrick Averbeck, Edmonds Community
College; Tana Knudson, Heritage University; Kelly Brooks, Pierce Col-
lege; Shana P. Calaway, Shoreline Community College; Abel Gage, Skagit
Valley College; Scott MacDonald, Tacoma Community College; Jason
Preszler, University of Puget Sound ; Martha A. Gady, Whitworth Col-
lege; Wayne L. Neidhardt, Edmonds Community College; Simrat Ghu-
man, Bellevue College; Jeff Eldridge, Edmonds Community College;
Kris Kissel, Green River Community College; Laura Moore-Mueller,
Green River Community College; David Stacy, Bellevue College; Eric
Schultz, Walla Walla Community College; Julianne Sachs, Walla Walla
Community College WEST VIRGINIA David Cusick, Marshall Uni-
versity; Ralph Oberste-Vorth, Marshall University; Suda Kunyosying,
Shepard University; Nicholas Martin, Shepherd University; Rajeev Ra-
jaram, Shepherd University; Xiaohong Zhang, West Virginia State Uni-
versity; Sam B. Nadler, West Virginia University WYOMING Clau-
dia Stewart, Casper College; Pete Wildman, Casper College; Charles
Newberg, Western Wyoming Community College; Lynne Ipina, Univer-
sity of Wyoming; John Spitler, University of Wyoming WISCON-
SIN Erik R. Tou, Carthage College; Paul Bankston, Marquette Uni-
versity; Jane Nichols, Milwaukee School of Engineering; Yvonne Yaz,
Milwaukee School of Engineering; Simei Tong, University of Wisconsin–
Eau Claire; Terry Nyman, University of Wisconsin–Fox Valley; Robert
L. Wilson, University of Wisconsin–Madison; Dietrich A. Uhlen-
brock, University of Wisconsin–Madison; Paul Milewski, University
of Wisconsin–Madison; Donald Solomon, University of Wisconsin–
Milwaukee; Kandasamy Muthuvel, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh;
Sheryl Wills, University of Wisconsin–Platteville; Kathy A. Tomlinson,
University of Wisconsin–River Falls; Cynthia L. McCabe, University
of Wisconsin–Stevens Point; Matthew Welz, University of Wisconsin–
Stevens Point; Joy Becker, University of Wisconsin-Stout; Jeganathan
Sriskandarajah , Madison Area Tech College; Wayne Sigelko, Madison
Area Tech College CANADA Don St. Jean, George Brown College;
Robert Dawson, St. Mary’s University; Len Bos, University of Calgary;
Tony Ware, University of Calgary; Peter David Papez, University of Cal-
gary; John O’Conner, Grant MacEwan University; Michael P. Lamoureux,
University of Calgary; Yousry Elsabrouty, University of Calgary; Darja
Kalajdzievska, University of Manitoba; Andrew Skelton, University of
Guelph; Douglas Farenick, University of Regina

T he creation of this third edition could not have happened without the help of many people. First, I want to thank the individuals
whom I have worked with at W. H. Freeman. Terri Ward and Ruth Baruth convinced me that I should take on this project, and I am
grateful to them for their support and their confidence in my ability to tackle it. Throughout this process, Terri has been a huge help. I
can always count on her to keep this train on track. Katrina Wilhelm has also been an amazing resource. She brings calm competence
and organizational skills that constantly impress me. Tony Palermino has provided expert editorial help throughout the process. He
is incredibly knowledgeable about all aspects of mathematics textbooks and has an eye for the details that make a book work. Kerry
O’Shaughnessy kept the production process moving forward in a timely manner without ever resorting to threats. John Rogosich was
the superb compositor. Patti Brecht handled the copyediting in an expert manner. My thanks are also due to W. H. Freeman’s superb
production team: Janice Donnola, Eileen Liang, Blake Logan, Paul Rohloff, and to Ron Weickart at Network Graphics for his skilled
and creative execution of the art program.
Many faculty gave critical feedback on the second edition, and their names appear above. I am deeply grateful to them. I do want
to particularly thank all of the advisory board members who gave me feedback month after month. Maria Shea Terrell continually
sent me excellent unsolicited feedback until I asked to have her on the board. Then it became solicited. The accuracy reviewers,
John Alongi, CK Cheung, Kwai-Lee Chui, John Davis, John Eggers, Stephen Greenfield, Roger Lipsett, Vivek Narayanan, and Olga
Radko, helped to bring the final version into the form in which it now appears. You think you have found the errors, but you have not.
I also want to thank my colleagues in the Mathematics and Statistics Department at Williams College. I have always known I am
incredibly lucky to be a member of this department. There are so many interesting projects and clever pedagogical ideas coming out
of the department that it motivates me just because I am trying to keep up.
I would further like to thank my students. Their enthusiasm is what makes teaching fun. I enjoy coming to work every day, and
they are what make it such a pleasure.
Finally, I want to thank my two children, Alexa and Colton. They are the ones who keep me grounded, who remind me what
works and what doesn’t in the real world. This book is dedicated to them.

Colin Adams

Functions that yield the amount of seismic
activity as a function of time help scientists to
predict volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
(Douglas Peebles/Science Source)
Additional properties of real numbers are
discussed in Appendix B.
−2 −1 0 1
FIGURE 1 The set of real numbers
represented as a line.
|a|
a 0
FIGURE 2 |a| is the distance from a to the
origin.
1 PRECALCULUS
REVIEW
C alculus builds on the foundation of algebra, analytic geometry, and trigonometry. In
this chapter, therefore, we review some concepts, facts, and formulas from precalculus
that are used throughout the text. In the last section, we discuss ways in which technology
can be used to enhance your visual understanding of functions and their properties.
1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs
We begin with a short discussion of real numbers. This gives us the opportunity to recall
some basic properties and standard notation.
A real number is a number represented by a decimal or “decimal expansion.” There
are three types of decimal expansions: finite, repeating, and infinite but nonrepeating. For
example,
3 1
= 0.375, = 0.142857142857 . . . = 0.142857
8 7
π = 3.141592653589793 . . .
The number 38 is represented by a finite decimal, whereas 17 is represented by a repeatingor
periodic decimal. The bar over 142857 indicates that this sequence repeats indefinitely.
The decimal expansion of π is infinite but nonrepeating.
The set of all real numbers is denoted by a boldface R. When there is no risk of
confusion, we refer to a real number simply as a number. We also use the standard symbol
∈ for the phrase “belongs to.” Thus,
a∈R reads “a belongs to R”
The set of integers is commonly denoted by the letter Z (this choice comes from the
German word Zahl, meaning “number”). Thus, Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . }. A whole
number is a nonnegative integer—that is, one of the numbers 0, 1, 2, . . . .
A real number is called rational if it can be represented by a fraction p/q, where p
√ numbers is denoted Q (for “quotient”).
and q are integers with q ̸ = 0. The set of rational
Numbers that are not rational, such as π and 2, are called irrational.
We can tell whether a number is rational from its decimal expansion: Rational numbers
have finite or repeating decimal expansions, and irrational numbers have infinite, non-
repeating decimal expansions. Furthermore, the decimal expansion of a number is unique,
apart from the following exception: Every finite decimal is equal to an infinite decimal in
which the digit 9 repeats. For example,
3 47
2
1 = 0.999 . . . , = 0.375 = 0.374999 . . . , = 2.35 = 2.34999 . . .
8 20
We visualize real numbers as points on a line (Figure 1). For this reason, real numbers
are often referred to as points. The point corresponding to 0 is called the origin.
The absolute value of a real number a, denoted |a|, is defined by (Figure 2)
!
a if a ≥ 0
|a| = distance from the origin =
−a if a < 0
For example, |1.2| = 1.2 and |−8.35| = 8.35. The absolute value satisfies
|a| = |−a|, |ab| = |a| |b|
1
2 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW

|b − a| The distance between two real numbers a and b is |b − a|, which is the length of the line
segment joining a and b (Figure 3).
−2 −1 a 0 1 2 b
Two real numbers a and b are close to each other if |b − a| is small, and this is the
FIGURE 3 The distance from a to b is
case if their decimal expansions agree to many places. More precisely, if the decimal
|b − a|.
expansions of a and b agree to k places (to the right of the decimal point), then the
distance |b − a| is at most 10−k . Thus, the distance between a = 3.1415 and b = 3.1478
is at most 10−2 because a and b agree to two places. In fact, the distance is exactly
|3.1478 − 3.1415| = 0.0063.
Beware that |a + b| is not equal to |a| + |b| unless a and b have the same sign or at
least one of a and b is zero. If they have opposite signs, cancellation occurs in the sum
a + b, and |a + b| < |a| + |b|. For example, |2 + 5| = |2| + |5| but |−2 + 5| = 3, which
is less than |−2| + |5| = 7. In any case, |a + b| is never larger than |a| + |b| and this gives
us the simple but important triangle inequality:

|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| 1

We use standard notation for intervals. Given real numbers a < b, there are four
intervals with endpoints a and b (Figure 4). They all have length b − a but differ accord-
ing to which endpoints are included.

a b a b a b a b
FIGURE 4 The four intervals with endpoints Closed interval [a, b] Open interval (a, b) Half-open interval [a, b) Half-open interval (a, b]
a and b. (endpoints included) (endpoints excluded)

The closed interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers x such that a ≤ x ≤ b:

[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}
The notation (2, 3) could mean the open
interval {x : 2 < x < 3} or it could mean We usually write this more simply as {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}, it being understood that x belongs
the point in the xy -plane with x = 2 and to R. The open and half-open intervals are the sets
y = 3. In general, the meaning will be
apparent from the context. (a, b) = {x : a < x < b} , [a, b) = {x : a ≤ x < b}, (a, b] = {x : a < x ≤ b}
" #$ % " #$ % " #$ %
Open interval (endpoints excluded) Half-open interval Half-open interval

The infinite interval (−∞, ∞) is the entire real line R. A half-infinite interval is closed
if it contains its finite endpoint and is open otherwise (Figure 5):

[a, ∞) = {x : a ≤ x}, (−∞, b] = {x : x ≤ b}

a b
FIGURE 5 Closed half-infinite intervals. [a, ∞) (−∞, b]

|x| < r Open and closed intervals may be described by inequalities. For example, the interval
(−r, r) is described by the inequality |x| < r (Figure 6):
−r 0 r
FIGURE 6 The interval
(−r, r) = {x : |x| < r}. |x| < r ⇔ −r < x < r ⇔ x ∈ (−r, r) 2

More generally, for an interval symmetric about the value c (Figure 7),

r r
|x − c| < r ⇔ c−r <x <c+r ⇔ x ∈ (c − r, c + r) 3
c−r c c+r
FIGURE 7 (a, b) = (c − r, c + r), where Closed intervals are similar, with < replaced by ≤. We refer to r as the radius and to c as
a+b b−a the midpoint or center. The intervals (a, b) and [a, b] have midpoint c = 12 (a + b) and
c= , r= radius r = 12 (b − a) (Figure 7).
2 2
 S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 3

E X A M P L E 1 Describe [7, 13] using inequalities.

3 3 Solution The midpoint of the interval [7, 13] is c = 12 (7 + 13) = 10 and its radius is
r = 12 (13 − 7) = 3 (Figure 8). Therefore,
7 10 13
& '
FIGURE 8 The interval [7, 13] is described [7, 13] = x ∈ R : |x − 10| ≤ 3
by |x − 10| ≤ 3.
& ( ( '
E X A M P L E 2 Describe the set S = x : ( 12 x − 3( > 4 in terms of intervals.
( (
Solution It is easier to consider the opposite inequality ( 12 x − 3( ≤ 4 first. By (2),
( (
(1 (
In Example 2 we use the notation ∪ to
( x − 3( ≤ 4 ⇔ −4 ≤ 1 x − 3 ≤ 4
denote “union”: The union A ∪ B of sets (2 ( 2
A and B consists of all elements that
belong to either A or B (or to both). 1
−1 ≤ x≤7 (add 3)
2
−2 ≤ x ≤ 14 (multiply by 2)
(1 (
−2 0
Thus, ( 2 x − 3( ≤ 4 is satisfied when x belongs to [−2, 14]. The set S is the complement,
14
& ( ( ' consisting of all numbers x not in [−2, 14]. We can describe S as the union of two intervals:
FIGURE 9 The set S = x : ( 12 x − 3( > 4 .
S = (−∞, −2) ∪ (14, ∞) (Figure 9).

The term “Cartesian” refers to the French
philosopher and mathematician René
Descartes (1596–1650), whose Latin
name was Cartesius. He is credited (along
with Pierre de Fermat) with the invention of
analytic geometry. In his great work La
Géométrie, Descartes used the letters
x, y, z for unknowns and a, b, c for
constants, a convention that has been
followed ever since.
Graphing
Graphing is a basic tool in calculus, as it is in algebra and trigonometry. Recall that rect-
angular (or Cartesian) coordinates in the plane are defined by choosing two perpendicular
axes, the x-axis and the y-axis.To a pair of numbers (a, b) we associate the point P located
at the intersection of the line perpendicular to the x-axis at a and the line perpendicular to
the y-axis at b [Figure 10(A)]. The numbers a and b are the x- and y-coordinates of P .
The x-coordinate is sometimes called the “abscissa” and the y-coordinate the “ordinate.”
The origin is the point with coordinates (0, 0).
y y

2
P = (a, b)
b
1

x x
−2 −1 1 2 a
−1

−2

FIGURE 10 Rectangular coordinate system. (A) (B)

The axes divide the plane into four quadrants labeled I–IV, determined by the signs
of the coordinates [Figure 10(B)]. For example, quadrant III consists of points (x, y) such
that x < 0 and y < 0.
The distance d between two points P1 = (x1 , y1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 ) is computed
y using the Pythagorean Theorem. In Figure 11, we see that P1 P2 is the hypotenuse of a
right triangle with sides a = |x2 − x1 | and b = |y2 − y1 |. Therefore,
P1 = (x1, y1)
y1
d 2 = a 2 + b2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
d
| y2 − y1| We obtain the distance formula by taking square roots.
y2 P2 = (x2, y2)
| x2 − x1|
Distance Formula The distance between P1 = (x1 , y1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 ) is equal to
x )
x1 x2
d= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
FIGURE 11 Distance d is given by the
distance formula.
4 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW

y Once we have the distance formula, we can derive the equation of a circle of radius r
and center (a, b) (Figure 12). A point (x, y) lies on this circle if the distance from (x, y)
(x, y)
to (a, b) is r:
r )
b (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r
(a, b)
Squaring both sides, we obtain the standard equation of the circle:

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
x
a
We now review some definitions and notation concerning functions.
FIGURE 12 Circle with equation
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2 .
DEFINITION A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns, to each
element x in D, a unique element y = f (x) in Y . We write
f :D→Y

A function f : D → Y is also called a
“map.” The sets D and Y can be arbitrary.
For example, we can define a map from the
set of living people to the set of whole
numbers by mapping each person to his or
her year of birth. The range of this map is
the set of years in which a living person
was born. In multivariable calculus, the
domain might be a set of points in the
two-dimensional plane and the range a set
of numbers, points, or vectors.
The set D, called the domain of f , is the set of “allowable inputs.” For x ∈ D, f (x) is
called the value of f at x (Figure 13). The range R of f is the subset of Y consisting of
all values f (x):
R = {y ∈ Y : f (x) = y for some x ∈ D}
Informally, we think of f as a “machine” that produces an output y for every input x
in the domain D (Figure 14).
x f f (x)
x Machine “f ” f (x)
Domain D Y Input Output
FIGURE 13 A function assigns an element FIGURE 14 Think of f as a “machine” that
f (x) in Y to each x ∈ D. takes the input x and produces the output
f (x).
The first part of this text deals with numerical functions f , where both the domain
and the range are sets of real numbers. We refer to such a function as f and its value at x
as f (x). The letter x is used often to denote the independent variable that can take on
any value in the domain D. We write y = f (x) and refer to y as the dependent variable
(because its value depends on the choice of x).
When f is defined by a formula, its natural domain is the set of√real numbers x for
which the formula is meaningful.
√ For example, the function f (x) = 9 − x has domain
D = {x : x ≤ 9} because 9 − x is defined if 9 − x ≥ 0. Here are some other examples
of domains and ranges:

f (x) Domain D Range R

x2 R {y : y ≥ 0}
cos x R {y : −1 ≤ y ≤ 1}
y 1
{x : x ̸ = −1} {y : y ̸ = 0}
y = f (x) x+1

f(a) (a, f(a))

The graph of a function y = f (x) is obtained by plotting the points (a, f (a)) for a
Zero of f
in the domain D (Figure 15). If you start at x = a on the x-axis, move up to the graph
x
a c and then over to the y-axis, you arrive at the value f (a). The absolute value |f (a)| is the
FIGURE 15 distance from the graph to the x-axis.
A zero or root of a function f is a number c such that f (c) = 0. The zeros are the
values of x where the graph intersects the x-axis.
In Chapter 4, we will use calculus to sketch and analyze graphs. At this stage, to
sketch a graph by hand, we can make a table of function values, plot the corresponding
points (including any zeros), and connect them by a smooth curve.
 S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 5

E X A M P L E 3 Find the roots and sketch the graph of f (x) = x 3 − 2x.

Solution First, we solve

x 3 − 2x = x(x 2 − 2) = 0
√
The roots of f are x = 0 and x = ± 2. To sketch the graph, we plot the roots and a few
values listed in Table 1 and join them by a curve (Figure 16).
y

4
TABLE 1

x x 3 − 2x − 2 1 1
x
−2 −4 −2 −1 −1 2 2
−1 1
0 0 −4
1 −1
2 4
FIGURE 16 Graph of f (x) = x 3 − 2x.

Functions arising in applications are not always given by formulas. For example,
data collected from observation or experiment define functions for which there may be no
exact formula. Such functions can be displayed either graphically or by a table of values.
Figure 17 and Table 2 display data collected by biologist Julian Huxley (1887–1975) in a
study of the antler weight W of male red deer as a function of age t. We will see that many
of the tools from calculus can be applied to functions constructed from data in this way.

Antler weight W (kg)

8
7
6 TABLE 2
5
t (years) W (kg) t (years) W (kg)
4
3 1 0.48 7 5.34
2 2 1.59 8 5.62
1 3 2.66 9 6.18
0 4 3.68 10 6.81
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 5 4.35 11 6.21
Age t (years) 6 4.92 12 6.1
FIGURE 17 Male red deer shed their
antlers every winter and regrow them in
the spring. This graph shows average
antler weight as a function of age.

y We can graph not just functions but, more generally, any equation relating y and x.
Figure 18 shows the graph of the equation 4y 2 − x 3 = 3; it consists of all pairs (x, y)
satisfying the equation. This curve is not the graph of a function because some x-values
1 are associated with two y-values. For example, x = 1 is associated with y = ±1. A curve
(1, 1)
is the graph of a function if and only if it passes the Vertical Line Test; that is, every
x vertical line x = a intersects the curve in at most one point.
−1 1 We are often interested in whether a function is increasing or decreasing. Roughly
(1, −1)
−1 speaking, a function f is increasing if its graph goes up as we move to the right and is
decreasing if its graph goes down [Figures 19(A) and (B)]. More precisely, we define the
notion of increase/decrease on an open interval.

FIGURE 18 Graph of 4y 2 − x 3 = 3. This

graph fails the Vertical Line Test, so it is A function f is:
not the graph of a function.
• increasing on (a, b) if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ (a, b) such that x1 < x2 .
• decreasing on (a, b) if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ (a, b) such that x1 < x2 .
6 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW

We say that f is monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing. In Figure 19(C), the

function is not monotonic because it is neither increasing nor decreasing for all x.
A function f is called nondecreasing if f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) for x1 < x2 (defined by ≤
rather than a strict inequality <). Nonincreasing functions are defined similarly. Function
(D) in Figure 19 is nondecreasing, but it is not increasing on the intervals where the graph
is horizontal. Function (E) is increasing everywhere even though it levels off momentarily.
y y y y y

x x x x x
a b

(A) Increasing (B) Decreasing (C) Decreasing on (a, b) (D) Nondecreasing but not (E) Increasing
but not decreasing increasing
everywhere
FIGURE 19
Another important property is parity, which refers to whether a function is even or
odd:

• f is even if f (−x) = f (x)

• f is odd if f (−x) = −f (x)

The graphs of functions with even or odd parity have a special symmetry:
• Even function: Graph is symmetric about the y-axis. This means that if P = (a, b)
lies on the graph, then so does Q = (−a, b) [Figure 20(A)].
• Odd function: Graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. This means that if
P = (a, b) lies on the graph, then so does Q = (−a, −b) [Figure 20(B)].
Many functions are neither even nor odd [Figure 20(C)].
y
y
y
(−a, b) b (a, b)
b (a, b)
−a
x x x
−a a a
(− a, −b) −b

(A) Even function: f (− x) = f (x) (B) Odd function: f (− x) = − f(x) (C) Neither even nor odd
Graph is symmetric Graph is symmetric
about the y-axis. about the origin.
FIGURE 20

E X A M P L E 4 Determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither.

(a) f (x) = x 4 (b) g(x) = x −1 (c) h(x) = x 2 + x
Solution
(a) f (−x) = (−x)4 = x 4 . Thus, f (x) = f (−x), and f is even.
(b) g(−x) = (−x)−1 = −x −1 . Thus, g(−x) = −g(x), and g is odd.
(c) h(−x) = (−x)2 + (−x) = x 2 − x. We see that h(−x) is not equal to h(x) or to
−h(x) = −x 2 − x. Therefore, h is neither even nor odd.

1
E X A M P L E 5 Using Symmetry Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x2 +1
Solution The function f is positive [f (x) > 0] and even [f (−x) = f (x)]. Therefore,
the graph lies above the x-axis and is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Furthermore,
 S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 7

f is decreasing for x ≥ 0 (because a larger value of x makes the denominator larger). We

use this information and a short table of values (Table 3) to sketch the graph (Figure 21).
Note that the graph approaches the x-axis as we move to the right or left because f (x)
gets closer to 0 as |x| increases.

TABLE 3

1 y
x
x2 + 1 1
1
f (x) =
x2 + 1
0 1
±1 1
2
±2 1 x
5 −2 −1 1 2
FIGURE 21

Two important ways of modifying a graph are translation (or shifting) and scaling.
Translation consists of moving the graph horizontally or vertically:

Remember that f (x) + c and f (x + c) DEFINITION Translation (Shifting)

are different. The graph of y = f (x) + c
is a vertical translation and y = f (x + c)
a horizontal translation of the graph of
y = f (x).
• Vertical translation y = f (x) + c: Shifts the graph by |c| units vertically, upward
if c > 0 and downward if c < 0.
• Horizontal translation y = f (x + c): Shifts the graph by |c| units horizontally,
to the right if c < 0 and c units to the left if c > 0.

Figure 22 shows the effect of translating the graph of f (x) = 1/(x 2 + 1) vertically and
horizontally.
y y y
Shift 1 unit
2 2
upward Shift 1 unit 2
to the left
1 1 1

x x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2 −3 −2 −1 1

1 1 1
(A) y = f (x) = (B) y = f (x) + 1 = +1 (C) y = f (x + 1) =
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 (x + 1)2 + 1
FIGURE 22

E X A M P L E 6 Figure 23(A) is the graph of f (x) = x 2 , and Figure 23(B) is a horizontal

and vertical shift of (A). What is the equation of graph (B)?
y y
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

x x
−2 −1 1 2 3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 −1

(A) f (x) = x2 (B)

FIGURE 23

Solution Graph (B) is obtained by shifting graph (A) 1 unit to the right and 1 unit down.
We can see this by observing that the point (0, 0) on the graph of f is shifted to (1, −1).
Therefore, (B) is the graph of g(x) = (x − 1)2 − 1.
8 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW

y Scaling (also called dilation) consists of compressing or expanding the graph in the
y = f (x) vertical or horizontal directions:
2
1
x DEFINITION Scaling
• Vertical scaling y = kf (x): If k > 1, the graph is expanded vertically by the factor
−2 k. If 0 < k < 1, the graph is compressed vertically. When the scale factor k is
negative (k < 0), the graph is also reflected across the x-axis (Figure 24).
−4 • Horizontal scaling y = f (kx): If k > 1, the graph is compressed in the horizontal
y = −2 f (x)
direction. If 0 < k < 1, the graph is expanded. If k < 0, then the graph is also
FIGURE 24 Negative vertical scale factor
reflected across the y-axis.
k = −2.

The amplitude of a function is half the difference between its greatest value and its
least value, if it has both a greatest value and least value. Thus, vertical scaling changes
the amplitude by the factor |k|.

E X A M P L E 7 Sketch the graphs of f (x) = sin(π x) and its dilates f (3x) and 3f (x).
Solution The graph of f (x) = sin(π x) is a sine curve with period 2. It completes one
cycle over every interval of length 2—see Figure 25(A). It has amplitude 1.
• The graph of f (3x) = sin(3π x) is a compressed version of y = f (x), completing
three cycles instead of one over intervals of length 2 [Figure 25(B)]. It also has
amplitude 1.
• The graph of y = 3f (x) = 3 sin(π x) differs from y = f (x) only in amplitude: It
is expanded in the vertical direction by a factor of 3 [Figure 25(C)], so its amplitude
is 3.

y
3

y y 2

1 1 1

1 2 3 4 x 1 2 3 4x 1 2 3 4x
−1 −1 −1
One cycle Three cycles −2

−3

FIGURE 25 Horizontal and vertical (A) y = f (x) = sin(πx) (B) Horizontal compression: (C) Vertical expansion:
scaling of f (x) = sin(π x). y = f (3x) = sin(3πx) y = 3 f (x) = 3sin(πx)

1.1 SUMMARY
!
a if a ≥ 0
• Absolute value: |a| =
−a if a < 0
• Triangle inequality: |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
• Four intervals with endpoints a and b:

(a, b), [a, b], [a, b), (a, b]

• Writing open and closed intervals using inequalities:

(a, b) = {x : |x − c| < r}, [a, b] = {x : |x − c| ≤ r}

where c = 12 (a + b) is the midpoint and r = 12 (b − a) is the radius.

 S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 9

• Distance d between (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ):

)
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

• Equation of circle of radius r with center (a, b):

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
• A zero or root of a function f is a number c such that f (c) = 0.
• Vertical Line Test: A curve in the plane is the graph of a function if and only if each
vertical line x = a intersects the curve in at most one point.
Increasing: f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) if x1 < x2
Nondecreasing: f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) if x1 < x2
•
Decreasing: f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) if x1 < x2
Nonincreasing: f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) if x1 < x2
• Even function: f (−x) = f (x) (graph is symmetric about the y-axis).
• Odd function: f (−x) = −f (x) (graph is symmetric about the origin).
• Four ways to transform the graph of f :

f (x) + c Shifts graph vertically |c| units (upward if c > 0, downward if c < 0)
f (x + c) Shifts graph horizontally |c| units (to the right if c < 0, to the left if c > 0)
kf (x) Scales graph vertically by factor k;
if k < 0, graph is reflected across x-axis
f (kx) Scales graph horizontally by factor k (compresses if k > 1);
if k < 0, graph is reflected across y-axis

1.1 EXERCISES
Preliminary Questions
1. Give an example of numbers a and b such that a < b and |a| > |b|. 6. In which quadrant do the following points lie?
(a) (1, 4) (b) (−3, 2) (c) (4, −3) (d) (−4, −1)
2. Which numbers satisfy |a| = a? Which satisfy |a| = −a? What
about |−a| = a? 7. What is the radius of the circle with equation
(x − 7)2 + (y − 8)2 = 9?
3. Give an example of numbers a and b such that
8. The equation f (x) = 5 has a solution if (choose one):
|a + b| < |a| + |b|.
(a) 5 belongs to the domain of f .
4. Are there numbers a and b such that |a + b| > |a| + |b|? (b) 5 belongs to the range of f .

9. What kind of symmetry does the graph have if f (−x) = −f (x)?

5. What are the coordinates of the point lying at the intersection of
the lines x = 9 and y = −4? 10. Is there a function that is both even and odd?

Exercises
1. Use a calculator to find a rational number r such that In Exercises 9–12, write the inequality in the form a < x < b.
|r − π 2 | < 10−4 .
9. |x| < 8 10. |x − 12| < 8
2. Which of (a)–(f) are true for a = −3 and b = 2?
(a) a < b (b) |a| < |b| (c) ab > 0 11. |2x + 1| < 5 12. |3x − 4| < 2
1 1 In Exercises 13–18, express the set of numbers x satisfying the given
(d) 3a < 3b (e) −4a < −4b (f) <
a b condition as an interval.
In Exercises 3–8, express the interval in terms of an inequality involving
13. |x| < 4 14. |x| ≤ 9
absolute value.

3. [−2, 2] 4. (−4, 4) 5. (0, 4) 15. |x − 4| < 2 16. |x + 7| < 2

6. [−4, 0] 7. [1, 5] 8. (−2, 8) 17. |4x − 1| ≤ 8 18. |3x + 5| < 1

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 Take of—Carbonate of Magnesia,
Milk of sulphur, of each, three drachms;

Mix.—To make nine powders. One to be taken early every, or every other
morning, mixed in half a teaspoonful of new milk.
315. Remember, in these cases, it is necessary to keep the motions
in a softened state, as hard lumps of stool would, in passing, give
intense pain.
316. If the confection of senna and the other remedies do not act
sufficiently, it may be well to give, once or twice a week, a
teaspoonful or a dessertspoonful of castor oil.
317. In piles, if they are not much inflamed, and provided there be
constipation, a pint of tepid water, administered early every morning
as an enema, will be found serviceable. Care and gentleness ought, of
course, to be observed in introducing the enema pipe (but which only
requires ordinary care), in order not to press unduly on the
surrounding piles.
318. The patient ought to lie down frequently in the day. She will
derive great comfort from sitting either on an air-cushion or on a
water-cushion about half filled with water, placed on the chair; for
sometimes she is unable to sit on an ordinary seat.
319. In piles, the patient ought to live on a plain, nourishing,
simple diet, but should avoid all stimulants; any food or beverage
that will inflame the blood will likewise inflame the piles.
320. Piles in pregnancy are frequently troublesome, and
sometimes resist all treatment until the patient is confined, when
they generally get well of themselves; but still the remedies
recommended above will usually afford great relief, even if they do
not effect a cure.
321. Swollen legs from enlarged veins (varicose veins).—The veins
are frequently much enlarged and distended, causing the legs to be
greatly swollen and very painful, preventing the patient from taking
proper walking exercise. Swollen legs are owing to the pressure of the
womb upon the blood-vessels above. Women who have had large
families are more liable to varicose veins than others. If a lady marry
late in life, or if she be very heavy in her pregnancy—carrying the
child low down—she is more likely to have the veins to distend.
 322. The best plan will be for her to wear an elastic silk stocking,[65]
which ought to be made on purpose for her, in order that it may
properly fit the leg and foot. It will draw on like a common stocking.
She ought to wear a gauze stocking next the skin, and the elastic
stocking over it, as the gauze stocking can then, from time to time, be
washed, as can likewise the foot and leg. Moreover, the gauze
stocking will be more comfortable next the skin than the elastic
stocking.
323. If the varicose veins should be very painful, she had better
apply to a medical man, as it may be necessary, in such a case, to
have them enveloped in mild plasters, and then rolled.
324. If the feet and legs be cold as well as swollen, a domette[66]
bandage, two inches and a half wide and eight yards long, nicely
applied to each leg, from the toes to the knee, will be found a great
comfort. One great advantage that domette has over calico is that it
will keep in its place for days, while calico will be loose in an hour or
two.
325. Stretching of the skin of the belly is frequently, especially in a
first pregnancy, distressing, from the soreness it causes. The best
remedy is to rub the bowels, every night and morning, with warm
camphorated oil, and to apply a broad flannel belt, which should be
put on moderately but comfortably tight. The belt ought to be
secured in its situation by means of properly adjusted tapes.
326. If the skin of the belly, from the violent stretching, be
cracked, the patient had better dress the part affected, every night
and morning, with equal parts of simple cerate and of lard—lard
without salt—well mixed together, spread on lint; which ought to be
kept in its place by means of a broad bandage, similar to the one used
in confinements, and which is described in a subsequent paragraph
(Bandage after Confinements).
321. Pendulous belly.—A lady sometimes, from being at these
times unusually large, suffers severely; so much so, that she cannot,
without experiencing great inconvenience, move about. This, where a
patient is stout, and where she has had a large family of children, is
more likely to occur, and especially if she has neglected proper
bandaging after her previous confinements.
 328. She ought in such a case to procure, from a surgical-
instrument-maker, an elastic abdominal belt, made purposely for
pendulous bellies, which will, without unduly pressing on the belly,
be a support. It is a good plan to have the belt made either to lace
behind or with straps and buckles, in order to accommodate the belly
to its gradually increasing size.
329. If the patient be delicate, and if she has a languid circulation,
she ought, instead of the elastic belt, to apply a broad flannel belly-
band, which should go twice around the bowels, and must be put on
moderately and comfortably tight.
330. The patient, before the approach of labor, ought to take
particular care to have the bowels gently opened, as during that time
a costive state of them greatly increases her sufferings, and lengthens
the period of her labor. I say a gentle action is all that is necessary; a
violent one would do more harm than good.
331. Toothache is a frequent complaint of pregnancy; and I wish to
caution my gentle reader not to have, during the time she is enceinte,
a tooth extracted; miscarriage or premature labor has frequently
followed the extraction of a tooth.
332. If the tooth be decayed, the hollow ought to be filled with
cotton wool, soaked either in oil of cloves, or in equal parts of oil of
cloves and of chloroform, and which should be frequently renewed;
or with what I have found an excellent remedy, a little alum dissolved
in chloroform.[67] A bit of cotton wool placed in the ear of the affected
side will oftentimes relieve the toothache arising from a decayed
tooth. This simple remedy ought always to be tried before resorting
to more active treatment. If the above remedies do not relieve, soak a
small ball of cotton wool in chloroform, and insert it inside the ear,
and let it remain there until the pain be relieved; let it be from time
to time renewed. I have frequently found in toothache the above plan
most efficacious, and to afford relief when other means have failed.
333. Creasote (spirits of tar) is sometimes applied, but of all
remedies it is the worst for the purpose. I have known it, when thus
used, severely injure and decay the whole of the remaining teeth: one
case in particular I remember, of a gentleman who, by the frequent
use of creasote, for the relief of toothache, lost the whole of his teeth!
 334. If the teeth be not decayed, especially if the stomach be
disordered, let an aperient be taken. The state of the bowels ought
always to be attended to, as toothache is frequently relieved, and
when the tooth is not decayed, cured by a dose of opening medicine.
Let the sides of the face be well fomented with hot chamomile and
poppy-head tea, and let a piece of crumb of bread (but not crumbed
bread) be soaked for five minutes in boiling milk, and be frequently
placed inside the mouth, between the cheek and gum; and let a large
hot bread poultice be applied at bedtime to the outside of the face.
335. If the above does not have the desired effect, a piece of brown
paper, the size of the palm of the hand, soaked in brandy, and then
well peppered with black pepper, should be applied outside the
cheek, over the part affected, and kept on for several hours. It ought
from time to time to be renewed. This simple and old-fashioned
remedy will sometimes afford great relief. It is in these cases
preferable to a mustard poultice, as it is less painful, and neither
blisters nor injures the skin.
336. If the pepper plaster does not afford relief, a ginger plaster
should be tried:
Take of—Powdered Ginger,
Flour, of each one tablespoonful;
Water, a sufficient quantity:

To be well mixed together, adding the water drop by drop (stirring it the while)
until it be of the consistence of paste. Let it be applied at bedtime, on linen
rag, outside the cheek, and let it remain on all night, or until the pain be
relieved.
337. If the tooth be not decayed, and if the pain of the face be more
of a neuralgic (tic-douloureux) character, the following pills will
frequently afford great relief:
Take of—Sulphate of Quinine, twenty-four grains;
Powdered Extract of Liquorice, six grains;
Treacle, a sufficient quantity:

To make twelve pills. One to be taken three times a day.

338. The teeth, in pregnancy, are very apt to decay: I have known
several patients, each of whom has lost a tooth with every child!
 339. Morning sickness.—It is said to be “morning,” as in these
cases, unless the stomach be disordered, it seldom occurs during any
other part of the day. Morning sickness may be distinguished from
the sickness of a disordered stomach by the former occurring only
early in the morning, on the first sitting up in bed, the patient during
the remainder of the day feeling quite free from sickness, and
generally being able to eat and relish her food as though nothing
ailed her.
340. Morning sickness begins with a sensation of nausea early in
the morning, and as soon as she rises from bed she feels sick and
retches; and sometimes, but not always, vomits a little sour, watery,
glairy fluid; and occasionally, if she has eaten heartily at supper the
night previously, the contents of the stomach are ejected. She then
feels all right again, and is usually ready for her breakfast, which she
eats with her usual relish. Many ladies have better appetites during
pregnancy than at any other period of their lives.
341. The sickness of a disordered stomach unaccompanied with
pregnancy may be distinguished from morning sickness by the
former continuing during the whole day, by the appetite remaining
bad after the morning has passed, by a disagreeable taste in the
mouth, and by the tongue being generally furred. Moreover, in such
a case there is usually much flatulence. The patient not only feels but
looks bilious.
342. If the stomach be disordered during pregnancy, there will, of
course, be a complication of the symptoms, and the morning
sickness may become both day and night sickness. Proper means
ought then to be employed to rectify the disordered stomach, and the
patient will soon have only the morning sickness to contend against;
which latter, after she has quickened, will generally leave of its own
accord.
343. Morning sickness is frequently a distressing, although not a
dangerous complaint. It is only distressing while it lasts, for after the
stomach is unloaded, the appetite generally returns, and the patient
usually feels, until the next morning, quite well again, when she has
to go through the same process as before.
344. It occurs both in the early and in the latter months of
pregnancy; more especially during the former, up to the period of
quickening, at which time it usually ceases. Morning sickness is
frequently the first harbinger of pregnancy, and is looked upon by
many ladies who have had children as a sure and certain sign.
Morning sickness does not always occur in pregnancy; some women,
at such times, are neither sick nor sorry.
345. A good way to relieve it is by taking, before rising in the
morning, a cup of strong coffee. If this should not have the desired
effect, she ought to try an effervescing draught:
Take of—Bicarbonate of Potash, one drachm and a half;
Water, eight ounces:

Two Tablespoonfuls of this mixture to be taken with one of lemon-juice every

hour, while effervescing, until relief be obtained.
346. A glass of champagne, taken the overnight, I have sometimes
found to be the best remedy, and, if it has the desired effect, it
certainly is the most agreeable.
347. I have known, too, cider, where other things have failed, to
succeed in abating morning sickness.
348. Sometimes, until the whole contents of the stomach be
brought up, she does not obtain relief from her sickness. She had
better, when such is the case, drink plentifully of warm water, in
order to encourage free vomiting. Such a plan, of course, is only
advisable when the morning sickness is obstinate, and when the
treatment recommended above has failed to afford relief.
349. The morning sickness, during the early months, is caused by
sympathy between the stomach and the womb; and during the latter
months by pressure of the upper part of the womb against the
stomach. As we cannot remove the sympathy and the pressure, we
cannot always relieve the sickness; the patient, therefore, is
sometimes obliged to bear with the annoyance.
350. The bowels ought to be kept gently opened, either by a
Seidlitz powder taken early in the morning, or by one or two
compound rhubarb pills at bedtime, or by the following mixture:
Take of—Carbonate of Magnesia, two drachms;
Sulphate of Magnesia, one ounce;
Peppermint water, seven ounces:
 A wineglassful of this mixture to be taken early in the morning, occasionally,
first shaking the bottle.
351. Great attention ought in such a case to be paid to the diet; it
should be moderate in quantity, and simple in quality. Rich dishes,
highly-seasoned soups and melted butter must be avoided. Hearty
meat suppers ought not on any account to be allowed. There is
nothing better, if anything be taken at night, than either a teacupful
of nicely-made and well-boiled oatmeal gruel, or of arrow-root, or of
Arabica Revalenta. Any of the above may be made either with water,
or with new milk, or with cream and water.
352. It is an old saying, and, I believe as a rule, a true one, “that
sick pregnancies are safe,” more especially if the sickness leaves,
which it generally does, after she has quickened. The above remarks,
of course, do not include obstinate, inveterate vomiting, occasionally
occurring in the latter period of pregnancy, and which not only takes
place in the morning, but during the whole of the day and of the
night, and for weeks together, sometimes bringing a patient to the
brink of the grave. Such a case, fortunately, is extremely rare.
Another old and generally true saying is, “that females who have sick
pregnancies seldom miscarry.”
353. Means to harden the nipples.—A mother, especially with her
first child, sometimes suffers severely from sore nipples. Such
suffering may frequently be prevented, if for six weeks or two months
before her confinement, she were to bathe her nipples, every night
and morning, for five minutes each time, either with eau de Cologne,
or with brandy and water, equal parts of each. The better plan will be
to have the brandy and water in a small bottle ready for use, and
putting a little each time into a teacup, using it fresh and fresh. A soft
piece of fine old linen rag should be used for the purpose of bathing.
All pressure ought to be taken from the nipples; if the stays,
therefore, unduly press them, either let them be enlarged or let them
be entirely removed. The nipples themselves ought to be covered
with a soft linen rag, as the friction of a flannel vest would be apt to
irritate them. Let me recommend every pregnant lady, more
especially in her first pregnancy, to adopt either the one or the other
of the above plans to harden the nipples; it might avert much misery,
as sore nipples are painful and distressing; and prevention at all
times is better than cure.
 354. The breasts are, at times, during pregnancy, much swollen
and very painful; and, now and then, they cause the patient great
uneasiness, as she fancies that she is going to have either some
dreadful tumor or a gathering of the bosom. There need, in such a
case, be no apprehension. The swelling and the pain are the
consequences of the pregnancy, and will in due time subside without
any unpleasant result. The fact is, great changes are taking place in
the breasts; they are developing themselves, and are preparing for
the important functions they will have to perform the moment the
labor is completed.
355. Treatment.—She cannot do better than, every night and
morning, to well rub them with equal parts of eau de Cologne and of
olive oil, and to wear a piece of new flannel over them; taking care to
cover the nipples with soft linen, as the friction of the flannel may
irritate them. The liniment encourages a little milky fluid to ooze out
of the nipple, which will afford relief.
356. If stays be worn, the patient should wear them slack, in order
to allow the bosoms plenty of room to develop themselves. The bones
of the stays ought all to be removed, or serious consequences might
ensue.
357. Bowel complaints, during pregnancy, are not unfrequent. A
dose either of rhubarb and magnesia, or of castor oil, are the best
remedies, and are generally, in the way of medicine, all that is
necessary.
358. The diet at such times ought to be simple, small in quantity,
and nourishing. Farinaceous food, such as rice, tapioca, sago, Du
Barry’s Arabica Revalenta, and arrow-root, are particularly
beneficial. Green vegetables and fruits, especially stone fruits and
uncooked fruits, ought to be avoided.
359. The surface of the body—the bowels and feet particularly—
ought to be kept warm. If a lady suffer habitually from relaxation of
the bowels, let her, by all means, wear a flannel vest next the skin.
360. The bladder.—The patient during pregnancy is liable to
various affections of the bladder. There is sometimes a sluggishness
of that organ, and she has little or no inclination to make water.
There is, at another time, a great irritability of the bladder, and she
is constantly wanting to pass urine; while, in a third case, more
especially toward the latter period of the time, she can scarcely hold
her water at all,—the slightest bodily exertion, such as walking,
stooping, coughing, sneezing, etc., causing it to come away
involuntarily; and even in some cases, where she is perfectly still, it
dribbles away without her having any power to prevent its doing so.
361. A sluggish state of the bladder is best remedied by gentle
exercise, and by the patient attempting, whether she want or not, to
make water at least every four hours.
362. Irritability of the bladder.—The patient ought, during the
day, to drink freely of the following beverage:
Take of—Best Gum Arabic, one ounce;
Pearl Barley, one ounce;
Water, one pint and a half:

Boil for a quarter of an hour, then strain, and sweeten either with sugar candy or
lump sugar.
363. The bowels ought to be gently opened with small doses of
castor oil. The patient must abstain from beer, wine, or spirits, and
should live on a mild, bland, nourishing diet.
364. Where the patient cannot hold her water there is not a great
deal to be done, as the pregnant womb by pressing on the bladder
prevents much present relief. The comfort is, as soon as the labor is
over, it will cure itself. She ought frequently in the day to lie down
either on a horse-hair mattress or on a couch. She should drink but a
moderate quantity of liquid, and if she has a cough (for a cough
greatly increases this inability to hold the water), she ought to take
the following mixture:
Take of—Compound Tincture of Camphor, half an ounce;
Compound Spirits of Lavender, half a drachm;
Oxymel of Squills, six drachms;
Water, six ounces and a half:

Two tablespoonfuls of this mixture to be taken three times a day.

365. Fainting.—A delicate woman, when she is enceinte, is apt
either to feel faint or to actually faint away. When it is considered the
enormous changes that, during pregnancy, take place, and the great
pressure there is upon the nerves and the blood-vessels, it is not at
all surprising that she should do so. There is one consolation, that
although fainting at such times is disagreeable, it is not at all
dangerous, unless the patient be really laboring under a disease of
the heart.
366. Treatment.—If the patient feel faint, she ought immediately
to lie down flat upon her back, without a pillow under her head; that
is to say, her head should be on a level with her body. The stays and
any tight articles of dress—if she has been foolish enough to wear
either tight stays or tight clothes—ought to be loosened; the windows
should be thrown wide open; water ought to be sprinkled on her face;
and sal-volatile—a teaspoonful in a wineglassful of water, or a glass
of wine ought to be administered. Smelling-salts must be applied to
the nostrils. The attendants—there should only be one or two present
—should not crowd around her, as she ought to have plenty of room
to breathe.
367. She must, in the intervals, live on a good, light, generous diet.
She should keep early hours, and ought to sleep in a well-ventilated
apartment. The following strengthening medicine will be found
serviceable:
Take of—Sulphate of Quinine, twelve grains;
Diluted Sulphuric Acid, half a drachm;
Syrup of Orange-peel, half an ounce;
Water, seven ounces and a half:

Two tablespoonfuls of the mixture to be taken three times a day.

If she be delicate, a change either to the country, or, if the railway
journey be not very long, to the coast, will be desirable.
368. A nervous patient during this period is subject to palpitation
of the heart. This palpitation, provided it occur only during
pregnancy, is not dangerous; it need therefore cause no alarm. It is
occasioned by the pressure of the pregnant womb upon the large
blood-vessels, which induces a temporary derangement of the heart’s
action. This palpitation is generally worse at night, when the patient
is lying down. There is, at these times, from the position, greater
pressure on the blood-vessels. Moreover, when she is lying down, the
midriff, in consequence of the increased size of the belly, is pressed
upward, and hence the heart has not its accustomed room to work in,
and palpitation is in consequence the result.
 369. The best remedies will be either half a teaspoonful of
compound spirits of lavender or a teaspoonful of sal-volatile in a
wineglassful of camphor julep,[68] or a combination of lavender and
of sal-volatile:
Take of—Compound Spirits of Lavender, one drachm;
Sal-Volatile, eleven drachms:

Mix.—A teaspoonful of the drops to be taken occasionally in a wineglassful of

water.
370. These medicines ought to lie on a table by the bedside of the
patient, in order that they may, if necessary, be administered at once.
Brandy is in these cases sometimes given, but it is a dangerous
remedy to administer every time there is palpitation; while the
lavender and the sal-volatile are perfectly safe medicines, and can
never do the slightest harm.
371. Mental emotion, fatigue, late hours, and close rooms ought to
be guarded against. Gentle out-door exercise, and cheerful but not
boisterous company are desirable.
372. Cramps of the legs and of the thighs during the latter period,
and especially at night, are apt to attend pregnancy, and are caused
by the womb pressing upon the nerves which extend to the lower
extremities. Treatment.—Tightly tie a handkerchief folded like a
neckerchief round the limb a little above the part affected, and let it
remain on for a few minutes. Friction by means of the hand either
with opodeldoc or with laudanum (taking care not to drink it by
mistake) will also give relief. Cramp sometimes attacks either the
bowels or the back of a pregnant woman; when such is the case, let a
bag of hot salt, or a hot-water bag,[69] or a tin stomach warmer filled
with hot water and covered with flannel, or a stone bottle containing
hot water, wrapped in flannel, be applied over the part affected; and
let either a stone bottle of hot water or a hot brick, which should be
incased in flannel, be placed to the soles of the feet. If the cramp of
the bowels, of the back, or of the thighs be very severe, the following
mixture will be serviceable:
Take of—Compound Tincture of Camphor, one ounce;
Dill Water, five ounces:
 A wineglassful of this mixture to be taken at bedtime occasionally, and to be
repeated, if necessary, in four hours.
373. “The whites,” during pregnancy, especially during the latter
months, and particularly if the lady has had many children, are
frequently troublesome, and are, in a measure, owing to the pressure
of the womb on the parts below causing irritation. The best way,
therefore, to obviate such pressure, is for the patient to lie down a
great part of each day either on a bed or on a sofa.
374. She ought to retire early to rest; she should sleep on a horse-
hair mattress and in a well-ventilated apartment, and she must not
overload her bed with clothes. A thick, heavy quilt at these times, and
indeed at all times, is particularly objectionable; the perspiration
cannot pass readily through it as through blankets, and thus she is
weakened. She ought to live on plain, wholesome, nourishing food;
but she must abstain from beer and wine and spirits. The bowels
ought to be gently opened by means of a Seidlitz powder, which
should occasionally be taken early in the morning.
375. The best application will be, to bathe the parts with warm
fuller’s earth and water, in the proportion of a handful of powdered
fuller’s earth to half a wash-hand-basinful of warm water; and the
internal parts ought, night and morning, to be bathed with it. If the
fuller’s earth should not have the desired effect, an alum injection[70]
ought, every night and morning, by means of an india-rubber vaginal
syringe,[71] to be syringed up the parts; or fifteen drops of solution of
diacetate of lead should be added to a quarter of a pint of lukewarm
water, and be used in a similar manner as the alum injection.
376. Cleanliness, in these cases, cannot be too strongly urged.
Indeed, every woman, either married or single, ought, unless special
circumstances forbid, to use either the bidet or a sitz-bath. If she has
not the “whites,” or if she has them only slightly, cold, quite cold
water is preferable to tepid. I should advise, then, every lady, both
married and single, whether she has the “whites” or not, a regular
sitz-bath[72] every morning (except during her “poorly times”)—that
is to say, I should recommend her to sit every morning in the water
(in cold water) for a few seconds, or while she can count a hundred;
throwing the while either a small blanket or shawl over her
shoulders, but having no other clothing on except slippers on her
feet. She should, for the first few mornings, make the water
lukewarm; but the sooner she can use it cold—quite cold—the more
good it will do her.
377. If the above plan were more generally followed, women of all
classes and ages would derive immense benefit from its adoption,
and many serious diseases would be warded off. Besides, the use of
the sitz-bath, after a time, would be a great comfort and enjoyment.
378. Where a lady suffers severely from the “whites,” she ought to
visit the coast. There is nothing in such cases that generally affords
so much relief as the bracing effects of sea-air. Of course, if she be
pregnant, she ought not to bathe in the sea, but should, every night
and morning, bathe the external parts with sea water.
379. When the patient has been much weakened by the “whites,”
she will derive benefit from a quinine mixture[73]—a dose of which
ought to be taken twice or three times a day.
380. Irritation and itching of the external parts.—This is a most
troublesome affection, and may occur at any time, but more
especially during the latter period of the pregnancy; and as it is a
subject that a lady is too delicate and too sensitive to consult a
medical man about, I think it well to lay down a few rules for her
relief. The misery it entails, if not relieved, is almost past endurance.
381. Well, then, in the first place, let her diet be simple and
nourishing; let her avoid stimulants of all kinds. In the next place,
and this is a most important item of treatment, let her use a tepid
salt and water sitz-bath.[74]
382. The way to prepare the bath is to put a large handful of table
salt into the sitz-bath, then to add cold water to the depth of three or
four inches, and sufficient hot water to make the water tepid or
lukewarm. The patient must sit in the bath; her slippered feet being,
of course, out of the water, and on the ground, and either a woolen
shawl or a small blanket being thrown over her shoulders: which
shawl or blanket ought to be the only covering she has on the while.
She should remain only for a few seconds, or while she can count, in
the winter, fifty, or the summer, a hundred, in the bath. Patients
generally derive great comfort and benefit from these salt and water
sitz-baths.
383. If the itching, during the daytime, continue, the following
lotion ought to be used:
 Take of—Solution of Diacetate of Lead, one drachm;
Rectified Spirits of Wine, one drachm;
Distilled Water, one pint:

To make a lotion. The parts affected to be bathed three or four times a day with
the lotion. Or the parts may be bathed two or three times a day with equal
parts of vinegar and water.
384. The external parts, and the passage to the womb (the vagina),
in these cases, are not only irritable and itching, but are sometimes
hot and inflamed, and are covered either with small pimples, or
with a whitish exudation of the nature of aphtha (thrush), somewhat
similar to the thrush on the mouth of an infant; then the addition of
glycerin to the lotion is a great improvement, and usually gives
immense relief. Either of the following is a good lotion for the
purpose:
Take of—Biborate of Soda, eight drachms;
Glycerin five ounces;
Distilled Water, ten ounces:

To make a lotion. The part affected to be bathed every four hours with the lotion,
first shaking the bottle.
Or,
Take of—Solution of Diacetate of Lead,
Rectified Spirits of Wine, of each, one drachm;
Glycerin, five ounces;
Rose Water, ten ounces and a half:

To make a lotion. To be used in the same manner as the preceding one.

MISCARRIAGE.

385. If a premature expulsion of the child occur before the end of

the seventh month, it is called either a miscarriage or an abortion; if
between the seventh month and before the full period of nine
months, a premature labor.
386. There is a proneness for a young wife to miscarry, and woe
betide her, if she once establish the habit! for it, unfortunately, often
becomes a habit. A miscarriage is a serious calamity, and should be
considered in that light; not only to the mother herself, whose
constitution frequent miscarriages might seriously injure, and
eventually ruin; but it might rob the wife of one of her greatest
earthly privileges, the inestimable pleasure and delight of being a
mother!
387. Now, as a miscarriage may generally be prevented, it
behooves a wife to look well into the matter, and to study the subject
thoroughly for herself, in order to guard against her first
miscarriage; for the first miscarriage is the one that frequently leads
to a series. How necessary it is that the above important fact should
be borne in mind! How much misery might be averted; as, then,
means would, by avoiding the usual causes, be taken to ward off such
an awful calamity. I am quite convinced that in the majority of cases,
miscarriages may be prevented.
388. Hence the importance of a popular work of this kind, to point
out dangers, to give judicious advice, that a wife may read, ponder
over, and “inwardly digest,” and that she may see the folly of the
present practices that wives—young wives especially—usually
indulge in, and thus, that she may avoid the rocks they split on,
which make a shipwreck of their most cherished hopes and
treasures.
389. Let it then be thoroughly understood,—first, that a
miscarriage is very weakening—more weakening than a labor; and,
secondly, that if a lady has once miscarried, she is more likely to
miscarry again and again; until, at length, her constitution is broken,
and the chances of her having a child become small indeed!
390. Causes.—A slight cause will frequently occasion the
separation of the child from the mother, and the consequent death
and expulsion of the fœtus; hence the readiness with which a lady
sometimes miscarries. The following are the most common causes of
a young wife miscarrying: Taking long walks; riding on horseback; or
over rough roads in a carriage; a long railway journey; overexerting
herself, and sitting up late at night. Her mind, just after marriage, is
frequently too much excited by large parties, by balls, and concerts.
391. The following are, moreover, frequent causes of a miscarriage:
Falls; all violent emotions of the mind, passion, fright, etc.; fatigue;
overreaching; sudden shocks; taking a wrong step either in
ascending or in descending stairs; falling down stairs; lifting heavy
weights; violent drastic purgatives; calomel; obstinate constipation;
debility of constitution; consumptive habit of body; fashionable
amusements; dancing; late hours; tight lacing; indeed, anything and
everything that injuriously affects either the mind or the body.
392. The old maxim that “prevention is better than cure” is well
exemplified in the case of a miscarriage. Let me, then, appeal
strongly to my fair reader to do all that she can, by avoiding the usual
causes of a miscarriage which I have above enumerated, to prevent
such a catastrophe. A miscarriage is no trifling matter; it is one of the
most grievous accidents that can occur to a wife, and is truly a
catastrophe.
393. Threatening or warning symptoms of a miscarriage.—A
lady about to miscarry usually, for one or two days, experiences a
feeling of lassitude, of debility, of malaise, and depression of spirits;
she feels as though she were going to be taken “poorly;” she
complains of weakness and of uneasiness about the loins, the hips,
the thighs, and the lower part of the belly. This is an important stage
of the case, and one in which a judicious medical man may, almost to
a certainty, be able to stave off a miscarriage.
394. More serious, but still only threatening symptoms of a
miscarriage.—If the above symptoms are allowed to proceed,
unchecked and untended, she will, after a day or two, have a slight
show of blood; this show may soon increase to a flooding, which will
shortly become clotted. Then, perhaps, she begins for the first time
to dread a miscarriage! There may at this time be but little pain, and
the miscarriage might, with judicious treatment, be even now
warded off. At all events, if the miscarriage cannot be prevented, the
ill effects to her constitution may, with care, be palliated, and means
may be used to prevent a future miscarriage.
395. Decided symptoms of a miscarriage.—If the miscarriage be
still proceeding, a new train of symptoms develop themselves; pains
begin to come on, at first slight, irregular, and of a “grinding” nature,
but which soon become more severe, regular, and “bearing down.”
Indeed, the case is now a labor in miniature; it becomes le
commencement de la fin; the patient is sure to miscarry, as the child
is now dead, and separated from its connection with the mother.
396. The most usual time for a lady to miscarry is from the eighth
to the twelfth week. It is not, of course, confined to this period, as
during the whole time of pregnancy there is a chance of a premature
expulsion of the contents of the womb. A miscarriage before the
fourth month is at the time attended with little danger; although, if
neglected, it may forever injure the constitution.
397. There is, in every miscarriage, more or less of flooding, which
is the most important symptom. After the fourth month it is
accompanied with more risk; as the further a lady is advanced in her
pregnancy, the greater is the danger of increased flooding;
notwithstanding, under judicious treatment, there is every chance of
her doing well.
398. A medical man ought in such a case always to be sent for.
There is as much care required in a miscarriage as, or more than, in a
labor.
399. If bearing down, expulsive pains—similar to labor pains—
should accompany the flooding; if the flooding increase, and if large
clots come away; if the breasts become smaller and softer; if there be
coldness, and heaviness, and diminution in the size of the belly; if the
motion of the child (the patient having quickened) cannot be felt; if
there be “the impression of a heavy mass rolling about the uterus
[womb], or the falling of the uterine tumor from side to side in the
abdomen [belly] as the patient changes her position;”[75] and if there
be an unpleasant discharge, she may rest assured that the child is
dead, and that it is separated from all connection with her, and that
the miscarriage must proceed, it being only a question of time. Of
course, in such a case—if she has not already done so—she ought
immediately to send for a medical man. A miscarriage sometimes
begins and ends in a few days—five or six; it at other times continues
a fortnight, and even in some cases three weeks.
400. Treatment.—If a patient has the slightest “show,” she ought
immediately to confine herself either to a sofa or she should keep in
bed. A soft feather bed must be avoided; it both enervates the body
and predisposes to a miscarriage. There is nothing better for her to
sleep on than a horse-hair mattress. She either ought to lie flat upon
her back or should lie upon her side, as it is quite absurd for her
merely to rest her legs and feet, as it is the back and the belly, not the
feet and the legs, that require rest.
401. Let her put herself on a low diet, such as on arrow-root,
tapioca, sago, gruel, chicken-broth, tea, toast and water, and
lemonade; and whatever she does drink ought, during the time of the
miscarriage, to be cold. Grapes, at these times, are cooling and
refreshing.
402. The temperature of the bedroom should be kept cool; and, if
it be summer, the window ought to be thrown open; aperient
medicines must be avoided; and if the flooding be violent, cold water
should be applied externally to the parts.
403. Let me strongly urge upon the patient the vast importance of
preserving any and every substance that might come away, in order
that it may be carefully examined by the medical man.
404. It is utterly impossible for a doctor to declare positively that a
lady has miscarried, and that all has properly come away, if he have
not had an opportunity of examining the substances for himself.
How often has a lady declared to her medical man that she has
miscarried, when she has only parted with clots of blood! Clots
sometimes put on strange appearances, and require a practiced and
professional eye to decide at all times upon what they really are.
405. The same care is required after a miscarriage as after a
labor; indeed, a patient requires to be treated much in the same
manner—that is to say, she ought for a few days to keep her bed, and
should live upon the diet I have recommended after a confinement,
avoiding for the first few days stimulants of all kinds. Many women
date their ill state of health to a neglected miscarriage; it therefore
behooves a lady to guard against such a catastrophe.
406. A patient prone to miscarry, ought, before she become
pregnant again, to use every means to brace and strengthen her
system. The best plan that she can adopt will be TO LEAVE HER
HUSBAND FOR SEVERAL MONTHS, and go to some healthy spot; neither to
a fashionable watering-place nor to a friend’s house, where much
company is kept, but to some quiet country place; if to a healthy
farm-house so much the better.
407. Early hours are quite indispensable. She ought to lie on a
horse-hair mattress, and should have but scant clothing on the bed.
She must sleep in a well-ventilated apartment. Her diet should be
light and nourishing. Gentle exercise ought to be taken, which should
alternate with frequent rest.
 408. Cold ablutions ought every morning to be used, and the body
should be afterward dried with a coarse cloth. If it be winter, let the
water be made tepid and let its temperature be gradually lowered
until it be used quite cold. A shower-bath is, in these cases,
serviceable; it braces and invigorates the system, and is one of the
best tonics that she can use.
409. If she be already pregnant it would not be admissible, as the
shock of the shower-bath would be too great, and may bring on a
miscarriage; but still she ought to continue the cold ablutions.
410. A lady who is prone to miscarry, ought, as soon as she is
pregnant, to lie down a great part of every day; she must keep her
mind calm and unruffled; she should live on a plain diet; she ought
to avoid wine and spirits and beer; she should retire early to rest,
and she must have a separate sleeping apartment. She ought as
much as possible to abstain from taking opening medicine; and if she
be actually obliged to take an aperient—for the bowels must not be
allowed to be constipated—she should select the mildest (such as
either castor oil or lenitive electuary or syrup of senna), and even of
these she ought not to take a larger dose than is absolutely necessary,
as a free action of the bowels is a frequent cause of a miscarriage.
411. The external application of castor oil as a liniment, and as
recommended at page 144, is a good and safe remedy for a patient
prone to miscarry; and if sufficiently active, is far preferable to the
mildest aperient. Another great advantage of the external application
of castor oil is, it does not afterward produce constipation as the
internal administration of castor oil is apt to do. If the external
application of castor oil in the manner advised at page 144 should
not have the desired effect, then an enema—a clyster of warm water,
a pint—ought, in the morning, two or three times a week to be
administered.
412. Gentle walking exercise daily is desirable: long walks and
horseback exercise ought to be sedulously avoided. A trip to the
coast, provided the railway journey be not very long, would be likely
to prevent a miscarriage; although I would not, on any account,
recommend such a patient either to bathe or to sail on the water, as
the shock of the former would be too great, and the motion of the
vessel and the sea-sickness would be likely to bring on what we are
anxious to avoid.
 413. As the usual period for miscarrying approaches (for it
frequently comes on at one particular time), let the patient be more
than usually careful; let her lie down the greatest part of the day; let
her mind be kept calm and unruffled; let all fashionable society and
every exciting amusement be eschewed; let both the sitting and the
sleeping apartments be kept cool and well ventilated; let the bowels
(if they be costive) be opened by an enema (if the external
application of castor oil, as before recommended, be not sufficient);
let the diet be simple and yet be nourishing; let all stimulants, such
as beer, wine, and spirits, be at this time avoided; and if there be the
slightest symptoms of an approaching miscarriage, such as pains in
the loins, in the hips, or in the lower belly, or if there be the slightest
show of blood, let a medical man be instantly sent for, as he may, at
an early period, be able to ward off the threatened mishap.

FALSE LABOR PAINS.

414. A lady, especially in her first pregnancy, is sometimes

troubled with spurious labor pains; these pains usually come on at
night, and are frequently owing to a disordered stomach. They affect
the belly, the back, and the loins; and occasionally they extend down
the hips and the thighs. They attack first one place and then another;
they come on at irregular intervals; at one time they are violent, at
another they are feeble. The pains, instead of being grinding or
bearing down, are more of a colicky nature.
415. Now, as these false pains more frequently occur in a first
pregnancy, and as they are often more violent two or three weeks
toward the completion of the full time, and as they usually come on
either at night or in the night, it behooves both the patient and the
monthly nurse to be cognizant of the fact, in order that they may not
make a false alarm and summon the doctor before he is wanted, and
when he cannot be of the slightest benefit to the patient.
416. It is sometimes stated that a woman has been in labor two or
three weeks before the child was born! Such is not the fact. The case
in question is one probably of false pains ending in true pains.
417. How, then, is the patient to know that the pains are false and
not true labor pains? False labor pains come on three or four weeks