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Carbocation
Chemistry
Applications in
Organic Synthesis
NEW DIRECTIONS in
ORGANIC and BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
Series Editor: Philip Page
PUBLISHED TITLES
Activated Metals in Organic Synthesis
Pedro Cintas
The Anomeric Effect
Eusebio Juaristi and Gabriel Cuevas
C-Glycoside Synthesis
Maarten Postema
Capillary Electrophoresis: Theory and Practice
Patrick Camilleri
Carbocation Chemistry: Applications in Organic Synthesis
Jie Jack Li
Chemical Approaches to the Synthesis of Peptides and Proteins
Paul Lloyd-Williams, Fernando Albericio, and Ernest Giralt
Chiral Sulfur Reagents
M. Mikolajczyk, J. Drabowicz, and P. Kielbasinśki
Chirality and the Biological Activity of Drugs
Roger J. Crossley
Concerted Organic and Bio-organic Mechanisms
Andrew Williams
Cyclization Reactions
C. Thebtaranonth and Y. Thebtaranonth
Dianion Chemistry in Organic Synthesis
Charles M. Thompson
Mannich Bases: Chemistry and Uses
Maurilio Tramontini and Luigi Angiolini
Modern NMR Techniques for Synthetic Chemistry
Julie Fisher
Organozinc Reagents in Organic Synthesis
Ender Erdik
Carbocation
Chemistry
Applications in
Organic Synthesis
edited by
Jie Jack Li
University of San Francisco
California, USA
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Contents
Series Preface............................................................................................................vii
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Editor.........................................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
Jie Jack Li
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 195
v
Series Preface
NEW DIRECTIONS IN ORGANIC AND BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
Organic and biological chemistry forms a major division of chemistry research and
continues to develop rapidly, with new avenues of research opening up in parallel
with exciting progress in existing activities. This book series encompasses cutting-
edge research across the entire field, including important developments in both new
and fundamental aspects of the discipline. It covers all aspects of organic and bio-
logical chemistry. The series is designed to be very wide in scope and provides a
vehicle for the publication of edited review volumes, monographs, and “How to”
manuals of experimental practice.
Examples of topic areas would include
Synthetic chemistry
Natural products chemistry
Materials chemistry
Supramolecular chemistry
Electrochemistry
Organometallic chemistry
Green chemistry, including catalysis and biocatalysis
Polymer chemistry
Protein–protein, protein–DNA, protein–lipid, and protein–carbohydrate
interactions
Enzyme/protein mechanism, including cofactor–protein interactions and
mechanisms of action
Pathways in cofactor (including metal) homeostasis
Synthetic biology—the engineering of natural systems toward novel functions
Development of physical methods and tools, for example, new spectroscopic
methods, imaging techniques, and tools
The volumes highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each topic and emphasize
the latest developments emerging from current and recent research. The series is of
primary interest to academic and industrial chemists involved broadly in organic,
materials, biological, and medicinal chemistry. It is also intended to provide research
students with clear and accessible books covering different aspects of the field.
vii
Preface
Carbocation chemistry is one of the most important fields of organic chemistry. Yet,
counter intuitively, the field is not represented by the number of books published.
Indeed, the last book on carbocation chemistry was published a decade ago and the
materials were mostly geared toward specialists in the field.
This book, in contrast, is written by and for synthetic chemists, who are more
interested in how to apply carbocation chemistry in synthesis.
To that end, Chapter 1 summarizes the advancement of our understanding of the
mechanisms of carbocation chemistry during the last decade. Chapters 2 and 3 cover
the SN1 and SN2 reactions, respectively. The implication of carbocation intermedi-
ates for the SN1 reactions is universal, the connection between carbocation interme-
diates and SN2 reactions is somewhat less rigorous. Chapter 4 covers electrophilic
addition to alkenes, and Chapter 5 covers electrophilic aromatic substitution, both of
which are critical to our learning of the fundamentals of organic chemistry. Last but
not least, Chapter 6 entails fragmentation and rearrangement reactions, which have
historically shed much light on the mechanisms of carbocation chemistry and are
now important to synthesis as well. I want to thank all the authors who painstakingly
contributed to this manuscript. I am also indebted to John Hendrix for proofreading
my chapters.
As a consequence, this book is not just for chemists whose expertise is carboca-
tion chemistry. The experts could learn a thing or two from the advancement of
carbocation chemistry in the last decade. More than that, any practitioner in organic
synthesis will find this manuscript helpful in gauging the literature of the last decade.
Therefore, this book is useful to senior undergraduate students, graduate students,
professors teaching organic chemistry, and researchers in pharmaceutical and chem-
ical companies.
Jie Jack Li
San Francisco
ix
Editor
Jie Jack Li is an associate professor of chemistry at
the University of San Francisco. Previously, he was
a discovery chemist at Pfizer and Bristol-Myers
Squibb, respectively. He has authored or edited
over 20 books including C−H Bond Activation in
Organic Synthesis published by Taylor & Francis/
CRC in 2015.
xi
Contributors
Adam M. Azman John W. Lippert III
Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry
Butler University Cyclics Corporation
Indianapolis, Indiana University Place
Rensselaer, New York
Yu Feng
Abide Therapeutics Inc. Sharon Molnar
San Diego, California Department of Chemistry
West Virginia State University
Safiyyah Forbes Institute, West Virginia
Department of Chemistry
University of San Francisco Hannah Payne
San Francisco, California Department of Chemistry
West Virginia State University
Micheal Fultz Institute, West Virginia
Department of Chemistry
West Virginia State University
Institute, West Virginia
Jie Jack Li
Department of Chemistry
University of San Francisco
San Francisco, California
xiii
1 Introduction
Jie Jack Li
CONTENTS
1.1 Nomenclature, Structure, and Stability.............................................................1
1.2 Generation of Carbocations...............................................................................5
1.3 The Nonclassical Ion Controversy.....................................................................6
1.4 Electrophilic Addition to Alkenes.....................................................................8
1.4.1 Addition of Hydrohalides and Acetic Acid...........................................9
1.4.2 Hydration............................................................................................. 10
1.4.3 Addition of Halogens........................................................................... 11
1.4.4 Hydroboration of Olefins..................................................................... 11
1.4.5 Oxymercuration of Olefins.................................................................. 12
1.5 Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution................................................................ 13
1.5.1 Mechanism and Orientation................................................................ 13
1.5.2 Nitration............................................................................................... 17
1.5.3 Halogenation........................................................................................ 18
1.5.4 Friedel–Crafts Alkylation....................................................................20
1.5.5 Friedel–Crafts Acylation..................................................................... 21
1.6 β-Elimination Reactions.................................................................................. 22
1.7 Rearrangement Reactions of Carbocations.....................................................24
1.7.1 Pinacol Rearrangement........................................................................24
1.7.2 Beckmann Rearrangement..................................................................24
1.7.3 Demjanov and Tiffeneau–Demjanov Rearrangement.........................25
1.7.4 Meyer–Schuster Rearrangement..........................................................26
1.7.5 Schmidt Reactions............................................................................... 27
1.7.6 Wagner–Meerwein Rearrangement.....................................................28
References................................................................................................................. 29
1 2
1
2 Carbocation Chemistry
CH3
+ +
+
O N O S PPh
H3C CH3
Ph Ph
Nitronium ion (6) Sulfonium ion (7) Phosphonium ion (8)
But none of the aforementioned -nium ions are as prevalent as carbonium ions.
After all, organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds. As time
passes, the term carbonium ions have been largely replaced by the more popular
term, carbocations. This was probably inevitable since carbocation is one word and
carbonium ion are two!
As a matter of fact, initially proposed by Olah2 and later accepted by the IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), the term carbocation encom-
passes two species, one is the carbenium ion, which represents the “classical” tri-
valent ions with CH 3⊕ as the parent, and the other is the carbonium ion, which
represents the “nonclassical” penta- (or higher) coordinate ions with CH 5⊕ as the
parent.
This book titled Carbocation Chemistry will cover both carbonium ions and
carbenium ions. And in this chapter, carbocation and carbenium ion are used inter-
changeably because nearly all of the carbocations mentioned here are carbenium
ions.
Carbocations depicted below as 9, with a cation on the carbon atom, is one of
the important reaction intermediates in organic chemistry. The other intermediates
include carbanions (10), radicals (11), carbenes (12), etc. For a trivalent carbocation,
it is sp2 hybridized with a geometry of trigonal planar and all three bond angles are
120°.
R1 R1 R1 R1
+ –
C C C C
R2 R2 R2 R2 R2 R2
R2
Carbocation (9) Carbanion (10) Free radical (11) Carbene (12)
The stability of a carbocation is determined by its structure: the more alkyl sub-
stituents, the more stable. For tertiary (3°), secondary (2°), primary (1°), and methyl
carbocations, their corresponding stability may be explained using the concept of
hyperconjugation, which refers to the donation of a pair of bonding electrons into an
unfilled or partially filled orbital. As depicted by ethyl cation (13), the two bonding
Introduction 3
electrons of the C–H σ-bond adjacent to the carbocation may donate part of its elec-
tron cloud to the carbocation’s empty p orbital. As a consequence, cation 13 is more
stabilized than it would if the α C–H bond did not exist. In all, ethyl cation 13 has
three α C–H bonds, thus three hyperconjugations (a short hand to describe three pos-
sibilities of having hyperconjugation).
H +
H
C C
H H
H
13
H
H H H
CH3 H
+ +
+ C
C C H3C H C
H3C CH3 H3C H H H
18 19 20 21 22
996 1030 1070 1200 1230 kJ/mol
Since a lower dissociation energy correlates to a more stable cation, benzyl cat-
ion (18) is more stable than cyclopentyl cation (19). This coincides with the number
of resonance structures that we can draw: five for benzyl cation (18) and three for
cyclopentyl cation (19). The allylic cation (20) is the least stable of the trio because
it only has two resonance structures. There is no additional resonance structure for
both ethylene cation (21) and benzene cation (22).
+
+
+ +
+
+
19-1 19-2 19-3
20-1 20-2
+
CH2 +
+ CH2
14 18 20
According to the dissociation energies in gas phase shown below,3,4 the stability
of the t-butyl cation (14) is greater than those of benzyl cation (18) and allylic cation
(20). This is probably the interplay among all three factors including resonance,
hyperconjugation, and inductive effects, especially the electron-donating effect of
the three methyl groups.
Introduction 5
Conc. H2SO4 +
OH
Under the influence of a strong protic acid, trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), secondary
alcohol 23 readily dehydrates to form a secondary carbocation 24.6
OH + H
H CF3CO2H
23 24
SbF5
+
SO2ClF
Cl
25 26
R R H
+ R R
H +
R R R R
27 28
+
H +
H
29 30
H H
+ –
Ph3C ClO4
+
CH3CN, 0°C
60%
31 32
+ OBs +
+
+ H
Equilibrating classical Nonclassical
carbonium ion 21 22 carbonium ion 23
H 22′
OBs
O –H
AcOH AcO
OBs
75°C +
–H
+ H 25
H
22 23 OAc
24 H
Brown at Purdue was the future Nobel Laureate in chemistry in 1979 for organo-
boron chemistry. In the 1950s, he strongly disagreed with the existence of the “non-
classical” ion intermediate. He insisted on a rapid equilibrium between the two
classical carbocation forms facilitated via the Wagner–Meerwein rearrangement.13,14
The exo- and endo-rate ratios were attributed to steric effects, as strain caused
endo-isomers to exhibit more hindrance to ionization. Finally, Brown criticized the
bridged intermediate model for not providing sufficient electrons for all bonds.
The controversy became increasing vitriolic and personal. In 1954, Brown
referred to Winstein as spicy peppers by writing “The Southwest must have a similar
effect on the fauna of the region.”15 Winstein was less subtle, in reference to Brown
in 1969, he said “That man is nothing but a shyster of a lawyer.”16
In 1983, Olah, Saunders, and Schleyer were able to identify the intermediate as
indeed the methylene-bridged nonclassical carbonium form of the norbornyl cation
at low temperature. This was demonstrated through extensive spectroscopic analy-
sis, including 1H- and 13C-NMR, Raman, ESCA (electron spectroscopy for chemical
analysis), and further physical and kinetic studies.17 Olah went on to win the 1994
Nobel Prize in chemistry for “his contributions to carbocation chemistry.”
In 2013, Schleyer and colleagues obtained the long-sought x-ray crystallographic
proof of the bridged nonclassical geometry of the 2-norbornyl carbonium ion 23 salt.18
8 Carbocation Chemistry
The salt crystals were obtained by reacting norbornyl bromide with aluminum tri-
bromide in CH2B2 at 86 K and then crystallization took place at 40 K.
Other important nonclassical ions are 26–29.19
+ +
26 27 28 29
H Me Cl H
Me
Slow O: :O
Cl H + H
Bu RDS
Et Bu Et
Stepwise
30 31
–
Cl Me Me
H
+ O HO + HCl
H Bu Bu
Et Et
A mixture of enantiomers
32 33
In the 1950s, Winstein et al.23,24 discovered that the real SN1 mechanism is
more complex than the Hughes–Ingold mechanism shown above. They observed
Introduction 9
significant solvent effects during solvolysis of neutral substrates. It turns out that
for substrate 34 to convert to a “free” carbocation 37, 34 needs to form an “intimate
ion pair” (IIP, 35) first, which is the RDS. Intimate ion pair 35 is then transformed
to a discreet intermediate 36 as a “solvent-separated ion pair” (SSIP). Since then
on, more refined mechanisms have been proposed,25 but the Winstein’s mechanism
seems to have withheld the test of time.
+ + – + –
– + X
R X R X R X R
34 35 (IIP) 36 (SSIP) 37 38
H X –
X
H H
H
H + H X
39 40 41
While the AdE2 mechanism readily explain the electrophilic addition to alkenes in
polar solvents, the AdE3 (addition-electrophilic termolecular) mechanism27 must be
invoked when the electrophilic addition to alkenes takes place in nonpolar solvents.
Under such circumstances, there is no distinctive carbocation intermediate: rather the
reaction goes through a “concerted” mechanism with transition state 42. This mecha-
nism could be viewed as the reverse of the E2 mechanism from 41 to give olefin 39.
X H H
H
H X
X H
39 42 41
HBr + Br
–
Br
H H
42 43 44
1.4.2 Hydration
The acid-catalyzed hydration of olefins gives rise to alcohols whereas hydration of
alkynes gives rise to ketones.
In the presence of a catalytic amount of protic acid HX, hydration of olefin 39
begins with its protonation to afford carbocation intermediate 40. This step is slow,
thus the RDS. The combination of 40 with water as a weak nucleophile produces
adduct 45, which delivers the final product as alcohol 46 upon losing a proton. The
last step for deprotonation–protonation is reversible. The regiochemistry follows the
Markovnikov rule.
H X
H2O
H H H H
Slow +
H
H + H OH2 OH
RDS
39 40 45 46
For hydration of terminal alkyne 47, protonation with catalytic protic acid HX
affords vinylic carbocation intermediate 48. Similar to that of an alkene substrate, this
step is also slow and the RDS. Combination with weak nucleophile water produces
intermediate 49, which readily loses a proton to afford enol 50. Tautomerization of
enol 50 takes place promptly to deliver the more stable tautomer ketone 51. The regio-
chemistry generally follows the Markovnikov rule. Modern methodology affords
Introduction 11
many conditions that render functionalization of terminal alkenes and alkynes with
anti-Markovnikov regiochemical outcome as well.28
H X H2O
+
H H2O H
Slow +
R H
RDS
R H R H
47 48 49
HO H O H
H
R H R H
50 51
X–X X
δ+ δ– X2 +
H H
H
–
X
39 π-Complex 52 Halonium ion 53
X X
Anti +
H H
addition X
X–
Nonbridged ion 54 55
R
H2O2 OH
56
R
R B R NaOH
60 57
1.4.5 Oxymercuration of Olefins
Oxymercuration is not widely used in real-world synthesis due to the use of toxic
mercury reagents. However, it has been an excellent teaching tool with regard to the
learning mechanism so a brief summary is presented here.
In addition to hydroboration, Brown also made significant contributions to the oxy-
mercuation of olefins.34 As shown in the scheme below, treatment of olefin 56 gives
rise to organomercury compound 61. The regiochemistry follows the Markovnikov
rule. Therefore, this sequence is also called oxymercuation–demercuration (OM–
DM), which is complimentary to the hydroboration in terms of the regiochemistry.
Hg(OAc)2 OH (1) NaOH OH
R HgOAc H
THF/H2O R (2) NaBH4 R
56 61 62
to form a mercurium ion 63, not unlike the halonium ion 53. Because the R group
is electron donating, a partial positive charge on the carbon α to R as shown in 64
is more stable than on its β position. Nucleophilic ring opening using water would
give rise to oxonium ion 65, which readily loses a proton to produce intermediate 61.
Demercuriation of 61 under basic oxidative conditions is not discussed here but it
most likely involves a reductive elimination step of the mercury hydride intermediate.
– – OAc
δ + δ OAc
AcO δ OAc
+
Hg δ Hg
Hg
+
H
+
H δ
R H H
R H R H
OH2 OH2
56 Mercurium ion 63 64
OAc
H Hg
OH (1) NaOH OH
R H
H O HgOAc (2) NaBH4 H
H R R
H
OH2
65 61 62
+
66-1 66-2 66-3
E
H E
Fast + H+
+
67 68
14 Carbocation Chemistry
While the two-step mechanism involving the σ-complex has been widely accepted,
a three-step mechanism involving a π-complex is also supported by experimental evi-
dence.36–38 The first step is a reversible process where benzene as a π-donor provides
electrons from its π-bonds to the electrophile to form π-complex 69. This step is the
rate-limiting step. The second step is conversion of π-complex 69 to σ-complex 67.
E
H E
E+
E+ +
+ H+
69 67 68
π-Complex σ-Complex
The regiochemical outcome of electrophilic aromatic substitution depends on the
electronic nature of the substituents on the benzene ring. For deactivating groups
(electron-withdrawing groups), monosubstituted benzene gives predominantly meta-
substitutions. On the other hand, ortho- and para-directing groups are mostly acti-
vating groups (electron-donating groups), but some are deactivating groups.39
A deactivating group such as nitro on benzene is predominantly meta-directing.
Other deactivating groups include halides, aldehyde, ketone, acid, ester, amide, sul-
fonic acid, nitrile, ammonium ion, etc. The halides are weak deactivating groups. The
aldehyde, ketone, acid, ester, and amide are moderate deactivating groups. Finally,
nitro, sulfonic acid, nitrile, and ammonium ion are strong deactivating groups.
Let us take a look of the simpler case first with regard to its orientation of electro-
philic aromatic substitution reactions.
–
O + O
N
The nitro group is one of the most powerful deactivating groups. When nitro-
benzene attacks an electrophile E⊕, there are three possible outcomes. One is the
ortho-substitution to give product 70. As shown by the three resonance structures
of the intermediates, the carbocation is highly destabilized because the nitro group
is electron withdrawing. The same scenario is encountered for the intermediates to
produce the para-substitution product 71. In stark contrast, the resonance structures
to generate the meta-substitution product 72 does not place the positive charge right
next to the nitro group, rendering them the most stable among all three possible
outcomes. Therefore, the activation energy (Ea) for meta-substitution is smaller than
that for ortho- and para-substitution, and meta-product 72 is the predominant prod-
uct. However, the Ea leading to meta-substitution product 72 is still higher than that
of benzene because the nitro group is a deactivating group.
The outcome of electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions for a benzene ring
with an electron-donating group is exactly the opposite.
OCH3
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