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Business Leadership and
Market Competitiveness
New Paradigms for
Design, Governance,
and Performance

Andrée Marie López-Fernández

 Business Leadership and Market Competitiveness

“Corporate decision-making is becoming complex as society, business, and ­corporate

governance are triangulated in the global marketplace today. This book puts forth
new dimensions in current business practices for strategic decision making over
the traditional wisdom of managers. The book offers a series of conceptual models
that will lead to a shift in readers’ mindsets. A must read for managers and change
leaders…”.
—Rajagopal, PhD FRSA, Professor and National Researcher,
EGADE Business School, Mexico
 Andrée Marie López-Fernández

Business Leadership
and Market
Competitiveness
New Paradigms for Design, Governance,
and Performance
Andrée Marie López-Fernández
Universidad Panamericana
Mexico City, Distrito Federal, Mexico

ISBN 978-3-030-03346-0    ISBN 978-3-030-03347-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03347-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964416

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
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electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
­publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to
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­institutional affiliations.

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This Palgrave Pivot imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Preface

There is a constant need to find an adequate balance between the thoughts,

concepts, models, and techniques that created the very foundation of
business and new and innovative propositions, in a context of overwhelm-
ing changes in the environment. Some organizational leaders make the
mistake of engaging in business practices on the basis of tradition or
because they are derived from classical theory without considering the
particularities of the current climate.
The volatility of the environment has become a constant variable in
decision making. The speed with which changes occur has significantly
increased in the last two decades; the Internet boom and the emergence
of social media and social networking sites have without doubt been
instrumental in the shaping of the current external conditions as well as
organizational dynamics. For one, current and potential stakeholders have
become much more empowered and assertive in voicing their opinions
and thoughts regarding business practices and tend to do so via social
platforms. Creating a dialogue with them is essential for the achievement
of desired performance as well as growth and development.
The purpose of this book is to present a comprehensive view of the
implications and attributes of business environments. This book provides
insights into business dynamics that provide satisfaction, added value,
and enhanced performance. Competitive paradigms, which are con-
stantly being shifted, and turbulent environmental conditions, which are
a constant today, tend to dictate rather than inform strategic decision
making regarding organization’s status quo and desired outcomes. As
such, there is a need for organizational leaders to re-examine current

v
vi PREFACE

practices. The book intends to provide theoretical contribution in regard

to leadership, corporate governance, collaborator management, perfor-
mance management and organizational design, as well as the relation of
the aforementioned to types of organizations.
Each chapter begins with a discussion on the corresponding organiza-
tional concept on the basis of various definitions developed by practitio-
ners and scholars. Leadership Taxonomy, Chap. 1, begins with a debate on
nature versus nurture in order to determine the fundamentals of the con-
cept. The different styles of leadership, which have been significantly
debated by scholars and practitioners in organizational literature, are pre-
sented so as to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each style for
the achievement of desired performance. The practices of seeding and
implanting leadership are discussed to draw attention to the role of society
in the shaping and development, and relevance of a streamlined ideology
and its association with leadership and followership. Three types of leader-
ship, induced, purposive, and macro and global, are introduced to explain
the new dynamics surrounding the concept in the current conditions.
Induced leadership refers to the effects of the organization’s internal and
external dynamics on the development of leadership, organizational cul-
ture, and performance outcomes. Purposive leadership, which is associ-
ated with the latter, is generated on the basis of particular strategic goals,
while macro and global leadership emerge for global strategic goal achieve-
ment. The final section of the chapter includes propositions regarding the
correlation between the concept of syntality (description of group behav-
ioral traits) and leadership; it discusses its implications on team dynamics,
effectivity, and performance.
Chapter 2, Corporate Governance, offers a discussion on corporate
governance; it is a concept that tends to resonate with current and poten-
tial stakeholders when an organization’s decision making is questioned in
traditional media and, increasingly, in social media. The chapter addresses
the differences among organizations that formally design, implement,
measure, and control corporate governance versus those that steer away
from its formal engagement. Transparent communication, control, and
accountability are discussed as leading attributes of the internal and exter-
nal fit of corporate governance. A model for internal fit, which depicts the
systematic process where corporate goals and collaborators’ personal goals
converge, is presented along with a model which explains how corporate
goals and corporate social responsibility goals relate and correlate, in
alignment with the internal fit. Furthermore, it debates the role of media
 PREFACE vii

participation in accountability and the consequences of its intervention on

stakeholder satisfaction and perception of organizational dynamics by
illustrating the value of social media, particularly social networking sites.
Chapter 3, Performance Management, tackles the issue of organiza-
tional performance and its correlation with individual performance, specifi-
cally based on individual assessments. Without disregarding the importance
of measuring performance, as it is an elemental managerial practice, the
effectivity of traditional individual evaluations is questioned; there ought to
be a better approach to evaluating performance that does not stem from a
coercive standpoint. An analysis of individual evaluation implications for
performance management is included, as well as details of the repercussions
of these assessments on individual and organizational satisfaction, produc-
tivity, and performance. Moreover, this chapter describes the process to
effectively align organizational performance strategic goals with collabora-
tor strategic goal achievement (SGA). And, in order to do so successfully, a
model is proposed to achieve an integral approach to performance manage-
ment on the basis of individual and organization desired performance.
Collaborators are definitely key to the achievement of desired organiza-
tional performance and, therefore, growth and development; as such,
Collaborator Management is examined in Chap. 4. The dialogue of
empowerment describes the characteristics and differences among collab-
orator voice and silence, and effects of openness. A model, 7Ss for collabo-
rator dialogue, is proposed to achieve desired outcomes. Also, the relation
of empowering collaborator dialogue with leadership, and organizational
culture and climate is discussed. The maximization of collaborator MO is
examined for achieving high levels of productivity, increased satisfaction,
perceived added value, and performance; that is, as opposed to forcing
collaborators into the contextually accepted organizational fold. Further,
it evaluates the impact of SGA on collaborators’ well-being, satisfaction,
productivity, and performance, which is also discussed for managerial
implications. Finally, intergenerational collaboration is addressed by ana-
lyzing the negative effects of generational discrimination on individual
well-being, satisfaction, productivity, and performance, as well as that of
the organization.
In the beginning of Chap. 5, Organizational Designing, the first ques-
tion posed is whether to redesign or perish. It includes a discussion on the
advantages and disadvantages of placing emphasis on redesigning as an ad
hoc solution for sustained business growth and development by describing
its association with the intent to adopt organizational design trends, as well
viii PREFACE

as the effects of radical transformation. The effects of keeping up with l­atest

propositions and trends to maintain a “state-of-the-art” organizational
design are evaluated and a model to manage potential shock received by
the turbulent environmental conditions is proposed so organizational lead-
ers can properly design their organization. Finally, a layering approach to
design, as opposed to a radical transformation, is described as an alternative
to achieve desired outcomes in regard to organizations’ particular needs.
The final chapter addresses future directions for organizations. It discusses
key elements that all organizations, regardless of size and line of business,
should tackle in the pursuit of sustained growth and development.
The idea for this book came from analyzing current organizational
decision making as well as trends, which led me to examine whether or not
we are likely to tackle current and future challenges. Thus, as we get pre-
pared to enter the third decade of the twenty-first century, it is only fitting
that we ask the difficult and uncomfortable questions regarding our busi-
ness practices.

Mexico City, Mexico Andrée Marie López-Fernández

October 2018
 Acknowledgments

The process of writing this book has certainly been supported by lively
discussions with colleges, family, and friends. I thank Dr. Rajagopal, my
mentor, for always inspiring me to continue asking questions. I would also
like to thank Renée Valentina for motivating me to speak my mind, and
Federico for his support and love. I express my deepest gratitude to Anita
for her unwavering support, love, and continuous motivation; she has
been instrumental in this realization of this project as well as many others.
I thank Carla for always being a believer and her contagious enthusiasm,
and Victor, my accomplice, for his continuous encouragement to follow
my dreams. This project could not have been completed without you.

ix
 Contents

1 Leadership Taxonomy  1
Defining Leadership   1
Initiating the Debate on Born Leaders   2
Style of Leadership   5
Seeding Leadership  10
Implanting Leadership  12
Induced Leadership  13
Purposive Leadership  16
Macro and Global Leadership  16
Syntality for Effective Leadership  17
References  19

2 Corporate Governance 27
Defining Corporate Governance  27
Governance Formality and Informality  28
Key Corporate Governance Elements  29
Internal Fit  33
External Fit  37
Media Participation in Accountability  39
References  45

xi
xii CONTENTS

3 Performance Management 49
Defining Performance Management  49
Individual Performance Evaluations  50
Integral Performance Evaluations  62
References  67

4 Collaborator Management 71
Defining Collaborator Management  71
The Dialogue of Empowerment  73
Maximizing Collaborator MO  77
Strategic Goal Achievement  81
Generational Collaboration  85
References  88

5 Organizational Designing 91
Defining Organizational Design  91
Redesign or Perish?  94
Keeping Up Is Too Slow  95
Managing Shock Dampers  98
Layering Organizational Design 103
References 107

6 Future Directions111
The Name of the Game: CSR 111
Bringing Consumer Activism into the Fold 113
Swinging for the Fences 114
Challenges Ahead 116
References 116

Index117
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Internal fit of corporate governance 34

Fig. 2.2 External fit of corporate governance 37
Fig. 3.1 Negative effects of individual performance evaluations 62
Fig. 4.1 7Ss for collaborator dialogue 75
Fig. 5.1 Strategic corporate philosophy alignment 93
Fig. 5.2 Shock spring versus shock damper 100
Fig. 5.3 Shock damping model 101
Fig. 5.4 Organizational design layering model 107

xiii
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Brief description of leadership styles 5

Table 2.1 Excerpt of 2017–2018 scandal headlines 32
Table 2.2 Hashtags from 2017 and 2018 scandal tweets 43
Table 3.1 Integral approach to performance management 64
Table 4.1 Current sayings about Millennials in the workplace 86

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Leadership Taxonomy

Leadership is a remarkable attribute; it has been witnessed in the work of

renowned politicians, policy makers, businesspeople, athletes, scholars,
members of the clergy and nobelists, among many others. There have
been so many women and men who have achieved great results, regardless
of the nature of their strategic objectives and goals. Granted, not all have
had the best intentions, and their actions may have been somewhat disap-
pointing and even manifestly unethical; however, their success ultimately
lies in their followers and achievement of effective outcomes. Their legacy
is, in fact, the continuous successes as leaders despite potential contradict-
ing points of view.

Defining Leadership
The concept of leadership, like so many others, has been widely debated by
numerous scholars and practitioners searching for a worthy definition of
the term. As such, it has multiple definitions that vary according to firm
size and core operations, organizational context, environment, and overall
business dynamics. According to Chemers (2014), leadership is a process
by which an individual assists another or others in fulfilling an undertaking
common to all parties interested. It is about influencing others (Yukl 2010)
to attempt to realize a group’s objectives (Terry 1960); thus, managers
ultimately become leaders when they have followers who collaborate with
them in the pursuit of goal achievement. Leadership has been ­considered

© The Author(s) 2019 1

A. M. López-Fernández, Business Leadership and Market
Competitiveness, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03347-7_1
2 A. M. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ

to be a process through which a manager or organizational leader success-

fully defines the path of other individuals (Smircich and Morgan 1982). In
a sense, it refers to managers’ behavior and the manner in which they inter-
act with collaborators (Belias and Koustelios 2015). Therefore, leaders’
actions directly impact collaborators’ behavior and attitude toward the
firm, as well as their performance (Lok and Crawford 2004).
An effective approach to leadership has a positive effect on individual
and organizational performance, cooperation, and degree of collaborator
responsiveness to their leaders. According to Bass (1997), leadership has
been discussed from many perspectives and with various intentions; in
fact, it has been researched; examined; and considered to be behavior,
personality, a means of compliance and to fulfill objectives; infusion of
persuasion, power, influence; and the result of a structure, relationships, as
well as a mixture of the above-mentioned. Therefore, leadership is a
charged word, to say the least, which originates from a series of theories
that have enriched our understanding of the concept and its virtue.

Initiating the Debate on Born Leaders

In the nineteenth century, the “Great Man Theory” dominated discus-
sions about leadership. It was 1840 when historian Thomas Carlyle gave a
series of lectures that would become the book On Heroes, Hero-worship,
and the Heroic in History. He described how the accomplishments of such
heroes are intrinsic, in a way that leaders are destined to succeed as leaders
(Carlyle 1840); therefore, theorizing that leaders are born not made.
Further, the theory suggests that groups or teams are high-performers
because they have the best leader, a Great Man (Borgatta et al. 1954). Skip
forward a couple of decades when sociologist Herbert Spencer described
leadership as a trait influenced by environment and context. In his book
The Study of Sociology (Spencer 1873), he stated that the origin of the great
man is determined by the various elements and aspects that have influ-
enced and caused the very social state in which said individual is found.
Moreover, he argues that as much power and influence an individual may
have to change a nation whereby its structure and actions are modified, it
is equally plausible that the very nation attempting to be changed may, in
fact, influence and impact the individual. The leader, then, is first made by
the society she/he is trying to transform; in a sense, leaders would not
become leaders if a leadership role did not need to be filled. According to
Spencer, leaders are, in fact, made, thus, commencing a leadership debate
 LEADERSHIP TAXONOMY 3

of nature versus nurture. The debate is a draw; discussing leadership

requires acknowledgment of the influence of both viewpoints.
Personality has also been at the center of leadership theory. It is the
Trait Theory that suggests that personality traits have a direct impact on
leadership (Colbert et al. 2012). Although it does not always accurately
differentiate those that are leaders and those that are not (Zaccaro 2007),
there are certain attributes that are considered to be particular to leaders.
In fact, you may find over one million three hundred hits when you
Google Personality traits of leaders. When some say that a person is a natu-
ral leader or born leader it is suggested that they have a certain personality
suitable for a leadership position. Being proactive, working well under
pressure, being forthright, collaborating well with others, and not being
risk averse, are some trait examples. These include elements of a Type A
personality, such as being persistent, highly involved in their work and
hard driving (Caplan and Jones 1975). Type A Behavior Pattern, accord-
ing to Friedman and Rosenman (1974), is defined as an individual’s mul-
tidimensional actions charged with emotion which drive optimal and
prompt accomplishment of objectives against all odds. The description of
relentless drive to efficiently accomplish goals and objectives is undoubt-
edly fit for what may be considered to be an effective leader; however,
although it has been considered to be a performance indicator (Bartkus
et al. 1989; Barling et al. 1996), it is not characteristic of all leaders, both
effective and ineffective.
The effectivity of a leader is visible when she/he adequately aligns her/
his policies and actions with their collaborators’ requirements (Hur 2008).
It is important for collaborators to feel they are working toward their
growth and development as well as that of the firm. Effective leaders also
foster an amicable organizational climate where collaborators can share
attitudes, beliefs, and values (Schneider 1987). They strategically commu-
nicate their expectations regarding the work of the collaborators (Belias
and Koustelios 2015), to fulfill strategic goals and desired performance.
And, not only are they aware of collaborators’ differences (Hersey and
Blanchard 1993) but they also include them in pursuit of organizational
goal fulfillment. However, as much as these traits are commonly associated
with effective leadership, they are not a guarantee of success.
The debate on born leaders has extended to gender, in that many scholars
and practitioners have questioned whether the best leaders are actually women
or men. The 1980s brought forth conversation of the term glass ceiling.
4 A. M. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ

A concept that remains relevant in the discussion of qualified women and the
obstacles and barriers they encountered to attain positions in higher echelons
(Morrison et al. 1987). The reality is that women still remain underrepre-
sented in leadership positions (Adler 1993; Cook and Glass 2014) worldwide.
Ayman et al. (2009) held a study and found that woman leaders were associ-
ated with significantly less performance than their male counterparts, regard-
less of their level of transformational leadership. Furthermore, according to
Ryan and Haslam (2005), women face a glass cliff effect as they tend to be
appointed to leadership positions when the organization endures financial
problems and/or a decreased performance; therefore, they face a more than
challenging context and environment. It is no wonder some workers prefer
not to collaborate with women leaders (Simon and Landis 1989) and distrust
their effectiveness (Bowen et al. 2000; Sczesny 2003).
Many have studied the differences between male and female leaders.
Although differences have been identified, feminine and masculine leader-
ship styles have been said to be less contrasting than one would assume;
meaning that, the differences are quite small (Eagly 2013). That said, the
general notion is that a feminine leadership style is characterized by a dem-
ocratic, relationship-oriented, participatory leader, who is also more of a
transformational than a transactional leader (Bass and Avolio 1994); while
a masculine leadership style is more associated with an autocratic and task-­
related style of leadership (Gardiner and Tiggemann 1999; Eagly and
Johannesen-Schmidt 2001; Van Engen et al. 2001). Under such assump-
tions, (1) all men would be autocratic leaders, which means no empower-
ment, or participation in decision making, and reduced or null innovation
and creativity; (2) all women would be democratic leaders, meaning
empowerment, participation in decision making, and increased innova-
tiveness and creativity; (3) since small firms’ structure is more aligned with
a centralized decision making, most of these firms would be effectively
managed by male leaders; and (4) because decision making in larger firms
is decentralized and even collaborative, these firms would be effectively
managed by female leaders.
While reaching top management and senior positions in large and mul-
tinational enterprises has proved to be difficult to say the least, finding
women entrepreneurs in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) is not
unusual. To be fair, it does not mean that women-owned/managed SMEs
are the majority, rather they are less atypical. However, there are examples
that somewhat contradict common cultural practices. In other words, it is
 LEADERSHIP TAXONOMY 5

suggested that there are certain roles still thought should be strictly per-
formed by women and others by men. Consider the example of taquerías
(taco restaurants) in Mexico; these are mostly small businesses that are par
excellence owned, managed, and run by men. This, of course, includes
preparing and serving meals which is customarily considered a woman’s
responsibility, one of women’s roles in society. Thus, it seems clear that the
optimal style of leadership is not a one-size-fits-all style; it rather depends
on organizational context, environment, and, specially, the characteristics
of the group and its personality.

Style of Leadership
There are many styles of leadership that have been widely discussed by
scholars and practitioners for decades. Table 1.1 includes a brief descrip-
tion of leadership styles that have been previously researched and dis-
cussed. That said, the most commonly discussed leadership styles include
task-oriented, relationship-oriented, autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire,
transactional, and transformational leadership (Bass and Stogdill 1990;
Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt 2001; Nikezić et al. 2012; Ehrhart and
Klein 2001; Tabernero et al. 2009). These styles tend to be associated
with type and/or size of the organization, context, and environment;
moreover, they often determine how collaborators perceive not only lead-
ership, but also their tasks, work environment, and effects of performance.
According to Bass and Stogdill (1990), leadership style is defined as the
different approaches of leaders’ behavior related to their interaction with
team members—collaborators. Meaning that, there is not one style of

Table 1.1 Brief description of leadership styles

Leadership Style Author(s)

Democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership Lewin and Lippitt (1938)

Servant leadership Greenleaf (1977)
Undemocratic leadership Manz and Sims (1989)
Transformational leadership Burns (1978)
Instructional leadership Marks and Printy (2003)
Spiritual leadership Fry (2003)
Participative, supportive, and instrumental leadership Pedraja-Rejas et al. (2006)
Mechanistic and humanistic based leadership Zehir et al. (2011)
Strategic leadership Quong and Walker (2010)
6 A. M. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ

leadership, a one size fits all, but a range of styles. Further, Eagly and
Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) have posited that leadership styles are the
manner in which leaders behave, which remains fairly unchanged.
Therefore, it suggests that leaders are persistent in the manner they accom-
plish objectives. In a sense, leaders tend to maintain a selected style of
leadership unless they are convinced that their approach is no longer
satisfactory.
A leadership style that is task-oriented prioritizes the completion of
tasks and activities by complying with strategic goals and objectives over
most any other aspect; and a leadership style that is relationship-oriented
prioritizes the connections made between leader and collaborators, the
latter’s well-being, satisfaction, and added value, above all else (Blake et al.
1964; Hersey and Blanchard 1993; Ehrhart and Klein 2001; Tabernero
et al. 2009). Supportive leadership prioritizes collaborators’ well-being by
fostering an amicable environment; it is aligned with the accomplishment
of policies, functions, and tasks (Pedraja-Rejas et al. 2006). And a partici-
pative leadership style suggests that leaders’ approach is based on empow-
erment so collaborators are active in decision making.
A democratic style of leadership is participative (Gastil 1994). Decision
making is decentralized enabling collaborators to actively and, in many
cases, proactively participate in decision making; and they are inspired and
motivated by their leaders (Daft and Marcic 2006; Yukl 2010). These
leaders have a considerable amount of power, yet are not dictatorial or
authoritarian (Oparanma 2013); rather, they not only encourage collabo-
rators to partake in the power (Srivastava et al. 2006) but also empower
them. Thus, they intend to positively influence collaborators (Daft and
Marcic 2006). This style of leadership has been found to increase collabo-
rators’ satisfaction, effectivity, and autonomy (Cuadrado et al. 2012).
Because of the continuous encouragement, collaborators are not only pro-
active and participative, but they also tend to exhibit more creativity and
innovativeness. Moreover, they are made aware of the effects of their work
and influence on organizational productivity and performance.
According to Burns (1978), a manager’s leadership style may either
be transactional or transformational. A transactional leadership style is
characterized by a focus on supervision (Odumeru and Ogbonna 2013)
in an effort to effectively accomplish activities and functions in align-
ment with strategic goals and objectives. It is also regarded as a leader-
ship focused on compliance with organizational policies, norms, and
standards (Ng and Sears 2012) that leads to the achievement of desired
 LEADERSHIP TAXONOMY 7

individual and organizational productivity and performance. These

leaders are concerned with collaborators’ well-being and do watch over
the protection of their human rights; however, they are significantly
more concerned with setting objectives, generating added value for
stakeholders, and the maximization of the bottom line (Kanungo 2001;
Aronson 2001). Transactional leadership leans on managerial practices
that revolve around the evaluation of behavior and performance as well
as their reinforcement (Aarons 2006).
These leaders utilize a reward system (Belias and Koustelios 2015) to
promote good behavior and performance (Odumeru and Ogbonna
2013) and punishments to dissuade bad behavior and poor perfor-
mance. Therefore, there is a particular transaction that occurs whereby
the collaborators (1) are compensated for their efforts and (2) are sys-
tematically disciplined and rewarded for their efforts. Due to the above-
mentioned particularities, this style of leadership is often related to a
bureaucratic environment and authority style (Ng and Sears 2012).
With transactional leadership, most everything is a conditioned to
something else. It is more of a quid pro quo situation, which goes from
top-bottom and bottom-up. Leaders condition compensation to desired
outcomes, and collaborators condition productivity and performance to
proper compensation, validation, and recognition. Thus, the relation-
ship between leaders and collaborators is characterized by a somewhat
cold, calculated, and controlling rapport.
A transformational leadership style, on the contrary, is often associated
with more of a democratic leadership style. The focus of this leadership is
on transformation, where collaborators (1) are guided toward self-­
awareness of their work, degree of productivity, and performance, and (2)
are in continuous pursuit of their and the organization’s growth, as well as
the pertinent rewards (Ruggieri and Abbate 2013) for their efforts in
accomplishing favorable outcomes. The relationship between leaders and
collaborators is far from a mere exchange of conditioned results; rather it
is based on a participatory environment. According to Bass and Riggio
(2006), transformational leadership is characterized by the following attri-
butes: idealized influence (II), inspirational motivation (IM), intellectual
stimulation (IS), and individualized consideration (IC). Consequently,
Bass and Stogdill (1990) have posited that this style of leadership is visible
when collaborators’ interests are aligned with those of the leader, they
acknowledge and accept the mission, and seek the good of the group,
team, and organization.
8 A. M. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ

These leaders are aware that constant motivation and encouragement

drives collaborators to increased levels of effectivity and productivity under
various conditions; for instance, according to Faupel and Süß (2018),
transformational leaders can have a significant impact on followers’ behav-
ior during processes of organizational change. Further, collaborators know
that constant improvement of their performance is a result of the leader-
ship’s attention to their individual needs as well as those of the firm.
Managers with a transformational leadership style have a positive influence
on collaborators’ personal and professional development and performance
(Dvir et al. 2002). They “motivate others to do more than they originally
intended and often even more than they thought possible” (Bass and
Riggio 2006); in fact, this style of leadership is financially, emotionally, and
intellectually motivating for collaborators. Followers are compensated and
rewarded for their efforts and outcomes and the protection of their human
rights and dignity is one of the leader’s top priorities (Kanungo 2001;
Aronson 2001). Leaders challenge collaborators intellectually to solve
problems innovatively (Bass and Riggio 2006) which has a positive influ-
ence on their creativity (Avolio et al. 1999; Berson and Linton 2005;
Herrmann and Felfe 2014). Furthermore, collaborators are made aware of
their influence on the organization’s research and development (Elkins
and Keller 2003; Chen et al. 2009). Therefore, collaborators perceive that
they are motivated on various levels and are stimulated not only to comply
with requested tasks, but also to do more than the minimum required.
One of the aims and effects of transformational leaders is the develop-
ment of other leaders; that is, the actual transformation of other individu-
als, team members, and collaborators, from followers to leaders. Therefore,
collaborators working with a transformational leadership style are signifi-
cantly more committed to the organization itself and are more satisfied
(Bass and Riggio 2006) which, in turn, increases their strategic goal
achievement and levels of productivity (Belias and Koustelios 2015), as
well as their effectiveness and individual and organizational performance.
The most adequate and effective leaders are frequently associated with a
transformational leadership style (Bass 1985; Judge et al. 2006). When
other styles of leadership are discussed examples of passive non-effective
leaders arise. That said, the effects of transactional and transformational
leadership styles are well associated because the latter influences the for-
mer (Judge and Piccolo 2004).
Bureaucratic leadership is not participatory and decision making is more
than often centralized. This style of leadership leans on strict s­ tandards and
 LEADERSHIP TAXONOMY 9

rules that collaborators must abide by in order to complete their functions.

Collaborators are not motivated, they excel when following instructions,
and are expected to perform their tasks without asking many questions as
processes and procedures are strictly done by the book. The leader makes all
decisions, that are later dictated to all parties interested, which significantly
reduces collaborator’s creativity and innovativeness. Furthermore, collabo-
rators are focused on individual productivity and are less concerned with
their impact on the organization’s overall performance.
An autocratic style of leadership is described as being highly centralized as
the decision making is solely in the hands of the leader (Bass and Stogdill
1990; De Cremer 2007), which means that the style is non-participatory.
Every task and assignment is dictated; collaborators do as they are told, no
questions asked. In fact, the mere act of asking questions may provoke repres-
sive answers, and swift reprimand. Only one individual, the leader, holds total
power over all decisions; these include the use of coercive measures and,
although less likely, allocation of rewards (Daft and Marcic 2006) for strate-
gic goal achievement or lack thereof. Collaborators are certainly not moti-
vated and inspired; they are not required to be creative or innovative, as that
would mean making waves in a highly standardized environment.
The assumption would be that collaborators prefer to work at an orga-
nization known for its prominent democratic leadership style, to work in
an amicable environment where proactivity and creativity are fostered
through continuous inspiration and motivation. However, such prefer-
ence well depends on the characteristics of collaborators; that is, their per-
sonality traits, method for carrying out tasks and activities, approach to
processes and procedures, and their appreciation for discipline and appren-
ticeship. For instance, an autocratic leadership style may be preferred by
collaborators that are responsive to hierarchical environments that provide
a sense of security (De Hoogh et al. 2015), stability, and confidence in
their work. While some collaborators may prefer a less structured working
environment, others may, in fact, thrive under such circumstances.
The laissez-faire leadership style has been considered to be the depic-
tion of a managers’ lack of responsibility (Bradford and Lippitt 1945) in
their role as organizational leaders. In fact, Hinkin and Schriesheim (2008)
found that this style of leadership is actually well associated with a lack of
leadership, meaning that these leaders avoid supervision functions (Judge
and Piccolo 2004), leading them to the failure of completion of tasks and
activities commonly assigned to organizational leaders. Laissez-faire lead-
10 A. M. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ

ers are not proactive, avoid decision making, and show little to no concern
with collaborators’ individual needs and wants as well as the requirements
of the organization.
Therefore, collaborators receive scant to zero guidance in the fulfill-
ment of strategic goals and objectives which would require them to be
proactive in the design, development and execution of strategic plans.
These leaders may hold power for decision making yet, decide to allocate
it to the collaborators. In other words, collaborators have all power on
decision making and are in charge of business dynamics. Furthermore,
these leaders do not motivate and/or inspire followers; rather, they are
expected to motivate themselves. Incidentally, since collaborators are self-­
motivating, self-supervising, and make all decisions, they are not necessar-
ily followers. Thus, it would seem as though this style requires neither a
leader that leads nor followers, per se.
Skogstad et al. (2007) held a study and found that this style of leader-
ship is akin to a destructive leadership style. This would mean that this
particular style of leadership is irrelevant when debating effectivity among
organizational leaders, as well as their impact on strategic goal achieve-
ment and individual and organizational productivity and performance.
However, some collaborators, just like with all styles of leadership, thrive
while working in an environment with a laissez-faire leadership, where
supervision is a nonissue; for instance, writers, researchers, and scientists
are able to effectively perform in an environment that promotes a laissez-­
faire leadership style.

Seeding Leadership
As a society, we are obstinate on the importance of leadership and on
being a leader; to the extent that from a very young age we are taught that
a big part of being successful is effectively leading a team toward the finish
line. For that matter, there are many instances in which we discover that
not all individuals are intended to be, want to be, or even should be a
leader. The fact is that we tend to view leadership as a recipe where the
ingredients (i.e. traits) are calculated with the aim of producing the same
results each time; by doing so, we neglect to take a person’s individuality
into account.
Not everyone is intended to be a leader. Some simply do not have the
traits commonly associated with leadership which is not a negative
 LEADERSHIP TAXONOMY 11

r­ eflection on their abilities nor does it diminish their contribution to goal

achievement. Instead of encouraging individuals to nurture their innate
talents and develop skills and competencies within the bounds of their
capabilities, we tend to push a good leader agenda; that is, the right and
effective way to lead others. This, undoubtedly, causes frustration in both
the struggling leader and those she/he is attempting to lead.
Not everyone wants to be a leader. Consider a person who is told that
she/he has a talent for leadership and is perfect to lead others, yet never
takes on a leadership position or decides against it. In such cases having
personality traits fit for a leadership position is no guarantee that the per-
son will become a leader. Not every person who is proactive, goal oriented
and not risk averse is qualified or desires to undertake a task such as guid-
ing others toward the achievement of goals and objectives. There are many
reasons why people skilled to be a leader choose not to be (Goffee and
Jones 2006), and compelling an individual that, although capable, does
not wish to lead others is a disservice to them and potential followers.
Not everyone should be a leader. Not everyone can be the coach of a
sports team, the president or prime minister of a nation, or the Secretary
General of the United Nations and, for that matter, not everybody should
be. For instance, it is possible to be a good enough leader of a successful
business and, yet, be an incompetent Chief of State. This exemplifies how
even good leaders do not always produce good results (Goffee and Jones
2006). Having certain leadership traits and/or respectable past results as a
leader does not ensure that a person will be an effective leader in the future
or in different realms; in fact, the results of insisting that a person be a
leader when they ought not to be can be catastrophic.
In learning that becoming a good leader is synonymous with success,
we forget the value of being a follower. On the one hand, this suggests
that a person transcends and grants true meaning to their professional
lives, if not also personal, by becoming a successful leader. On the other
hand, none of the mentioned leaders, along with many more, are success-
ful without the effective and continuous collaboration of their followers.
It is clear that a team requires good leadership as much as the latter
requires effective collaborators (Chemers 2014); therefore, why not del-
egate efforts toward the development of skilled followers that enrich a
leader’s results and enhance the team’s performance? It does not mean
that leadership skills should not be instilled; on the contrary, they should
be encouraged yet not forced upon those that are not intended to be,
want to be, or should be leaders.
12 A. M. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ

Implanting Leadership
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, one of the characteristics of transfor-
mational leadership is the leader’s efforts to continuously motivate col-
laborators to not only fulfill their tasks effectively but also be creative,
innovative, and proactive. In this sense, leaders are able to develop stream-
lined ideologies that are intended to seep through the organization and
directly impact individual, team, and organizational performance.
Implanting leadership requires a leader with a clear vision of what she/
he aims to achieve, what the finish line should look like, and a mission
describing how members should reach the finish line. Meaning that, the
first step in implanting leadership involves developing and implementing
strategic goals and objectives, and a strategic plan to accomplish them.
Then, the leader creates and executes a philosophy that encompasses val-
ues, beliefs, principles, norms, policies, and standards that dictate the
manner in which members’ behavior and attitude toward the vision and
mission ought to be. By doing so, organizational direction is clarified by a
streamlined ideology.
Take Vincent Thomas Lombardi as an example. He successfully led the
Green Bay Packers to win five World Championships and two Super Bowls
(Lombardi 2001). He has gone down in history as one of the best leaders
because of his inspirational and motivational approach to leadership. In
Lombardi’s famous speech on leadership he said that leaders are made
through continuous effort and hard work in order to account for success
(Lombardi 2001). He recognized that there are certain attributes which a
person must embody in order to become an effective leader, in that leader-
ship is nurtured by a mixture of talents and qualities. He created an ideol-
ogy that described winning as a habit and victory as only the moment
when a person has worked their heart out and lies exhausted on the field of
battle (Lombardi 2001). His ideology of what a team should do and how
it must be done is as celebrated as his inspirational speeches; he transmit-
ted his expertise through them which not only made him one of the great-
est leaders ever but also led a high-performing team to success.
SMEs and particularly family businesses are also associated with the
practice of implanting leadership. In reference to SMEs, owners bring
forth their ideology and, because of the shorter distance between them
and collaborators, they are able to effectively transmit it and ensure its
execution throughout the organization. Family businesses have a certain
familiness, the organization’s individuality (Habbershon and Williams
 LEADERSHIP TAXONOMY 13

2000), that dictates the organization’s ideology and permeates its business
dynamics. In both cases, the ideology is implanted through the owners’
leadership which is, in turn, experienced through the organization’s cor-
porate culture.

Induced Leadership
In many cases, leadership is influenced by internal factors as much as by
external factors that surround and affect the organization. These factors
not only delineate the leadership style but also impact decision making and
individual, team, and organizational performance. Contingency leadership
theories suggest that there is no sole way to lead others meaning that,
leadership style is based on context, environment, and is situational
(Horner-Long and Schoenberg 2002). These are the it depends theories;
leadership styles are adopted in accordance with the requirements of given
circumstances, strategic goals, and desired performance. Further, the lead-
ership style might depend on a team’s characteristics and the members
she/he is leading; and, style may also vary with the size of the organization
and line of business.
There are various points of view regarding organization size, the style
of leadership and their performance, including the fact that there are
diverse variables associated with size that may be equally relevant to lead-
ership, decision making, and performance (Hart and Banbury 1994); fur-
ther, industrial characteristics determine organizational strategic behavior
as much as organizational size impacts the latter (Dean et al. 1998).
Therefore, there may be aspects that prove to be more challenging for
smaller firms than that for larger firms; and, vice versa, some strengths for
larger, multinational organizations turn out being areas of opportunity for
smaller ones. Organizational leaders from larger firms place emphasis on
the abilities and skills to effectively and swiftly react when decisions have
been made (Chen and Hambrick 1995). Larger, multinational enterprises
(MNEs) are usually characterized by formal and institutionalized pro-
cesses and procedures, as well as collaborative decision making; that is, the
decisions are usually made by a group (Matlay 1999), or team, of people
working toward a particular strategic goal and objective. Smaller organiza-
tions are characterized by a certain degree of informality in the way leader-
ship relates with collaborators (Matlay 1999) as well as with the design,
development, and execution of policies, processes, and procedures.
14 A. M. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ

One of the main reasons reported for lack of success in small organiza-
tions is unsatisfactory leadership (Davies et al. 2002). Decision making
tends to be highly centralized in entrepreneurial (Mintzberg 1973),
smaller organizations, meaning that, in SMEs the power over decision
making is usually in the hands of one person (Matlay 1999) who is often
the owner/manager of the firm. According to Byers and Slack (2001),
one reason for the degree of power and decision making centralization is
the leader’s interest in preserving control and preference for speedy deci-
sion making. Chen and Hambrick (1995) have posited that one of the
aspects most valued in smaller organizations is the velocity with which
leaders make decisions. Therefore, as would seem, smaller firms are struc-
turally more aligned with a bureaucratic and autocratic leadership style,
and larger firms with a democratic leadership style. However, it is not the
size of the firm which determines the optimal style of leadership that will
ensure desired outcomes, productivity, and performance; rather, it is the
perception of style, and characteristics of the group, team and/or organi-
zation itself that best determines the style of leadership required to fulfill
strategic goals and objectives.
Puni et al. (2014) posit that organizational success has as much to do
with leadership style as with the work environment created for collabora-
tors. Leadership style has been considered a guideline to predict organiza-
tional outcomes and performance. It seems straightforward to correlate a
type of leadership with elements such as strategic goal achievement,
empowerment, stakeholder satisfaction and added value, innovativeness,
and competitive advantage. Furthermore, it should be well associated with
active participation in decision making, organizational climate and design,
justice, and social responsibility. However, this is not always the case
because a significant aspect leadership style effects is its actual perception.
In other words, leadership is in the eye of the beholder…and collabo-
rators too. Each manager selects or adopts a style of leadership and may
or may not be aware of using such style. Further, collaborators may not
always perceive the leadership style as intended by the manager. It is not
uncommon for managers to perceive themselves as democratic, partici-
patory, and/or transformational when in reality their behavioral pattern
of leadership is much closer to an autocratic or laissez-fair style. The
same applies to collaborators; although a leader may have the best inten-
tions, collaborators may perceive their actions inflexible, uninspiring,
and even questionable.
 LEADERSHIP TAXONOMY 15

External stakeholders’ perceptions are also a strong determinant in

leadership. Think back to a time you opened a newspaper, logged onto
Facebook or Twitter, or visited a news site, and saw a report on yet
another organization that was exploiting their collaborators. Now, think
back to a time you found a report on an organization that was delegat-
ing efforts toward the improvement of collaborators’ quality of life.
Granted the first example is more common that the latter, nonetheless,
the fact remains that stakeholders’ perceptions are shaped by the infor-
mation they receive regarding business dynamics. And, it is this percep-
tion which can influence organizational decision making regarding its
leadership. Further, today social media enables stakeholders to commu-
nicate directly with organizational leaders in real time, thus, accelerat-
ing the potential influence.
Leadership is also influenced by the internal and external environ-
ment. In the internal environment, for instance, corporate culture
plays a significant role that definitely influences leadership. Culture can
act as an indicator of the degree to which collaborators’ expectations
match those of leadership (Aycan et al. 1999). SMEs and family busi-
nesses have a greater chance of determining and controlling the bounds
of corporate culture because of the distance between owners and col-
laborators, meaning, the possibility of both controlling undesired man-
ifestations of corporate culture and obtaining information directly
from collaborators’ behavior and attitude, beliefs, and values, are
higher. However, this is not always the case with larger firms and
MNEs. In the latter, greater distance exists between owners and CEOs
and collaborators which can cause greater amount of noise in the com-
munication channel and can distort the information. Also, the larger
the organization, the greater the possibility of subcultures forming,
which are harder to detect and manage. In any case, the internal envi-
ronment influences leadership and their decision making. The external
environment includes a series of elements, political, economic, social,
and technological, that individually and collectively influence leader-
ship and performance, as do the abovementioned external stakehold-
ers. Any alteration in, for instance, inflation, fiscal policy, disruptive
innovations, or even presidential elections, can influence the organiza-
tion’s leadership. For such reasons, leadership is also induced by both
internal and external environments.
16 A. M. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ

Purposive Leadership
Sometimes leaders emerge with a sole purpose, meaning that they are
objective oriented and only focused on the achievement of a single objec-
tive. This leadership may dissipate as fast as it materialized; that is, more
often than not, once the objective has been accomplished the person
leaves her/his leadership position. This does not mean that person will not
take on another leadership role, rather, that they may choose another
objective to pursue.
Purposive leadership generates from an ideology that grows with a
given situation in a given context and environment. In the majority of
cases, the objective may be seen as a cause, in that the leader demonstrates
deep commitment toward advocating or standing up for a cause. In order
to achieve the objective, this leadership is embedded in others, i.e. col-
laborators, through their streamlined ideology (implanted leadership). In
other words, the ideology, the cause, and the objective are taken on by
others in its pursuit.
Examples range from parents who decide to coach a little league team
for a season, or as long as their child plays on the team, leading a food
drive for victims of a natural disaster, leading a protest or a campaign,
becoming interim business director or the president of a nation, to eradi-
cating extreme poverty in a region. This type of leadership is untainted as
no other interests are added to those of the leader. This also means that
the leader is extremely focused on the task at hand and is not easily swayed
by third-party concerns. For instance, it is unlikely that parents coaching
little league will compromise their leadership efforts because of interests of
the opposing team, and a protest leader will not give in before the protest
objective has been accomplished. It is not surprising that purposive leader-
ship is, in many cases, the starting point for other types of leaders intend-
ing the achievement of objectives on a larger scale and in the long term.

Macro and Global Leadership

As mentioned, purposive leadership is sometimes the inception of a greater
type of leadership; such is the case of macro and global leadership. In both
instances, leaders draw on a streamlined ideology (implanted leadership),
and the determination to achieve an objective (purposive leadership) or a
series of objectives, in the short, medium, and long term, and are influ-
enced by internal and external factors (induced leadership).
Another random document with
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found numerously within 100 miles of it. They adhere to stones in
rapid water, and differ from the Melaniidae of the Old World and of S.
America in the absence of a fringe to the mantle and in being
oviparous. They do not occur north of the St. Lawrence River, or
north of U.S. territory in the west, or in New England. Three-quarters
of all the known species inhabit the rough square formed by the
Tennessee River, the Mississippi, the Chattahoochee River, and the
Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi is a formidable barrier to their
extension, and a whole section (Trypanostoma, with the four genera
Io, Pleurocera, Angitrema, and Lithasia) does not occur west of that
river. The Viviparidae are also very largely developed, the genera
Melantho, Lioplax, and Tulotoma being peculiar. The Pulmonata are
also abundant, while the richness of the Unionidae may be gathered
from the fact that Wetherby states[377] that in 1874 no less than 832
species in all had been described.
The entire Mississippi basin is inhabited by a common
assemblage of Unionidae, and a considerable number of the species
are distributed over the whole of this area, Texas, and parts of E.
Mexico. Some species have spread out of this area into Michigan,
Canada, the Red River, and Hudson’s Bay district, and even into
streams in New York which drain into the Atlantic. An entirely
different set of forms occupy the great majority of the rivers falling
into the Atlantic, the Appalachian Mountains acting as an effective
barrier between the two groups of species, which appear to mingle
below the southern end of the range. In many cases Unionidae seem
to have no difficulty in migrating from river to river, if the distance is
not extreme; they probably are carried across overflowed districts in
time of flood.[378]
 Fig. 227.—Helix (Arionta)
fidelis Gray, Oregon.
(2) The Californian Sub-region is markedly distinct from the rest
of N. America. The characteristic sombre Helices of the Eastern
States are almost entirely wanting, and are replaced by Arionta (20
sp.), a larger and more varied group, which may have some affinity
to Chinese forms. Glyptostoma (1 sp.) is also peculiar. Selenites
here has its metropolis, and Pristiolma is a remarkable group of
small Hyalinia (Zonites), but the larger forms of the Eastern States
are wanting. Several remarkable and quite peculiar forms of slug
occur, namely, Ariolimax (whose nearest relation is Arion),
Prophysaon, Hemphillia, and Binneya. There are no land
operculates.
Not more than 15 to 20 species of the Pleuroceridae (sect.
Goniobasis) occur west of the Rocky Mountains, and only a single
Unio, 5 Anodonta, and 1 Margaritana, which is common to New
England. Pompholyx is a very remarkable ultra-dextral form of
Limnaea, apparently akin to the Choanomphalus of L. Baikal.
Bithynia, absent from the Eastern States, is represented by two
species. The general indications are in favour of the Californian
fauna having migrated from an Old World source after the upheaval
of the Sierras; the American fauna, on the other hand, is purely
indigenous, with no recent Old World influence at all.
Land Mollusca of the Nearctic Region
Glandina 4
Selenites 6
Limax 4
Vitrina 4
 Vitrinozonites 1
Mesomphix 15
Hyalinia 22
Conulus 1
Gastrodonta 9
Pristiloma 2
Tebennophorus 4
Ariolimax 6
Prophysaon 2
Hemphillia 1
Binneya 1
Patula 18
Punctum 2
Arionta 20
Praticola 2
Glyptostoma 1
Mesodon 27
Stenotrema 11
Triodopsis 21
Polygyra 23
Polygyrella 2
Gonostoma 1
Vallonia 1
Strobila 2
Pupa 18
Vertigo 8
Holospira 2
Cionella 1
Bulimulus 6
Macroceramus 1
Succinea 21
Vaginulus 1
Helicina 2

F. The Neotropical Region

The land Mollusca of the Neotropical Region stand in complete
contrast to those of the Nearctic. Instead of being scanty, they are
exceedingly abundant; instead of being small and obscure, they are
among the largest in size, most brilliant in colour, and most singular
in shape that are known to exist. At the same time they are, as a
whole, isolated in type, and exhibit but little relation with the Mollusca
of any other region.
The most marked feature is the predominance of the peculiar
genera Bulimus and Bulimulus, the centre of whose development
appears to lie in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, but which diminish, both
in numbers and variety of form, in the eastern portion of the region.
In the forests of Central America, Venezuela, and Ecuador, and, to a
lesser degree, in those of Peru and Brazil, occurs the genus
Orthalicus, whose tree-climbing habits recall the Cochlostyla of the
Philippines. These three groups of bulimoid forms constitute, as far
as the mainland is concerned, the preponderating mass of the land
Mollusca. Helix proper is most strongly developed in the Greater
Antilles, which possess several peculiar groups of great beauty. In
Central America Helix is comparatively scarce, but in the northern
portions of the continent several fine genera (Labyrinthus, Isomeria,
Solaropsis) occur, which disappear altogether towards the south.
Carnivorous land Mollusca are, so far as Central America is
concerned, more highly developed than in any other quarter of the
world, particularly in the genera Glandina and Streptostyla. These
genera also penetrate the northern portions of the continent,
Glandina reaching as far as Ecuador, and Streptostyla as far as
Peru. The Greater Antilles have also characteristic forms of these
genera. Streptaxis is tolerably abundant all over tropical South
America, and is the one pulmonate genus which shows any affinity
with the African fauna.
The slugs are exceedingly scarce. Vaginula occurs throughout,
and is the only genus in any sense characteristic.
Clausilia, in the sub-genus Nenia, occurs along the Andean chain
from the extreme north (but not in Central America) as far south as
Bolivia. It has in all probability made its way into S. America in
exceedingly remote ages from its headquarters in Eastern Asia. No
species survives in N. America, and a single straggler is found in
Porto Rico. The genera Macroceramus, Cylindrella, and Strophia,
are characteristic West Indian forms, which are only slightly
represented on the mainland. Homalonyx, a curious form akin to
Succinea, is peculiar to the region.

Fig. 228.—Homalonyx unguis Fér.,

Demerara. sh, Shell (shown also
separate); p.o, pulmonary orifice.
Land operculates attain a most extraordinary development in the
Greater Antilles, and constitute, in some cases, nearly one-half of the
whole Molluscan fauna. Several groups of the Cyclostomatidae find
their headquarters here, and some spread no farther. On the
mainland this prominence does not continue. West Indian influence
is felt in Central America and on the northern coast district, and
some Antillean genera make their way as far as Ecuador. The whole
group entirely disappears in Chili and Argentina, becoming scarce
even in Brazil.
Among the fresh-water operculates, Ampullaria is abundant, and
widely distributed. Vivipara, so characteristic of N. America, is
entirely absent. Chilina, a remarkable fresh-water pulmonate, akin to
Limnaea, is peculiar to Chili, Patagonia, and Southern Brazil, but is
not found in the tropical portion of the continent. Of the fresh-water
Pelecypoda Mycetopus, Hyria, Castalia, Leila, and Mülleria are
peculiar forms, akin to the Unionidae.
(1) The Antillean Sub-region surpasses all other districts in the
world in respect of (1) extraordinary abundance of species, (2) sharp
definition of limits as a whole, (3) extreme localisation of the fauna of
the separate islands. The sub-region includes the whole of the half-
circle of islands from the Bahamas to Grenada, together with the
extreme southern end of the peninsula of Florida, which was once,
no doubt, a number of small islands like the Bahamas. Trinidad, and
probably Tobago, although containing an Antillean element, belong
to the mainland of S. America, from which they are only separated
by very shallow water.
The sub-region appears to fall into four provinces:—
(a) Cuba, the Bahamas, and S. Florida; (b) Jamaica; (c) San
Domingo (Haiti), Porto Rico, and the Virgin Is., with the Anguilla and
St. Bartholomew group; (d) the islands from Guadeloupe to
Grenada. The first three provinces contain the mass of the
characteristic Antillean fauna, the primary feature being the
extraordinary development of the land operculates, which here
reaches a point unsurpassed in any other quarter of the globe. The
relative numbers are as follows:—
Cuba Jamaica San Domingo Porto Rico
Inoperculate 362 221 152 75
Operculate 252 242 100 23
It appears, then, that the proportion of operculate to inoperculate
species, while very high in Cuba (about 41 per cent of the whole),
reaches its maximum in Jamaica (where the operculates are actually
in a majority), begins to decline in San Domingo (about 40 per cent),
and continues to do so in Porto Rico, where they are not more than
24 per cent of the whole. These operculates almost all belong to the
families Cyclostomatidae and Helicinidae, only two genera
(Aperostoma and Megalomastoma) belonging to the Cyclophorus
group. Comparatively few genera are absolutely peculiar to the
islands, one or two species of most of them occurring in Central or S.
America, but of the several hundreds of operculate species which
occur on the islands, not two score are common to the mainland.
 Map to illustrate the
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
of the Land Mollusca of the
WEST INDIES.
The red line marks the 100 fathom line.
London: Macmillan and Cọ. London: Stanford’s Geogḷ Estabṭ.
The next special feature of the sub-region is a remarkable
development of peculiar sub-genera of Helix. In this respect the
Antilles present a striking contrast to both Central and S. America,
where the prime feature of the land Pulmonata is the profusion of
Bulimus and Bulimulus, and Helix is relatively obscured. No less
than 14 sub-genera of Helix, some of which contain species of
almost unique beauty and size, are quite peculiar to the Greater
Antilles, and some are peculiar to individual islands.
 Here, too, is the metropolis of Cylindrella (of which there are 130
species in Cuba alone), a genus which just reaches S. America, and
has a few species along the eastern sea-board of the Gulf of Mexico.
Macroceramus and Strophia are quite peculiar; the former, a genus
allied to Cylindrella, which attains its maximum in Cuba and San
Domingo, is scarcely represented in Jamaica, and disappears south
of Anguilla; the latter, a singular form, resembling a large Pupa in
shape, which also attains its maximum in Cuba, is entirely wanting in
Jamaica, and has its last representative in S. Croix. One species
irregularly occurs at Curaçao.
The carnivorous group of land Mollusca are represented by
several peculiar forms of Glandina, which attain their maximum in
Jamaica and Cuba, but entirely disappear in the Lesser Antilles.
A certain number of the characteristic N. American genera are
found in the Antillean Sub-region, indicating a former connexion,
more or less intimate, between the W. Indies and the mainland. The
genera are all of small size. The characteristic N. American Hyalinia
are represented in Cuba, San Domingo, and Porto Rico; among the
Helicidae, Polygyra reaches Cuba, but no farther, and Strobila
Jamaica. The fresh-water Pulmonata are of a N. American type, as
far as the Greater Antilles are concerned, but the occurrence of
Gundlachia (Tasmania and Trinidad only) in Cuba is an unexplained
problem at present. Unionidae significantly occur only at the two
ends of the chain of islands, not reaching farther than Cuba (Unio 3
sp.) at one end, and Trinidad (which is S. American) at the other.
A small amount of S. American influence is perceptible throughout
the Antilles, chiefly in the occurrence of a few species of Bulimulus
and Simpulopsis. The S. American element may have strayed into
the sub-region by three distinct routes: (1) by way of Trinidad,
Tobago, and the islands northward; (2) by a north-easterly extension
of Honduras towards Jamaica, forming a series of islands of which
the Rosalind and Pedro banks are perhaps the remains; (3) by a
similar approximation of the peninsula of Yucatan and the western
extremity of Cuba. Central America is essentially S. American in its
fauna, and the characteristic genera of Antillean operculates which
occur on its eastern coasts are sufficient evidence of the previous
existence of a land connexion more or less intimate (see map).
(a) Cuba is by far the richest of the Antilles in land Mollusca, but it
must be remembered that it is also much better explored than San
Domingo, the only island likely to rival it in point of numbers. It
contains in all 658 species, of which 620 are land and 38 fresh-
water, the land operculates alone amounting to 252.
Carnivorous genera form but a small proportion of the whole.
There are 18 Glandina (which belong to the sections Varicella and
Boltenia) and 4 Streptostyla, the occurrence of this latter genus
being peculiar to Cuba and Haiti (1 sp.) among the Antilles, and
associating them closely with the mainland of Central America,
where Streptostyla is abundant. These two genera alone represent
the Agnatha throughout the sub-region.
There are no less than 84 species of Helix, belonging to 12 sub-
genera. Only one of these (Polymita) is quite peculiar to Cuba, but of
7 known species of Jeanerettia and 8 of Coryda, 6 and 7
respectively are Cuban. Thelidomus has 15 species (Jamaica 3,
Porto Rico 3); Polydontes has 3, the only other being from Porto
Rico; Hemitrochus has 12 (Jamaica 1, Bahamas 6); Cysticopsis 9
(Jamaica 6); Eurycampta 4 (Bahamas 1).
The Cylindrellidae find their maximum development in Cuba. As
many as 34 Macroceramus occur (two-thirds of the known species),
and 130 Cylindrella, some of the latter being most remarkable in
form (see Fig. 151, B, p. 247).
The land operculates belong principally to the families
Cyclostomatidae and Helicinidae. Of the former, Cuba is the
metropolis of Ctenopoma and Chondropoma, the former of which
includes 30 Cuban species, as compared with 1 from San Domingo
and 2 from Jamaica. Megalomastoma (Cyclophoridae) is also
Haitian and Porto Rican, but not Jamaican. Blaesospira, Xenopoma,
and Diplopoma are peculiar. The Helicinidae consist mainly of
Helicina proper (58 sp.), which here attains by far its finest
development in point of size and beauty, and of Eutrochatella (21
sp.), which is peculiar to the three great islands (Jamaica 6 sp., San
Domingo 6 sp.).
The Bahamas, consisting in all of more than 700 islands, are very
imperfectly known, but appear to be related partly to Cuba, partly to
San Domingo, from each of which they are separated by a narrow
channel of very deep water. They are certainly not rich in the
characteristic groups of the Greater Antilles. The principal forms of
Helix are Plagioptycha (6 sp.), common with San Domingo, and
Hemitrochus (6 sp.), common with Cuba. Strophia is exceedingly
abundant, but Cylindrella, Macroceramus, and Glandina have but
few species. There are a few species of Ctenopoma, Chondropoma,
and Cistula, while a single Schasicheila (absent from the rest of the
sub-region) forms a link with Mexico.

Fig. 229.—Characteristic Cuban

Helices. A, Polydontes imperator
Montf. B, Caracolus rostrata Pfr.
C, Polymita muscarum Lea.
Southern Florida, with one or two species each of Hemitrochus,
Cylindrella, Macroceramus, Strophia, Ctenopoma, and
Chondropoma, belongs to this province.
(b) Jamaica.—The land Mollusca of Jamaica are, in point of
numbers and variety, quite unequalled in the world. There are in all
as many as 56 genera and more than 440 species, the latter being
nearly all peculiar. The principal features are the Glandinae, the
Helicidae, and the land operculates. The Glandinae belong
principally to the sub-genera Varicella, Melia, and Volutaxis,
Streptostyla being absent, although occurring in Cuba and San
Domingo. There are 10 genera of Helix, of which Pleurodonta is
quite peculiar, while Sagda (13 sp.) is common only with S.W. San
Domingo (2 sp.), and Leptoloma (8 sp.) only with Cuba (1 sp.). The
single Strobila seems to be a straggler from a N. American source.
Macroceramus has only 2 species as against 34 in Cuba, and of
Cylindrella, in which Cuba (130 sp.) is so rich, only 36 species occur.
The genus Leia, however (14 sp.), is all but peculiar, occurring
elsewhere only in the neighbouring angle of San Domingo, which is
so closely allied with Jamaica. The complete absence of Strophia is
remarkable.

Fig. 230.—Characteristic
Jamaican and Haitian
Mollusca: A, Sagdae
pistylium Müll., Jamaica; B,
Chondropoma salleanum Pfr.,
San Domingo; C,
Eutrochatella Tankervillei
Gray, Jamaica; D, Cylindrella
agnesiana C. B. Ad.,
Jamaica.
 The land operculates form the bulk of the land fauna, there being
actually 242 species, as against 221 of land Pulmonata, a proportion
never again approached in any part of the world. As many as 80 of
these belong to the curious little genus Stoastoma, which is all but
peculiar to the island, one species having been found in San
Domingo, and one in Porto Rico. Geomelania and Chittya, two
singular inland forms akin to Truncatella, are quite peculiar. Alcadia
reaches its maximum of 14 species, as against 4 species in San
Domingo and 9 species in Cuba, and Lucidella is common to San
Domingo only; but, if Stoastoma be omitted, the Helicinidae
generally are not represented by so many or by so striking forms as
in Cuba, which has 90 species, as against Jamaica 44, and San
Domingo 35.
(c) San Domingo, although not characterised by the extraordinary
richness of Cuba and Jamaica, possesses many specially
remarkable forms of land Mollusca, to which a thorough exploration,
when circumstances permit, will no doubt make important additions.
From its geographical position, impinging as it does on all the islands
of the Greater Antilles, it would be expected that the fauna of San
Domingo would not exhibit equal signs of isolation, but would appear
to be influenced by them severally. This is exactly what occurs, and
San Domingo is consequently, although very rich in peculiar species,
not equally so in peculiar genera. The south-west district shows
distinct relations with Jamaica, the Jamaican genera Leia,
Stoastoma, Lucidella, and the Thaumasia section of Cylindrella
occurring here only. The north and north-west districts are related to
Cuba, while the central district, consisting of the long band of
mountainous country which traverses the island, contains the more
characteristic Haitian forms.
The Helicidae are the most noteworthy of the San Domingo land
Mollusca. The group Eurycratera, which contains some of the finest
existing land snails, is quite peculiar, while Parthena, Cepolis,
Plagioptycha, and Caracolus here reach their maximum. The
Cylindrellidae are very abundant, but no section is peculiar. Land
operculates do not bear quite the same proportion to the Pulmonata
as in Cuba and Jamaica, but they are well represented (100 to 152);
Rolleia is the only peculiar genus.
The relations of San Domingo to the neighbouring islands are
considerably obscured by the fact that they are well known, while
San Domingo is comparatively little explored. To this may perhaps
be due the curious fact that there are actually more species common
to Cuba and Porto Rico (26) than to Porto Rico and San Domingo.
Cuba shares with San Domingo its small-sized Caracolus and also
Liguus, but the great Eurycratera, Parthena, and Plagioptycha are
wholly wanting in Cuba. The land operculates are partly related to
Cuba, partly to Jamaica, thus Choanopoma, Ctenopoma, Cistula,
Tudora, and many others, are represented on all these islands, while
the Jamaican Stoastoma occurs on San Domingo and Porto Rico,
but not on Cuba, and Lucidella is common to San Domingo and
Jamaica alone. An especial link between Jamaica and San Domingo
is the occurrence in the south-west district of the latter island of
Sagda (2 sp.). The relative numbers of the genera Strophia,
Macroceramus, and Helicina, as given below (p. 351), are of interest
in this connexion.
Porto Rico, with Vièque, is practically a fragment of San Domingo.
The points of close relationship are the occurrence of Caracolus,
Cepolis, and Parthena among the Helicidae, and of Simpulopsis,
Pseudobalea, and Stoastoma. Cylindrella and Macroceramus are
but poorly represented, but Strophia still occurs. The land
operculates (see the Table) show equal signs of removal from the
headquarters of development. Megalomastoma, however, has some
striking forms. The appearance of a single Clausilia, whose nearest
relations are in the northern Andes, is very remarkable. Gaeotis,
which is allied to Peltella (Ecuador only), is peculiar.
 Fig. 231.—Examples of West Indian
Helices: A, Helix (Parthena)
angulata Fér., Porto Rico; B,
Helix (Thelidomus) lima Fér.,
Vièque; C, Helix (Dentellaria) nux
denticulata Chem., Martinique.
Land Mollusca of the Greater Antilles
Cuba. Jamaica. S. Domingo. Porto Rico.
Glandina 18 24 15 8
Streptostyla 4 ... 2 ...
Volutaxis ... 11 (?) 1 ...
Selenites 1 ... ... ...
Hyalinia 4 11 5 6
Patula 5 1 ... ...
Sagda ... 13 2 ...
Microphysa 7 18 8 3
Cysticopsis 9 6 ... ...
Hygromia (?) ... ... 3 ...
Leptaxis (?) ... ... 1 ...
Polygyra 2 ... ... ...
Jeanerettia 6 ... ... 1
Euclasta ... ... ... 4
Plagioptycha ... ... 14 2
Strobila ... 1 ... ...
Dialeuca ... 1 ... ...
Leptoloma 1 8 ... ...
Eurycampta 4 ... ... ...
Coryda 7 ... ... ...
Thelidomus 15 3 ... 3
Eurycratera ... ... 7 ...
Parthena ... ... 2 2
Cepolis ... ... 3 1
Caracolus 8 ... 6 2
Polydontes 3 ... ... 1
Hemitrochus 12 1 ... ...
Polymita 5 ... ... ...
Pleurodonta ... 34 ... ...
Inc. sed. 5 ... ... ...
Simpulopsis ... ... 1 1
Bulimulus 3 3 6 7
Orthalicus 1 1 ... ...
Liguus 3 ... 1 ...
Gaeotis ... ... ... 3
Pineria 2 ... ... 1
Macroceramus 34 2 14 3
Leia ... 14 2 ...
Cylindrella 130 36 35 3
Pseudobalea 2 ... 1 1
Stenogyra 6 7 (?) ...
Opeas 8 (?) 4 6
Subulima 6 14 2 2
Glandinella 1 ... ... ...
Spiraxis 2 (?) 2 1
Melaniella 7 ... ... ...
Geostilbia 1 ... 1 ...
Cionella 2 ... ... ...
Leptinaria ... 1 ... 3
Obeliscus ... ... 1 2
Pupa 2 7 3 2
Vertigo 4 ... ... ...
Strophia 19 ... 3 2
Clausilia ... ... ... 1
Succinea 11 2 5 3
Vaginula 2 2 2 1
Megalomastoma 13 ... 1 3
Neocyclotus 1 33(?) ... ...
Licina 1 ... 3 ...
Jamaicia ... 2 ... ...
Crocidopoma ... 1 3 ...
Rolleia ... ... 1 ...
Choanopoma 25 12 19 3
Ctenopoma 30 2 1 ...
 Cistula 15 3 3 3
Chondropoma 57 (?) 19 4
Tudora 7 17 5 ...
Adamsiella 1 12 ... ...
Blaesospira 1 ... ... ...
Xenopoma 1 ... ... ...
Cistula 15 3 3 ...
Colobostylus 4 13 5 ...
Diplopoma 1 ... ... ...
Geomelania ... 21 ... ...
Chittya ... 1 ... ...
Blandiella ... ... 1 ...
Stoastoma ... 80 1 1
Eutrochatella 21 6 6 ...
Lucidella ... 4 1 ...
Alcadia 9 14 4 ...
Helicina 58 16 24 9
Proserpina 2 4 ... ...
The Virgin Is., with St. Croix, Anguilla, and the St. Bartholomew
group (all of which are non-volcanic islands), are related to Porto
Rico, while Guadeloupe and all the islands to the south, up to
Grenada (all of which are volcanic), show marked traces of S.
American influence. St. Kitt’s, Antigua, and Montserrat may be
regarded as intermediate between the two groups. St. Thomas, St.
John, and Tortola have each one Plagioptycha and one Thelidomus,
while St. Croix has two sub-fossil Caracolus which are now living in
Porto Rico, together with one Plagioptycha and one Thelidomus
(sub-fossil). The gradual disappearance of some of the characteristic
greater Antillean forms, and the appearance of S. American forms in
the Lesser Antilles, is shown by the following table:—
S
P S S G M t
o t S t u a S .
r . t A . a D r t B T
t S . T n A d o t . a V G r
o T t o g K n e m i r i r i
h . C r u i t l i n L b n e n
R o r t i t i o n i u a c n i
i m J o o l t g u i q c d e a d
c a a i l l ’ u p c u i o n d a
 o s n x a a s a e a e a s t a d
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bulimulus 7 4 2 4 1 2 2 3 8 9 5 3 3 6 2 4
Cylindrella 3 2 1 1 1 . . . . 1 1 1 1 . . 1
Macroceramus 3 1 1 . 2 1 . . . . . . . . . .
Cyclostomatidae, etc.23 4 1 5 1 1 1 . 4 . . . . . . 1
Dentellaria . . . . . . 1 1 8 5 11 2 2 . 1 1
Cyclophorus . . . . . . . . 1 2 2 . . . . .
Amphibulimus . . . . . . . . 2 3 1 . . . . .
Homalonyx . . . . . . . . 1 1 . . . . . .

(d) In Guadeloupe we find Cyclophorus, Amphibulimus,

Homalonyx, and Pellicula, which are characteristic of S. America,
and nearly all recur in Dominica and Martinique. These islands are
the metropolis of Dentellaria, a group of Helix, evidently related to
some of the forms developed in the Greater Antilles. Stragglers
occur as far north as St. Kitt’s and Antigua, and there are several on
the mainland as far south as Cayenne. Traces of the great Bulimus,
so characteristic of South America, occur as far north as S. Lucia,
where also is found a Parthena (San Domingo and Porto Rico).
Trinidad is markedly S. American; 55 species in all are known, of
which 22 are peculiar, 28 are common to S. America (8 of these
reach no farther north along the islands), and only 5 are common to
the Antilles, but not to S. America. The occurrence of Gundlachia in
Trinidad has already been mentioned.
The Bermudas show no very marked relationship either to the N.
American or to the West Indian fauna. In common with the former
they possess a Polygyra, with the latter (introduced species being
excluded) one species each of Hyalosagda, Subulina, Vaginula, and
Helicina, so that, on the whole, they may be called West Indian. The
only peculiar group is Poecilozonites, a rather large and depressed
shell of the Hyalinia type.
(2) The Central American Sub-region may be regarded as
extending from the political boundary of Mexico in the north to the
isthmus of Panama in the south. It thus impinges on three important
districts—the N. American, West Indian, and S. American; and it
appears, as we should perhaps expect, that the two latter of these
regions have considerably more influence upon its fauna than the
former. Of the N. American Helicidae, Polygyra is abundant in
Mexico only, and two species of Strobila reach N. Guatemala, while
the Californian Arionta occurs in Mexico. S. American Helicidae, in
the sub-genera Solaropsis and Labyrinthus, occur no farther north
than Costa Rica. Not a single representative of any of the
characteristic West Indian Helicidae occurs. Bulimulus and
Otostomus, which form so large a proportion of the Mollusca of
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, together with Orthalicus,
are abundant all over the region. Again, Cylindrella, Macroceramus,
and some of the characteristic Antillean operculates, are
represented, their occurrence being in most cases limited to the
eastern coast-line and eastern slope of the central range.
Besides these external elements, the region is rich in indigenous
genera. Central America is remarkable for an immense number of
large carnivorous Mollusca possessing shells. There are 49 species
of Glandina, the bulk of which occur in eastern and southern Mexico;
36 of Streptostyla (S.E. Mexico and Guatemala, only 1 species
reaching Venezuela and another Peru); 5 of Salasiella, 2 of Petenia,
and 1 of Strebelia; the last three genera being peculiar. Streptaxis,
fairly common in S. America, does not occur. Velifera and
Cryptostracon, two remarkable slug-like forms, each with a single
species, are peculiar to Costa Rica. Among the especial peculiarities
of the region are the giant forms belonging to the Cylindrellidae,
which are known as Holospira, Eucalodium, and Coelocentrum (Fig.
232). They are almost entirely peculiar to Mexico, only 7 out of a
total of 33 reaching south of that district, and only 1 not occurring in it
at all.
 Fig. 232.—Examples of
characteristic Mexican
Mollusca: A, Coelocentrum
turris Pfr.; B, Streptostyla
Delattrei Pfr.
The land operculates are but scanty. Tomocyclus and
Amphicyclotus are peculiar, and Schasicheila, a form of Helicina,
occurs elsewhere only in the Bahamas. Ceres (see Fig. 18, C, p. 21)
and Proserpinella, two remarkable forms of non-operculate
Helicinidae (compare the Chinese Heudeia), are quite peculiar.
Pachychilus, one of the characteristic fresh-water genera, belongs to
the S. American (Melaniidae) type, not to the N. American
(Pleuroceridae). Among the fresh-water Pulmonata, the Aplecta are
remarkable for their great size and beauty. In the accompanying
table “Mexico” is to be taken as including the region from the United
States border up to and including the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and
“Central America” as the whole region south of that point.
Land Mollusca of Central America
Mexico Central Common to
only. America both.
only.
Strebelia 1 ... ...
Glandina 33 13 3
Salasiella 4 ... 1
Streptostyla 18 12 6
Petenia ... 1 1
Limax ... 1 ...
Velifera ... 1 ...
Omphalina 10 1 1
Hyalinia 2 5 3
Guppya ... 8 3
Pseudohyalina 2 ... 2
Tebennophorus 1 ... ...
Cryptostracon ... 1 ...
Xanthonyx 4 ... ...
Patula 3 ... 4
Acanthinula 1 2 2
Vallonia ... 1 ...
Trichodiscus 2 2 3
Praticolella 1 ... 1
Arionta 3 ... ...
Lysinoe 1 1 1
Oxychona 2 5 ...
Solaropsis ... 2 ...
Polygyra 14 1 2
Strobila 1 1 ...
Labyrinthus ... 5 ...
Otostomus 23 20 7
Bulimulus 6 5 2
Berendtia 1 ... ...
Orthalicus 6 3 3
Pupa 1 1 1
Vertigo 1 ... ...
Holospira 12 ... ...
Coelocentrum 6 1 1
Eucalodium 15 ... 5
Cylindrella 6 4 ...
Macroceramus 2 1 ...
Simpulopsis 2 1 ...
Caecilianella 1 ... ...
Opeas 1 2 3
Spiraxis 8 2 1
Leptinaria ... 2 ...
Subulina 2 3 4
Succinea 11 3 1
Vaginula 1 ... ...
Aperostoma ... 4 1
Amphicyclotus 2 1 2
Cystopoma 2 ... ...
Tomocyclus ... 1 2