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 Degrees of Unsolvability

Since their inception, the Perspectives in Logic and Lecture Notes in Logic series have
published seminal works by leading logicians. Many of the original books in the series
have been unavailable for years, but they are now in print once again.
In this volume, the 11th publication in the Perspectives in Logic series, Manuel
Lerman presents a systematic study of the interaction between local and global degree
theory. He introduces the reader to the fascinating combinatorial methods of recursion
theory while simultaneously showing how to use these methods to prove global theo-
rems about degrees.
The intended reader will have already taken a graduate-level course in recursion
theory, but this book will also be accessible to those with some background in math-
ematical logic and a feeling for computability. It will prove a key reference to enable
readers to easily locate facts about degrees and it will direct them to further results.

MANUEL LERMAN works in the Department of Mathematics at the University of Con-

necticut.
PERSPECTIVES IN LOGIC

The Perspectives in Logic series publishes substantial, high-quality books whose central
theme lies in any area or aspect of logic. Books that present new material not now
available in book form are particularly welcome. The series ranges from introductory
texts suitable for beginning graduate courses to specialized monographs at the frontiers
of research. Each book offers an illuminating perspective for its intended audience.

The series has its origins in the old Perspectives in Mathematical Logic series
edited by the £2-Group for "Mathematische Logik" of the Heidelberger Akademie
der Wissenschaften, whose beginnings date back to the 1960s. The Association for
Symbolic Logic has assumed editorial responsibility for the series and changed its
name to reflect its interest in books that span the full range of disciplines in which logic
plays an important role.

Arnold Beckmann, Managing Editor

Department of Computer Science, Swansea University
Editorial Board:
Michael Benedikt
Department of Computing Science, University of Oxford
Elisabeth Bouscaren
CNRS, Département de Mathématiques, Université Paris-Sud
Steven A. Cook
Computer Science Department, University of Toronto
Michael Glanzberg
Department of Philosophy, University of California Davis
Antonio Montalban
Department of Mathematics, University of Chicago
Simon Thomas
Department of Mathematics, Rutgers University

For more information, see www.aslonline.org/books_perspectives.html

 PERSPECTIVES IN LOGIC

Degrees of Unsolvability
Local and Global Theory

MANUEL LERMAN
University of Connecticut

ASSOCIATION f o r s y m b o l i c l o g i c

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
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It furthers the University's mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107168138
10.1017/9781316717059
First edition © 1983 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
This edition © 2016 Association for Symbolic Logic under license to
Cambridge University Press.
Association for Symbolic Logic
Richard A. Shore, Publisher
Department of Mathematics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
http://www.aslonline.org
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-107-16813-8 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 To Maxine,
Elliot and Sharon
Preface to the Series
Perspectives in Mathematical Logic
(Edited by the Q-group for "Mathematische Logik" of the
Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften)

On Perspectives. Mathematical logic arose from a concern with the nature and the
limits of rational or mathematical thought, and from a desire to systematise the modes
of its expression. The pioneering investigations were diverse and largely autonomous.
As time passed, and more particularly in the last two decades, interconnections
between different lines of research and links with other branches of mathematics
proliferated. The subject is now both rich and varied. It is the aim of the series to
provide, as it were, maps or guides to this complex terrain. We shall not aim at
encyclopaedic coverage', nor do we wish to prescribe, like Euclid, a definitive version of
the elements of the subject. We are not committed to any particular philosophical
programme. Nevertheless we have tried by critical discussion to ensure that each book
represents a coherent line of thought', and that, by developing certain themes, it will be
of greater interest than a mere assemblage of results and techniques.
The books in the series differ in level: some are introductory, some highly
specialised. They also differ in scope: some offer a wide view of an area, others present
a single line of thought. Each book is, at its own level, reasonably self-contained.
Although no book depends on another as prerequisite, we have encouraged authors to
fit their book in with other planned volumes, sometimes deliberately seeking coverage
of the same materialfrom different points of view. We have tried to attain a reasonable
degree of uniformity of notation and arrangement. However, the books in the series
are written by individual authors, not by the group. Plans for books are discussed and
argued about at length. Later, encouragement is given and revisions suggested. But it
is the authors who do the work', if, as we hope, the series proves of value, the credit will
be theirs.

History of the Q-Group. During 1968 the idea of an integrated series of monographs
on mathematical logic was first mooted. Various discussions led to a meeting at
Oberwolfach in the spring of 1969. Here the founding members of the group (R. O.
Gandy, A. Levy, G. H. Mu'ller, G. E. Sacks, D. S. Scott) discussed the project in
earnest and decided to go ahead with it. Professor F. K. Schmidt and Professor Hans
Hermes gave us encouragement and support. Later Hans Hermes joined the group. To
begin with all was fluid. How ambitious should we bel Should we write the books
ourselves? How long would it take? Plans for authorless books were promoted,
savaged and scrapped. Gradually there emerged a form and a method. At the end of an
infinite discussion we found our name, and that of the series. We established our centre
in Heidelberg. We agreed to meet twice a year together with authors, consultants and
VIII Preface to the Series

assistants, generally in Oberwolfach. We soon found the value of collaboration: on the

one hand the permanence of the founding group gave coherence to the over-all plans;
on the other hand the stimulus of new contributors kept the project alive and flexible.
Above all, we found how intensive discussion could modify the authors' ideas and our
own. Often the battle ended with a detailed plan for a better book which the author was
keen to write and which would indeed contribute a perspective.

Oberwolfach, September 1975

Acknowledgements. In starting our enterprise we essentially were relying on the

personal confidence and understanding of Professor Martin Barner of the
Mathematisches Forschungsinstitut Oberwolfach, Dr. Klaus Peters of Springer-
Verlag and Dipl.-Ing. Penschuck of the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk. Through the
Stiftung Volkswagenwerk we received a generous grant (1970 — 1973) as an initial
help which made our existence as a working group possible.
Since 1974 the Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften (Mathematisch-
Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse) has incorporated our enterprise into its general
scientific program. The initiative for this step was taken by the late Professor F. K.
Schmidt, and the former President of the Academy, Professor W. Doerr.
Through all the years, the Academy has supported our research project, especially
our meetings and the continuous work on the Logic Bibliography, in an outstandingly
generous way. We could always rely on their readiness to provide help wherever it was
needed.
Assistance in many various respects was provided by Drs. U. Feigner and K.
Gloede (till 1975) and Drs. D. Schmidt and H. Zeitler (till 1979). Last but not least,
our indefatigable secretary Elfriede Ihrig was and is essential in running our
enterprise.
We thank all those concerned.

Heidelberg, September 1982 R. O. Gandy H. Hermes

A. Levy G. H. Midler
G. E. Sacks D. S. Scott
Author's Preface

I first seriously contemplated writing a book on degree theory in 1976 while I was
visiting the University of Illinois at Chicago Circle. There was, at that time, some
interest in an Q-series book about degree theory, and through the encouragement of
Bob Soare, I decided to make a proposal to write such a book. Degree theory had, at
that time, matured to the point where the local structure results which had been the
mainstay of the earlier papers in the area were finding a steadily increasing number
of applications to global degree theory. Michael Yates was the first to realize that
the time had come for a systematic study of the interaction between local and global
degree theory, and his papers had a considerable influence on the content of this
book.
During the time that the book was being written and rewritten, there was an
explosion in the number of global theorems about the degrees which were proved as
applications of local theorems. The global results, in turn, pointed the way to new
local theorems which were needed in order to make further progress. I have tried to
update the book continuously, in order to be able to present some of the more
recent results. It is my hope to introduce the reader to some of the fascinat-
ing combinatorial methods of Recursion Theory while simultaneously showing
how to use these methods to prove some beautiful global theorems about the
degrees.
This book has gone through several drafts. An earlier version was used for a one
semester course at the University of Connecticut during the Fall Semester of 1979,
at which time a special year in Logic was taking place. Many helpful comments were
received from visitors to UConn and UConn faculty at that time. Klaus Ambos,
David Miller and James Schmerl are to be thanked for their helpful comments.
Steven Brackin and Peter Fejer carefully read sizable portions of that version and
supplied me with many corrections and helpful suggestions on presentation.
Richard Shore, Stephen Simpson and Robert Soare gave helpful advice about
content and presentation of material. Other people whose comments, corrections
and suggestions were of great help are Richard Epstein, Harold Hodes, Carl
Jockusch, Jr. Azriel Levy and George Odifreddi. I am especially grateful to David
Odell who carefully read the manuscript which I expected to be the final one, and to
Richard Shore who used that same manuscript for a course at Cornell University
during the Fall Semester of 1981. They supplied me with many corrections and
helpful suggestions on presentation of material which have been incorporated into
the book and which, I hope, have greatly enhanced the readability of the book.
X Author's Preface

Also, the meetings of the Q-group provided me with many suggestions which
influenced the continuously evolving formulation of the book.
I owe a debt of gratitude to my teachers, Anil Nerode and Thomas McLaughlin,
who introduced me to Recursion Theory, and to Gerald Sacks who continued my
education and provided me with much needed encouragement and dubious advice.
Finally, I thank my colleagues who have shown an interest in my work and have
stimulated me with theirs.

Storrs, February 5, 1983 Manuel Lerman

Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Part A. The Structure of the Degrees 5

Chapter 1. Recursive Functions 7

1. The Recursive and Partial Recursive Functions 7
2. Relative Recursion 11
3. The Enumeration and Recursion Theorems 12

Chapter 11. Embeddings and Extensions of Embeddings in the Degrees . . 15

1. Uppersemilattice Structure for the Degrees 15
2. Incomparable Degrees 17
3. Embeddings into the Degrees 22
4. Extensions of Embeddings into the Degrees 27

Chapter 111. The Jump Operator 34

1. The Arithmetical Hierarchy 34
2. The Jump Operator 39
3. Embeddings and Exact Pairs Below 0' 41
4. Jump Inversion 45
5. Maximal Antichains and Maximal Independent Sets Below 0'. . . . 52
6. Maximal Chains Below 0' 59
7. Classes of Degrees Determined by the Jump Operation 61
8. More Exact Pairs 69

Chapter IV. High/Low Hierarchies 75

1. High/Low Hierarchies 75
2. GLj and 1-Generic Degrees 79
3. GL2 and its Complement 84
4. GHi 89
5. Automorphism Bases 94
XII Table of Contents

Part B. Countable Ideals of Degrees 99

Chapter V. Minimal Degrees 101

1. Binary Trees 101
2. Minimal Degrees 104
3. Double Jumps of Minimal Degrees 108
4. Minimal Covers and Minimal Upper Bounds Ill
5. Cones of Minimal Covers 113

Chapter VI. Finite Distributive Lattices 118

1. Usl Representations 118
2. Uniform Trees 124
3. Splitting Trees 129
4. Initial Segments of Q) 135
5. An Automorphism Base for 3 139

Chapter VII. Finite Lattices 148

1. Weakly Homogeneous Sequential Lattice Tables 148
2. Uniform Trees 150
3. Splitting Trees 151
4. Finite Ideals of 3f 156

Chapter VIII. Countable Usls 161

1. Countable Ideals of® 161
2. Jump Preserving Isomorphisms 165
3. The Degree of Th(®) 168
4. Elementary Equivalence over 3' 174
5. Isomorphisms Between Cones of Degrees 175

Part C. Initial Segments of 3) and the Jump Operator 181

Chapter IX. Minimal Degrees and High/Low Hierarchies. . 183

1. Partial Recursive Trees 183
2. Minimal Degrees Below 0' 185
3. Minimal Degrees Below Degrees in GH! 192

Chapter X. Jumps of Minimal Degrees 198

1. Targets 198
2. Jumps of Minimal Degrees 206

Chapter XI. Bounding Minimal Degrees with Recursively Enumerable

Degrees 212
1. Trees Permitted by Recursively Enumerable Sets 212
2. Minimal Degrees and Recursively Enumerable Permitting 215
 Table of Contents XIII

Chapter XII. Initial Segments of ®[0,0'] 221

1. Weakly Uniform Trees 221
2. Subtree Constructions 226
3. Splitting Trees 234
4. The Construction 243
5. Generalizations and Applications 256

Appendix A. Coding into Structures and Theories 262

1. Degrees of Presentations of Lattices 262
2. Interpreting Theories within Other Theories 264
3. Second Order Arithmetic 271

Appendix B. Lattice Tables and Representation Theorems 273

1. Finite Distributive Lattices 273
2. Finite Lattices 277
3. Countable Uppersemilattices 281

References 293

Notation Index 298

Subject Index 302

Introduction

Degree theory, as it is studied today, traces its development back to the

fundamental papers of Post [1944] and Kleene and Post [1954]. These papers
introduced algebraic structures which arise naturally from the classification of sets
of natural numbers in terms of the amount of additional oracular information
needed to compute these sets. Thus we say that A is computable from B if there is a
computer program which identifies the elements of A, using a computer which has
access to an oracle containing complete information about the elements of B.
The idea of comparing sets in terms of the amount of information needed to
compute them has been extended to notions of computability or constructibility
which are relevant to other areas of Mathematical Logic such as Set Theory,
Descriptive Set Theory, and Computational Complexity as well as Recursion
Theory. However, the most widely studied notion of degree is still that of degree of
unsolvability or Turing degree. The interest in this area lies as much in the
fascinating combinatorial proofs which seem to be needed to obtain the results as in
the attempt to unravel the mysteries of the structure. An attempt is made, in this
book, to present a study of the degrees which emphasizes the methods of proof as
well as the results. We also try to give the reader a feeling for the usefulness of local
structure theory in determining global properties of the degrees, properties which
deal with questions about homogeneity, automorphisms, decidability and
definability.
This book has been designed for use by two groups of people. The main
intended audience is the student who has already taken a graduate level course in
Recursion Theory. An attempt has been made, however, to make the book
accessible to the reader with some background in Mathematical Logic and a good
feeling for computability. Chapter 1 has been devoted to a summary of basic facts
about computability which are used in the book. The reader who is intuitively
comfortable with these results should be able to master the book. The second
intended use for the book is as a reference to enable the reader to easily locate facts
about the degrees. Thus the reader is directed to further results which are related to
those in a given section whenever the treatment of a topic within a section and its
exercises is not complete.
The material which this book covers deals only with part of Classical Recursion
Theory. A major omission is the study of the lattice of recursively enumerable sets,
and the study of the recursively enumerable degrees is only cursory. These areas are
normally covered in a first course in Recursion Theory, and the books of Soare
[1984], Shoenfield [1971] and Rogers [1967] are recommended as sources for this
material.
2 Introduction

The book contains more material than can be covered in a one semester course.
If time is short, it is advisable to sample material in some of the sections rather than
cover whole sections. Sample courses for one semester would contain a core
consisting of Chaps. I-V and Chap. IX, with the remaining time spent either on
Chaps. VI-VIII (perhaps skipping some of the structure results, and either
assuming them for the purposes of the applications of Chap. VIII, or using the
exercises at the end of Chap. VI to replace the structure results of Chap. VIII in
those applications), or on Chaps. X and XI. Chapter XII is best left to the reader to
puzzle through on his own. The material in the appendices may be covered
immediately before the section where it is used, but it is recommended that this
material be left to the reader.
The following chart describes the major dependencies of one section on another
within the book.

I
I
II
1
III. 1-4
1 J I
III.5-6 III.

VIII XII.5

Some proofs are left unfinished, to be worked out by the reader. This is done
either to avoid repeating a proof which is similar to one already presented, or when
straightforward details remain to be worked out. Hints are provided for the more
difficult exercises, along with references to the original papers where these results
appeared. Exercises which are used later in the text have been starred.
Although an attempt has been made to be accurate in the attribution of results,
it is inevitable that some omissions and perhaps errors occur. We apologize in
advance for those unintentional errors.
Theorems, definitions, etc. are numbered and later referred to by chapter,
section, and number within the section. Thus VI. 1.2 is the numbered paragraph in
 Introduction 3

Sect. 1 of Chap. VI with number 1.2. If the reference to this paragraph is within
Chap. VI, we refer to the paragraph as 1.2, dropping the VI. There are two
appendices, A and B, and a reference to A. 1.2 is a reference to paragraph 1.2 of
Appendix A.

Definitions and Notation. The following definitions and notation will be used
without further comment within the book.
Sets will be determined by listing their elements as {ao,ai,...} or by
specification as the set of all x satisfying property P, denoted by {x: P(x)}. If A and
B are sets, then we write x e A for x is an element of A and A c B for A is a subset of
B. We use A a B to denote A c B but A / B (placing / through a relation symbol
denotes that the relation fails to hold for the specified elements). A U B is the union
of A and B, i.e., the set of all elements which appear either in A or in B, and A f) B
denotes the intersection of A and B, i.e., the set of all elements which appear in both
A and B. The difference of A and B is denoted by A — B and consists of those
elements which lie in A but not in B. The symmetric difference of A and B is denoted
by A A B = (A — B) U (B — A). We will denote the maximum or greatest element of
the partially ordered set {A, ^ > by max(v4), and the minimum or least element of
this set by min(^4) if such maximum and/or minimum elements exist.
Let A, B and C be sets. The cartesian product of A and B, A x B, is the set of all
ordered pairs <x, y} such that x e A and y e B. The cartesian product operation can
be iterated, so that A x B x C is used to denote (A x B) x C. We use Ak to denote
the cartesian product of & copies of A (which is the same as the set of all ^-tuples of
elements of A) and A<co to denote the set of all finite sequences of elements of A. If
x = (xi,..., xk} is a £-tuple, we use x[h] to denote xk, the A:th coordinate of x. Given
S^ A x B and ieA, we use S[i] to denote {xeB:(i,x}eS}.
We use 0 to denote the empty set, and N to denote the set of natural numbers
{0,1,...}. Given A,BeN, we denote the direct sum of A and B by A © B =
{2x: x e A} U {2x + 1: x e B}. For any set A, \A\ will denote the cardinality of A. The
infinite cardinal numbers are Xo, K 1 ? ... in order, and 2K° is the cardinality of the
continuum.
A partial function cp from A to B (written cp: A -• B) is a subset of the set of
ordered pairs {(x,yy: xe A &y e B} such that for each xeA there is at most one
y e B such that (x, y}e(p. We write cp(x)l (<p(x) converges) for <x, y} e <p, and <p(*)T
(cp(x) diverges) if xeA and for all yeB (x,y} $q>. We will sometimes denote the
function cp with the notation x\-+(p(x). The domain of (p is denoted by
dom((p) = {xe^4:^(x)|} and B is called the range of cp, denoted by rng(cp). If
dom(<p) = ^4, we call cp a totalfunction. The word total, however, will frequently be
dropped. Thus unless otherwise specified, a function will always be total. In general,
we use the lower case Roman letters/, gf, A,... to denote functions with domain N
and lower case Greek letters cp, \j/, 6,... to denote partial functions with domain
c TV. The corresponding upper case letters are reserved for functional, i.e., maps
taking functions into functions. A set S is identified with its characteristic function
Xs where %s(x) = 1 if x e A and %s(x) = 0 otherwise. If cp is a partial function and
B c dom((p), then cp \ B is the restriction of cp to 5, i.e., the function with domain B
which agrees with cp on B. By the previous definition, the restriction notation
applies to sets as well as to functions.
4 Introduction

Given/: N -» N, we write lims /(s) = y if {5 :/($) 7^ j} is finite, and lims f(s) = 00

if, for every y e N, {s :f(s) = y) is finite. We write lim sups f(s) = y if {s :f(s) = y) is
infinite and {s:f(s)>y} is finite; and limsupsf(s) = 00 if, for every yeN,
{s:f(s) ^ y) is infinite. We write lim infs/(.?) = y if {s\ f(s) = y) is infinite and
{s\f(s) < y) is finite; and lim infs/(.s) = 00 if, for every ye N, {s:f(s) < y} is finite.
If {as: s e N} is a sequence of finite sequences of integers, then we write lims as for the
partial function 6 such that for all xeN, 9(x)l if and only if lims <xs(x)l, in which case
6(x) = limsocs(x). Given two sequences of integers a and j8, we say that a
lexicographically precedes (I if either a cz f} or a(x) < /?(x) for the least x such that
a(x) ^ P(x). We write lim sups as = OifOisa sequence of integers and for all xeN,
{s\ as \ x = 6 \ x} is infinite and {s:6 lexicographically precedes as} is finite. We
write lim infs OLS = 0 for 0 as in the preceding sentence if {s: as t x = 6 t x} is infinite
for each XEN, and {s:ots£ 9 and as lexicographically precedes 9} is finite.
We use Church's lambda notation to define new functions from old
ones. If /(*!, ...,xn9yl9...9yk) is a function of n + k variables, then
Xxi - • - xnf(xi,..., xn,yi,... ,yk) denotes the function g of n variables defined by
g(xl9... ,xn) =f(xu .. .,xn9yu ... 9yk).
If cp and i^ are partial functions, then we write q> ^\j/ (\j/ extends q>) if
dom(cp) c dom(^) and for all xedom((p), ij/(x)l = cp(x). We say that cp and ij/ are
incomparable and write cp \ \\i if neither cp ^ if/ or \j/ ^ cp.
We write ^4B for the set of all functions from B into ^4. Since sets are identified
with their characteristic functions, 2s then denotes the power set of S, i.e., the set of
all subsets of S.
Standard interval notation will be used for sets A partially ordered by < . Thus
[a,b~] will denote {xeA'.a ^ x ^ b}9 (a,b) will denote {x\a < x < b}, (a, 00) will
denote {x: x ^ a}, (— 00, b~\ will denote {x: x < &}, etc. Structures will be denoted
by si = {A, Ro,..., Rn, / 0 , . . . , fk9 c09..., cw> where A is the universe of J / ,
i^0? • • •»^n are relations on cartesian products of ^, / 0 , . . . , fk are functions from
cartesian products of A into A, and cO9...9cm are designated elements of A. The
partially ordered set above is thus denoted by si = <^4, <>.
We will use the logical symbols & to denote and, v to denote or, —1 to denote
not, -> to denote implies, and <-• to denote if and only if. 3 will denote the existential
quantifier and V will denote the universal quantifier. We will write f\l=0Oi for
<7 t o
GO8LG1 & • • • &(Tn and V?=o i denote a 0 v c^ v • • • v crn. When we are not
using a formal language, we will use => and o in place of -• and <-> respectively.
D will denote the end of a proof.
Part A

The Structure of the

Degrees
Chapter I
Recursive Functions

This chapter is introductory in nature. We summarize material which is normally

covered in a first course in Recursion Theory and which will be assumed within this
book. Recursive and partial recursive functions are introduced and Church's Thesis
is discussed. Relative recursion is then defined, and the Enumeration and Recursion
Theorems are stated without proof. The reader familiar with this material should
quickly skim through the chapter in order to become familiar with our notation. We
refer the reader to the first five chapters of Cutland [1980] for a careful rigorous
treatment of the material introduced in this chapter.

1. The Recursive and Partial Recursive Functions

The search for algorithms has pervaded Mathematics throughout its history. It was
not until this century, however, that rigorous mathematical definitions of algorithm
were discovered, giving rise to the class of partial recursive functions.
This book deals with a classification of total functions of the form/: N -> TV in
terms of the information required to compute such a function. The rules for
carrying out such computations are algorithms (partial functions cp: Nk -> N for
some keN) with access to information possessed by oracles. The easiest functions
to compute are those for which no oracular information is required, the recursive
functions. Thus we begin by defining the (total) recursive functions, and then
indicate how to modify this definition to obtain the class of partial recursive
functions. The section concludes with discussions of Church's Thesis and of general
spaces on which recursive functions can be defined.

1.1 Definition. Let R^Nk+1. iiy[(xl,...,xk,y)eK] is the least y such that

( x l 9 . . . , xk,y) e R if such a y exists, and is undefined otherwise. Henceforth, we will
refer to \i as the least number operator.
1.2 Definition. The class 01 of recursive functions is the smallest class of functions
with domain Nk for some keN and range N which contains:
(i) The zero function: Z(x) = 0 for all xeN;
(ii) The successor function: S(x) = x + 1 for all xeN;
8 I. Recursive Functions

(iii) T h e projection functions: Pnj(x0, . . . , x w ) = Xj for all n,xo,...,xneN and

j<n,
and is closed under:
(iv) Substitution: For all m, ksN9 if all of g(x0,...,xm), ho(yo,... ,yk),...,
hm(yo, • • • j^/k) are elements of ^ , then

is an element of 0t;
(v) Recursion: For all neN, if ^(x 0 ,..., xn) and h(x0,..., xn + 2 ) are elements of
^ , then/(x 0 ,... ,xn + 1) is an element of &, where

0, • • •, x n , 0) = g ( x 0 , . . . , x n )
and
..,xn,y+l) = h(x0, ...,xn,y, f(x0,..., xn9y));

(vi) Thefe«5^number operator: For all neN, if g(xOi..., xn, y) is an element of

9t and Vx 0 ,..., xn 3y\jg(x0,..., xn,y) = 1] then

/ ( x 0 , . . . , xB) = MjfeC^o, • • •, xn, y) = 1]

is an element of 01.
An element of ^ is called a recursive function.
1.3 Definition. Fix weAf and let ^ be a countable class of partial functions of n
natural number variables. An enumeration of # is a partial function cp:Nn+1 ^ N
which lists the elements of #, i.e.,

(i) VI/A e # 3A:eN(Xxu . . . , xn^(*:, x x , . . . , xn) = ^ ( x 0 , . . . , xB))

and
(ii) V^ e iV(Ax!,..., xB^(fc, X!,..., xn) e c€).

1.4 Example. Let <€ = {f:ieN} where f(x) = i for all xeN. Then g:N2^N
defined by g(n, x) = n is an enumeration of ^.
The Enumeration Theorem for partial recursive functions of one variable is an
important tool used in almost every proof in this book. What we would like to have
is a recursive enumeration of the class of recursive functions of one variable.
Unfortunately, such an enumeration does not exist (see Exercise 1.10). All that is
needed, however, is & partial recursive enumeration of the class of partial recursive
functions. With this in mind, we now introduce the class of partial recursive
functions.
1.5 Remark. The obstacle to obtaining a recursive enumeration of the class of
recursive functions of one variable lies in 1.2(vi), the application of the least number
 1. The Recursive and Partial Recursive Functions 9

operator to obtain new recursive functions. There is no algorithm which will

identify whether or not Vx 0 ,..., xn 3y[g(x0,..., xn,y) = 1]. This difficulty can be
circumvented by producing an algorithm which assigns natural numbers (called
Godel numbers) to computations carried out in 1.2(i)-(vi). One then searches for the
least numbered computation which yields g(x0,.. • ,xn,y) = 1 for some y, say
y = y0, and defines
\y0 if jo is ever found,
f(x0, ...,xn) =<
11 otherwise.
Such a procedure was carried out by Kleene, giving rise to the class of partial
recursive functions, 0>. This class contains all the recursive functions, together with
some additional functions, none of which are total.
During the 1930's and 1940's, several attempts were made to give a rigorous
mathematical definition of algorithm. One of these definitions was the class of
partial recursive functions described in Remark 1.5. All of the definitions were
eventually shown to be equivalent, and the equivalence of some of the early
definitions prompted Church to propose his thesis, which asserts:
1.6 Church's Thesis. A function is partial recursive if and only if there is an
algorithm which computes the function on its domain, and diverges outside the
domain of the function.
Church's Thesis asserts that the intuitive notion of algorithm is equivalent to the
mathematically precise notion of partial recursive function. The thesis is almost
universally accepted, and its use has become general mathematical practice. We will
be using Church's Thesis freely and without any explicit warning throughout this
book, by describing the computation of a function and automatically assuming that
the resulting function is partial recursive. A rigorous proof could be given in every
case, but would be very tedious.
In this age of digital computers, the reader might feel most comfortable with the
following description of partial recursive functions. A function / i s partial recursive
if there is a program for a digital computer (no restrictions on memory size are
placed on such a computer, so that we assume that the computer has available to it
an infinite supply of memory space, only finitely much of which is used at a given
time) such that whenever x is fed as input to the computer, the computer will spew
out/(x) after spending a finite amount of time performing computations as directed
by the program (no restrictions, however, are placed on the amount of time
available) if x e dom(/), and the computer will give no answer (perhaps computing
forever) if jc<£dom(/).
To this point, we have only considered functions from Nk into TV for some k > 0.
Shoenfield [1971] has noted that Nk and N can be replaced by any spaces, i.e.,
domains which can effectively be placed in one-one correspondence with N.
Henceforth, any space will be acceptable as either the domain or range of a recursive
function. Typical spaces which we will be using later are mentioned in the next
example.
1.7 Example. The following are spaces:
(i) Nk, the set of all A>tuples of natural numbers, for all k^ 1.
10 I. Recursive Functions

(ii) N<(O, the set of all finite sequences of natural numbers. Henceforth we will
denote N<(O by ^ and call an element of £f a string.
(iii) <fs = {o e $f: o(n) < f(n) for all n e N such that o(n){), where/: JV -> # is a
recursive function and f(x) / 0 for all xeN. Sfs is called the space of f-valued
strings. If / is the constant function f(x) = c for all x, then 5£ will be used in place of
£ff. Thus £f2 is the space of all finite sequences of 0s and Is.
The following notation will be used:
1.8 Definition. Let a, xeSf be given. We say that o c % if for all ieN, if a(i)i then
T ( 0 | and o(i) = x(i). Given/: N -• TV, we say that a c / i f for all /e N, if a(/)| then
(j(i) =f(i). c will denote c and ^ • lh(a) = |{/: <T(0|}| is the length of cr. a * x is the
string of length lh(a) + lh(i) defined by
((T(X) if x < lh(o-),
|T(JC - lh((x)) if lh(ff) ^ x < lh(o-) + lh(r).
In the next section, we will discuss relative recursiveness. We will then be able to
classify arbitrary functions f:N^N on the basis of how much additional
information is required (from an oracle) in order to compute /
1.9-1.13 Exercises
1.9 The class of primitive recursive functions is the smallest class of functions
containing the functions mentioned in 1.2(i)-(iii) and closed under the operations of
1.2(iv)-(v).
(i) Show that there is a recursive enumeration of the class of primitive recursive
functions of one variable. (Hint: Recursively assign Godel numbers to com-
putations, and define the enumeration F(e, x), where XxF(e, x) is the function with
Godel number e.)
(ii) Show that there is a recursive function which is not primitive recursive.
(Hint: Diagonalize against an enumeration of the primitive recursive functions.)
1.10 Show that there is no recursive enumeration of the class of recursive
functions. (Hint: If there were such an enumeration, a diagonalization as in 1.9(ii)
would produce a contradiction.)
1.11 Explain why your proof of 1.10 will not generalize to show that there is no
partial recursive enumeration of the class of partial recursive functions.
1.12 Let S be a space.
(i) Show that Sn is a space,
(ii) Show that S<co is a space.
(iii) Show that there is a T £ S such that T is not a space.
(Hint: Use a cardinality argument after showing that there are only countably
many algorithms.)
1.13 Let S and T be spaces. Show that:
(i) S x T is a space.
(ii) For all neN, [0,ri] x S and S x [0,«] are spaces.
 2. Relative Recursion

2. Relative Recursion

Recursion Theory classifies total functions on the basis of how much additional
information must be provided by an oracle to compute the given function. This
classification relies on the notion of relative recursion.
Relative recursion is defined by expanding the class of initial functions in
Definition 1.1. We will use this notion in Chap. 2 to form an algebraic structure
from {/TV-+TV}.
2.1 Definition. Let/: TVm -• TV be given. The class 0$f offunctions recursive in / i s the
smallest class of functions containing/and the functions mentioned in 1.2(i)-(iii)
and closed under the operations of 1.2(iv)-(vi). An element g of 0tf is said to be
recursive in f written g < r /
Recursiveness i n / or relative recursion, was introduced by Turing [1939]
whose name gave rise to the T in ^ T. ^ T is frequently referred to as Turing
reducibility.
The partial recursive functions, as we indicated earlier, are those partial
functions which an idealized digital computer can compute. The domain of such a
function is the set of numbers which, when fed as input to the computer, will
eventually cause the computer to output a number.
Given / : Nk -• TV, the partial functions computable from f can similarly be
described through the use of a digital computer with access to the oracle f The
notion of computer program is generalized to allow instructions of the form if
f{x i,.. .,xk) = y proceed to a certain instruction', otherwise, proceed to another
specified instruction. As we proceed through the computation of a partial function g
computable from/to which z has been fed as input, whenever we reach a step in the
program of the type just described above, the computer does something non-
constructive; it asks the/oracle whether/(x l5 . ..,xk) = y, and once the answer is
received from the / oracle, continues the computation utilizing the information
provided by the oracle. Complete knowledge of / allows us to compute #(z)
whenever #(z)j, so g is computable from/ Futhermore, if #(z)|, then since any
computation is completed in finitely many steps, only a finite amount of
information about / i s used.
2.2 Remark. There is also a version of Church's Thesis for relative recursion which
will be used freely throughout this book. It asserts that the partial functions
computable from / a r e exactly those for which there exists an algorithm using a n /
oracle as above to perform the computation.
It will frequently be more convenient to use sets than functions when discussing
relative recursiveness. This is easily accomplished by identifying a set with its
characteristic function, which we define as follows:
2.3 Definition. Let A c TV. The characteristic function of A, %A, is defined by
fO if x$A
U if xeA.
More generally, a relation R^ Nk will be identified with its characteristic function
12 I. Recursive Functions

XR, defined by
JO if R(xu ..., xk) is false,
if R(xu...,xk)is true.
2.4 Definition. A relation R is said to be recursive in the function/if ^ is recursive
in/
2.5 Remarks. A summary of the history of relative recursion appears in Kleene and
Post [1954]. Three versions appear in the literature, all of which were later proved
to be equivalent. They were formulated by Turing [1939] generalizing the machines
introduced by Turing [1937]; Kleene [1943] extending the definition of recursive
functions; and Post [1948] extending the concept of canonical sets which was
introduced in Post [1943].
2.6 Exercise. Let/, g:N -+ Nbe given such that {/:/(/) # g(()} is finite. Show that

3. The Enumeration and Recursion Theorems

Two basic theorems of Recursion Theory are stated in this section. The first of
these, the Enumeration Theorem, will be used in virtually every proof in this book.
The Recursion Theorem will be used to enable us to simplify proofs of certain
theorems. Complete proofs or detailed sketches of the proofs of these theorems can
be found in Soare [1984], Rogers [1967], Cutland [1980] and Kleene [1952]. A
nice proof of the Recursion Theorem can also be found in Owings [1973].
The Enumeration Theorem asserts the existence of a function cp(p, e, x, s) which
uniformly induces a whole class of enumerations. The definition of cp{a, e, x, s)
reflects the following intuition. A computer is programmed, with e coding the
program. The input x is then fed to the computer, and the computer then performs s
steps as directed by the program. During these s steps, the computer may come
across program instructions of the form iff(x) = y proceed to a certain instruction,
and iff{x) ^ y proceed to another specified, but different instruction. When faced
with such a choice, the computer asks "is o(x) = yT\ If x ^ lh(<7), then there will be
no output. If x < lh(cr), then a answers the question for / and the computation
continues. If there is no output from the computer after s steps, the computation
ceases and cp(o, e,x,s)]. If a number is outputted by the end of the ,sth step,
(p(a, e, x, s)l and is set equal to this output.
3.1 Enumeration Theorem. There is a partial recursive function cp-.Sf x TV3 -• N
with the following properties:
(i) {Use property)

V(j,TeyVe,x,s,yEN((j c T&(p(a,e,x,s)l = y-• q>(x9e9x9s)i = y),

i.e., if a number is given as output, then oracle information extending the original
information will not alter the output.
 3. The Enumeration and Recursion Theorems 13

(ii) {Permanence property)

VoeSfVe,x,s,t,yeN(s ^ tSL(p(a,e,x,s)[ = y -> q>(c,e,x,t)\ = y),

i.e., once a number is given as output, additional steps do not change this output.
(iii) (Uniform enumeration property) Given f: N -> N and 6: N -»TV computable
fromf then there is an eeN such that for all x, yeN

6(x) = y «-* 3a 3s(a c / & cp(o, e, x, s)l = y),

i.e., for every partial function 6 computable from f there is a program coded into cp
which computes 9. (Note that if 6 is not given but rather defined by the above formula,
then 6 is computable from f.)
(iv) (Recursiveness property) The domain ofcp is a recursive subset of Sf x TV3
(since s bounds the length of a permissible computation).
(v) (Uniform coding property) Given a sequence {Oi'.ieN} of functions comput-
able from f: N -• N such that the definition of6t is given by a finite set of instructions
using parameter i, then there is a recursive function g such that for all x,yeN

et(x) = y <-• 3d 3s((p(a, g(i), x,s)i = y & a c / ) ,

i.e., if the definitions of a class of functions are given uniformly recursively, then there
is a recursive function which gives codes for programs computing each of these
functions.
3.2 Remark. Let cp be the function given by the Enumeration Theorem. For all
0:N->N, define the functional <Pe by

(i) <Pe(e,x)=yo3aeSf{a ^6&<p(o,e,x,lh(cr))| = y).

Then <Pe is computable from 0, and <Pf provides an enumeration of Stf, uniformly in
/ . In particular, if / is any recursive function, then <Pf is a partial recursive
enumeration of the class of partial recursive functions. I f / = 0, then we write <P in
place of <Pf.
For the remainder of this book, cp will denote the function given by the
enumeration theorem, and <Pe will be defined as in 3.2(i). For each eeN, we will also
fix the function <Pde = Xx$e(e, x).
Property 3.1(v) is known as the s-m-n Theorem. Another way of stating this
theorem is as follows: Let h(x,y) be a function computable from/. Then there is a
function g computable from/such that for all xeN, h(x,y) = $fg(x). Thus, for
example, if h(x, y) = x, then there is a recursive function g such that for each x e N,
g(x) is an index for the constant function x as a recursive function.
The Recursion Theorem is a basic theorem about the enumerations mentioned
in Remark 3.2. It is frequently referred to as the Fixed Point Theorem.
3.3 Recursion Theorem. Let the recursive function h: N -• Nbe given. Then there is an
eeN such that <P{ = <P{{e) for allf: N-• N.
14 I. Recursive Functions

3.4 Definition. If $fe = $fh{e) then <P{ is called a fixed point (of the enumeration <Pf)
for h.
We will be using the Recursion Theorem in the following way. Given a function
f:N-+ N and eeN,we will start with the partial function <P{ and, uniformly in e, we
will recursively construct a partial function $[{eY An application of the Recursion
Theorem will allow us to choose an e such that our starting function $fe and our
constructed function 0{(e) are identical. Thus in certain situations, the Recursion
Theorem allows us to construct a function while simultaneously using information
about the function in its construction. By the uses of the Recursion Theorem, the
information used about the function will have to be specified at an earlier stage,
although this fact is hidden in the actual applications.
3.5 Remark. The Enumeration and Recursion Theorems were discovered by Kleene
(see Kleene [1952]).
3.6-3.8 Exercises. The definitions in 3.6 and 3.7 describe recursive procedures
which define one partial recursive function in terms of another. For each definition,
apply the Recursion Theorem to obtain a fixed point. Is this fixed point a total
function? What is the fixed point?
CO if « = 0,
3.6 0h{e)(n) = ) <Pe(n - 1) if n > 0&<Pe(n ~ 1)1,
^t otherwise.
\n if <
3.7 <ph{(n) = < .
(j otherwise.
3.8 Prove the Recursion Theorem. (Hint: Given meN, define

l\ otherwise.
By the uniform coding property, find a recursive function g such that
\l/(m, x) = <Pg{m)(x) for all m and x. Given a recursive function / , let e be a Godel
number for fg. Show that n = g(e) is a fixed point for/.)
Another random document with
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dangerous situations. The tide rose very rapidly, and all the
temporary embarrassments of our situation vanished with our
footprints in the sand. The mounting sun soon burned up the fog,
which in dispersing produced its usual singular and fantastic effects
upon the rugged and precipitous shores that lay on each side; and
retaining the services of our old friend as pilot, we ran through the
river, which is about four miles long, and connected with the harbor
of Gloucester by a short canal, through which we passed, and spent
another pleasant day in that town previous to starting for Boston;
which place we had left just three weeks before. We arrived there
the next day, meeting with nothing worthy of particular notice in the
course of it.

Our vessel ashore on Squam Bar.

“Such is a brief outline of our excursion, from which we returned
much invigorated in mind and body. A thousand little incidents
occurred, serving to enhance the pleasure of the trip, which it would
be impossible to condense into so small a space as is here allotted
us. We had finer opportunities of obtaining picturesque sketches of
our New England coast scenery, than could be obtained by any other
method. One of our company made a sketch of our mischance upon
the bar, and an engraving of it is presented to the reader. We had a
good opportunity of observing the peculiar traits that characterize the
hardy race that inhabit our rough and rock-bound coast, and always
found them a freehearted, hospitable people, ever ready to yield any
assistance we might need. We were obliged to submit to many little
inconveniences, it is true, which, had they not been voluntary, or had
they come under other than the then existing circumstances, would
have been deemed hardships; but there was so much excitement, so
much novelty, such an endless variety of new objects from day to
day to attract and interest us, that we were a thousand times repaid
for all our petty privations.”

Proverb.—A person who is suspicious, ought to be suspected.

Travels, Adventures, and Experiences of Thomas
Trotter.

CHAPTER V.
Departure from Malta.—​Arrival at Sicily.—​Syracuse Ruins.—​Ear of
Dionysius.

Our vessel landed her cargo at Malta, and then took in ballast
and sailed for Palermo, in Sicily, to load with fruit. I preferred to cross
immediately over to Syracuse, and take Mount Ætna in my way,
being very desirous not to lose a sight of this celebrated volcano. I
found a Sicilian vessel about to sail, and took passage in her. She
was a polacre, having the masts of single sticks from top to bottom,
instead of three or four pieces joined together, like the masts of
English and American vessels. I could not help laughing at the
oddities of the crew: there were fifteen of them, although the vessel
was not above seventy tons burthen. They were the queerest ship’s
company I ever saw; all captains and mates, and no common
sailors. Whatever was to be done was everybody’s business: there
was no discipline, no order, no concert; all was hurly-burly, and
scampering here and there, and tumbling head over heels.
Which was the commander, nobody could tell, for every one was
giving orders. The slightest manœuvre caused a clatter and bawling
that made me think the masts were going overboard. If there was a
rope as big as a tom-cod-line to be pulled, the whole crew would
string themselves along it, yo! heave ho! tug it an inch and a half,
puff and blow, thump and clamor, as if it were a case of life and
death. Every man must have a finger in what was going on, even to
cuffing the cabin-boy. The men squatted down upon deck to their
meals all in a group, and fell to cracking jokes and cutting capers
together. The helmsman sat in a chair to steer, and moved his seat
as often as he luffed or bore away. A little hop-off-my-thumb fellow,
with a comically dirty face and ragged breeches, sat upon a bucket
to watch the hour-glass in the binnacle. We had only seventy or
eighty miles to sail from Malta to Sicily, with a fair wind and a smooth
sea, but the fuss and clatter during the navigation of this short space
were prodigious. All hands were running fore and aft, looking out
ahead and astern, bustling around the man at the helm, peeping at
the compass, and jabbering and gesticulating as if they were in the
most imminent danger.
At daylight the next morning, we found ourselves close under the
Sicilian shore, with Mount Ætna in the north, towering up majestically
to the heavens, like a huge pyramid of snow with a black spot at the
top. It was more than seventy miles off. About ten in the forenoon we
arrived at Syracuse, a city which was once ten times as big as
Boston, but is now almost entirely depopulated. It has a noble
harbor, but we found only a few fishing-boats there; and when we
landed at the quay, hardly a living being was to be seen: everything
looked solitary, ruinous, and forlorn. I walked through the streets, but
saw no signs of trade, commerce, or industry. A few people were
sitting lazily before their doors, sunning themselves; and numbers of
beggars dogged my heels wherever I went. Now and then I met a
donkey with a pannier of greens, but no such thing as a wagon or
chaise.
When I got to the market-place, I saw groups of people sitting in
the sun or lounging idly about, but no business doing. I could not
help smiling to see a constable, who was strutting up and down to
keep the peace among this pack of lazy fellows. He wore a great,
long, tattered cloak, a huge cocked hat, a sword, and he had a most
flaming, fiery visage, with a nose like a blood-beet. I never saw such
a swaggering figure in my life, before. He happened to spy a little
urchin pilfering a bunch of greens, on which he caught him by the
nape of the neck with one hand, and drawing his sword with the
other, gave him a lusty thwacking with the flat of the blade. The little
rogue kicked and squalled, and made a most prodigious uproar,
which afforded great amusement to the crowd: they seemed to be
quite familiar with such adventures.
I walked out into the country, and was struck with astonishment at
the sight of the ruins scattered all round the neighborhood. They
extend for miles in every direction. Walls, arches, columns, remains
of temples, theatres and palaces met the eye at every step. Here
and there were little gardens among the ruins, where artichokes
were growing, but hardly a human being was to be seen. I came at
length to the remains of a large theatre, consisting of a semicircle of
stone steps, and found a mill stream tumbling down the middle of it.
A ragged peasant was lying lazily in the sun among the ruins. I
asked him what building it was, but he was totally ignorant of the
matter, and could only reply that it was “cosa antica”—something
ancient. Presently I discovered an enormous excavation in the solid
rock, as big as a house, which excited my curiosity very strongly. I
could not imagine the use of it, till I luckily met an old Capuchin friar,
plodding along in his coarse woollen gown; and learnt from him that
this was the famous “Ear of Dionysius,” where that tyrannical king
used to confine such persons as fell under his suspicion. It is a most
curious place, hollowed out in the shape of the human ear, and
forming a vast cavern: in the top is a little nook or chamber, where
the tyrant used to sit and hear what the prisoners said. The lowest
whisper was heard distinctly in this spot; so that the prisoners were
sure to betray themselves if they held any conversation together.
While I stood wondering at this strange perversion of human
ingenuity, I was startled by the appearance of a grim-looking fellow,
who pulled out a pistol as he approached me. My first impulse was to
grasp my trusty cudgel, and flourish it at him with a fierce air of
defiance, for I took him to be a robber, of course. To my surprise he
burst out a laughing, and told me he had come on purpose to show
me the wonderful effect of sound in the Ear. He bade me go into the
further end of the cavern, while he fired the pistol at the entrance. I
did so, and the effect was like the roaring of thunder: I was glad to
clap my hands to my ears and run out as fast as I could. I gave the
fellow a few cents for his trouble, and told him I had never before got
so much noise for so little money.
 I continued to ramble about among the ruins, which seemed to
have no end. The almond trees were in full bloom, and the orange
trees were bowing down under loads of ripe fruit. Flocks of magpies
were flitting about, but everything was silent and deserted. Now and
then I met a countryman jogging lazily along upon a donkey, or an
old woman driving her beast with a load of vine-stalks, which are
used in the city to heat ovens. I could not help wondering to see so
fine a territory lie utterly neglected; but the indolence of the
inhabitants is the cause of all. A very little labor will earn a loaf of
bread, and most of them are satisfied with this. The climate is so
mild, that ragged clothes occasion no discomfort, and hardly
anybody minds going in rags. The soil is so rich as scarcely to
require art or industry in the cultivation. The oranges and the grapes
grow with hardly any care, and the husbandman lives a lazy life, with
but little to do except to pick the fruit and make the wine.
 Sketches of the Manners, Customs, and History
of the Indians of America.

(Continued from page 119.)

CHAPTER II.
The West Indies continued.—​Discovery of Hayti.—​Generosity of the
Cacique.—​Testimony of Columbus in favor with the Indians.—​
Character of the natives.—​Columbus erects a cross.—​Indian
belief.—​Effect of the Spanish invasion.—​The Cacique.

Columbus entered a harbor at the western end of the island of

Hayti, on the evening of the 6th of December. He gave to the harbor
the name of St. Nicholas, which it bears to this day. The inhabitants
were frightened at the approach of the ships, and they all fled to the
mountains. It was some time before any of the natives could be
found. At last three sailors succeeded in overtaking a young and
beautiful female, whom they carried to the ships.
She was treated with the greatest kindness, and dismissed finely
clothed, and loaded with presents of beads, hawk’s bells, and other
pretty baubles. Columbus hoped by this conduct to conciliate the
Indians; and he succeeded. The next day, when the Spaniards
landed, the natives permitted them to enter their houses, and set
before them bread, fish, roots and fruits of various kinds, in the most
kind and hospitable manner.
Columbus sailed along the coast, continuing his intercourse with
the natives, some of whom had ornaments of gold, which they
readily exchanged for the merest trifle of European manufacture.
These poor, simple people little thought that to obtain gold these
Christians would destroy all the Indians in the islands. No—they
believed the Spaniards were more than mortal, and the country from
which they came must exist somewhere in the skies.
The generous and kind feelings of the natives were shown to
great advantage when Columbus was distressed by the loss of his
ship. He was sailing to visit a grand cacique or chieftain named
Guacanagari, who resided on the coast to the eastward, when his
ship ran aground, and the breakers beating against her, she was
entirely wrecked. He immediately sent messengers to inform
Guacanagari of this misfortune.
When the cacique heard of the distress of his guest, he was so
much afflicted as to shed tears; and never in civilized country were
the vaunted rites of hospitality more scrupulously observed than by
this uncultivated savage. He assembled his people and sent off all
his canoes to the assistance of Columbus, assuring him, at the same
time, that everything he possessed was at his service. The effects
were landed from the wreck and deposited near the dwelling of the
cacique, and a guard set over them, until houses could be prepared,
in which they could be stored.
There seemed, however, no disposition among the natives to take
advantage of the misfortune of the strangers, or to plunder the
treasures thus cast upon their shores, though they must have been
inestimable in their eyes. On the contrary, they manifested as deep a
concern at the disaster of the Spaniards as if it had happened to
themselves, and their only study was, how they could administer
relief and consolation.
Columbus was greatly affected by this unexpected goodness.
“These people,” said he in his journal, “love their neighbors as
themselves; their discourse is ever sweet and gentle, and
accompanied by a smile. There is not in the world a better nation or
a better land.”
When the cacique first met with Columbus, the latter appeared
dejected, and the good Indian, much moved, again offered
Columbus everything he possessed that could be of service to him.
He invited him on shore, where a banquet was prepared for his
entertainment, consisting of various kinds of fish and fruit. After the
feast, Columbus was conducted to the beautiful groves which
surrounded the dwelling of the cacique, where upwards of a
thousand of the natives were assembled, all perfectly naked, who
performed several of their national games and dances.
Thus did this generous Indian try, by every means in his power, to
cheer the melancholy of his guest, showing a warmth of sympathy, a
delicacy of attention, and an innate dignity and refinement, which
could not have been expected from one in his savage state.
He was treated with great deference by his subjects, and
conducted himself towards them with a gracious and prince-like
majesty.
Three houses were given to the shipwrecked crew for their
residence. Here, living on shore, and mingling freely with the natives,
they became fascinated by their easy and idle mode of life. They
were governed by the caciques with an absolute, but patriarchal and
easy rule, and existed in that state of primitive and savage simplicity
which some philosophers have fondly pictured as the most enviable
on earth.
The following is the opinion of old Peter Martyr: “It is certain that
the land among these people (the Indians) is as common as the sun
and water, and that ‘mine and thine,’ the seeds of all mischief, have
no place with them. They are content with so little, that, in so large a
country, they have rather superfluity than scarceness; so that they
seem to live in a golden world, without toil, in open gardens, neither
entrenched nor shut up by walls or hedges. They deal truly with one
another, without laws, or books, or judges.”
In fact, these Indians seemed to be perfectly contented; their few
fields, cultivated almost without labor, furnished roots and
vegetables; their groves were laden with delicious fruit; and the coast
and rivers abounded with fish. Softened by the indulgence of nature,
a great part of the day was passed by them in indolent repose. In the
evening they danced in their fragrant groves to their national songs,
or the rude sound of their silver drums.
Such was the character of the natives of many of the West Indian
Islands, when first discovered. Simple and ignorant they were, and
indolent also, but then they were kind-hearted, generous, and happy.
And their sense of justice, and of the obligations of man to do right,
are beautifully set forth in the following story.

Columbus erecting a Cross.

It was a custom with Columbus to erect crosses in all remarkable
places, to denote the discovery of the country, and its subjugation to
the Catholic faith. He once performed this ceremony on the banks of
a river in Cuba. It was on a Sunday morning. The cacique attended,
and also a favorite of his, a venerable Indian, fourscore years of age.
While mass was performed in a stately grove, the natives looked
on with awe and reverence. When it was ended, the old man made a
speech to Columbus in the Indian manner. “I am told,” said he, “that
thou hast lately come to these lands with a mighty force, and hast
subdued many countries, spreading great fear among the people;
but be not vain-glorious.
“According to our belief, the souls of men have two journeys to
perform after they have departed from the body: one to a place
dismal, foul, and covered with darkness, prepared for such men as
have been unjust and cruel to their fellow-men; the other full of
delight for such as have promoted peace on earth. If then thou art
mortal, and dost expect to die, beware that thou hurt no man
wrongfully, neither do harm to those who have done no harm to
thee.”
When this speech was explained to Columbus by his interpreter,
he was greatly moved, and rejoiced to hear this doctrine of the future
state of the soul, having supposed that no belief of the kind existed
among the inhabitants of these countries. He assured the old man
that he had been sent by his sovereigns, to teach them the true
religion, to protect them from harm, and to subdue their enemies the
Caribs.
Alas! for the simple Indians who believed such professions.
Columbus, no doubt, was sincere, but the adventurers who
accompanied him, and the tyrants who followed him, cared only for
riches for themselves. They ground down the poor, harmless red
men beneath a harsh system of labor, obliging them to furnish,
month by month, so much gold. This gold was found in fine grains,
and it was a severe task to search the mountain pebbles and the
sands of the plains for the shining dust.
Then the islands, after they were seized upon by the Christians,
were parcelled out among the leaders, and the Indians were
compelled to be their slaves. No wonder “deep despair fell upon the
natives. Weak and indolent by nature, and brought up in the
untasked idleness of their soft climate and their fruitful groves, death
itself seemed preferable to a life of toil and anxiety.
“The pleasant life of the island was at an end; the dream in the
shade by day; the slumber during the noontide heat by the fountain,
or under the spreading palm; and the song, and the dance, and the
game in the mellow evening, when summoned to their simple
amusements by the rude Indian drum.
“They spoke of the times that were past, before the white men
had introduced sorrow, and slavery, and weary labor among them;
and their songs were mournful, and their dances slow.
 “They had flattered themselves, for a time, that the visit of the
strangers would be but temporary, and that, spreading their ample
sails, their ships would waft them back to their home in the sky. In
their simplicity, they had frequently inquired of the Spaniards when
they intended to return to Turey, or the heavens. But when all such
hope was at an end, they became desperate, and resorted to a
forlorn and terrible alternative.”
They knew the Spaniards depended chiefly on the supplies raised
in the islands for a subsistence; and these poor Indians endeavored
to produce a famine. For this purpose they destroyed their fields of
maize, stripped the trees of their fruit, pulled up the yuca and other
roots, and then fled to the mountains.
The Spaniards were reduced to much distress, but were partially
relieved by supplies from Spain. To revenge themselves on the
Indians, they pursued them to their mountain retreats, hunted them
from one dreary fastness to another, like wild beasts, until thousands
perished in dens and caverns, of famine and sickness, and the
survivors, yielding themselves up in despair, submitted to the yoke of
slavery. But they did not long bear the burden of life under their
civilized masters. In 1504, only twelve years after the discovery of
Hayti, when Columbus visited it, (under the administration of
Ovando,) he thus wrote to his sovereigns: “Since I left the island, six
parts out of seven of the natives are dead, all through ill-treatment
and inhumanity; some by the sword, others by blows and cruel
usage, or by hunger.”
No wonder these oppressed Indians considered the Christians the
incarnation of all evil. Their feelings were often expressed in a
manner that must have touched the heart of a real Christian, if there
was such a one among their oppressors.
When Velasquez set out to conquer Cuba, he had only three
hundred men; and these were thought sufficient to subdue an island
above seven hundred miles in length, and filled with inhabitants.
From this circumstance we may understand how naturally mild and
unwarlike was the character of the Indians. Indeed, they offered no
opposition to the Spaniards, except in one district. Hatney, a cacique
who had fled from Hayti, had taken possession of the eastern
extremity of Cuba. He stood upon the defensive, and endeavored to
drive the Spaniards back to their ships. He was soon defeated and
taken prisoner.
Velasquez considered him as a slave who had taken arms against
his master, and condemned him to the flames. When Hatney was
tied to the stake, a friar came forward, and told him that if he would
embrace the Christian faith, he should be immediately, on his death,
admitted into heaven.
“Are there any Spaniards,” says Hatney, after some pause, “in
that region of bliss you describe?”
“Yes,” replied the monk, “but only such as are worthy and good.”
“The best of them,” returned the indignant Indian, “have neither
worth nor goodness; I will not go to a place where I may meet with
one of that cruel race.”
(To be continued.)

Something Wonderful.

The thing to which we refer is a seed. How wonderful that an

acorn should contain within it a little plant, capable of growing up into
an enormous oak, which will produce other acorns, capable of
growing into other oaks, and so on forever! and yet there are seeds
not one hundredth part as big as an acorn, which produce trees
almost, if not quite, as large as an oak.
Or think of a grain of wheat. It is just as useful for food as if it
contained nothing but a little flour mixed with a little bran. In fact,
when it is ground there is nothing else to be seen; but beside these it
contains a little plant, too small to be made out by common sight.
When one of these grains or seeds is put into moist earth, it
begins to suck in water, which softens it and makes it swell. The little
plant inside begins to grow, and in a few days a small, delicate root
peeps out from one end of the seed. The seed may be lying on its
side, or with the root end uppermost; but the little root, whether it
comes out at the top or bottom of the seed, immediately turns
downward, and grows in that direction.
Soon after, a little white shoot comes out at the other end, which
turns upwards, and becomes green as soon as it gets into air and
light; and thus we have a little plant.
In the mean time, the seed itself spoils and decays; or, as St. Paul
calls it, dies. The flour changes into a kind of gummy sugar, which is
sucked up by the young plant as its first nourishment; the husk
shrivels and rots, and the plant grows up until it becomes a thousand
times as large as the seed. At last it produces many other seeds, just
as wonderful as that from which it grew.
In all the works of man, there is nothing like this. A watch is a
remarkable invention, and a man would be set down as mad who
should think it should be made by chance. But how much more
wonderful would a watch be, if it could make other watches like itself!
Yet a seed does this; and every cornfield in harvest-time contains
millions of seeds, each of which is far more wonderful than the best
watch.
The reason is, that men make watches, but God makes seeds. It
is true that the skill by which men make watches comes from God,
and should be acknowledged as his gift; but the more wonderful
power by which a seed is made, he keeps in his own hands, that we
may know that we have a Maker and a Master in heaven, and may
serve him with reverence and godly fear.
 Fanny Gossip and Susan Lazy;
a dialogue.

Susan. Well, Fanny, I was on my way to your house. I thought I

never should see your face again. Did you ever know such a long,
stupid storm? nothing but rain, rain, rain for three everlasting days!
Fanny. And in vacation-time too! it did seem too bad. If our house
had not been on the street, so that I could see something stirring, I
believe I should have had the blues.
Susan. And I did have the blues outright. I never was so dull in my
life, moping about the house. Mother won’t let me touch such books
as I like to read, and the boys went to school all day, so I had nothing
on earth to do but look at the drops of rain racing down the windows,
and watch the clouds to see if it was going to clear up. I assure you I
fretted from morning till night, and mother got out of all patience with
me, and said I was a perfect nuisance in the house; but I am sure it
was not my fault.
Fanny. Well! I was a little better off. I sat half the time making fun
of all the shabby cloaks and umbrellas that turned out in the rain.
There was Mr. Skimmer went by every day with a cotton umbrella;
and Mr. Saveals with an old faded silk one, three of the whalebones
started out on one side, as if he wanted to poke people’s eyes out,
and a great slit to let the rain through:—both of them misers, I know!
And there was Miss Goodbody! she goes to see sick poor folks in all
weathers, and won’t take a carriage, though she can afford it,
because she says that would be ridiculous. I wish you had seen her
come paddling through the wet! such shoes, and such stockings! I
do think it is unladylike. Then, when everything else failed to amuse
me, there were our neighbors opposite to be speculated upon.
 Susan. Ah! Laura Busy lives just across the street, I believe?
Fanny. Yes, and there she sat at the window, on purpose to be
seen, stitching away, and reading, and setting herself up as a pattern
to the whole neighborhood.
Susan. I would not have such a strict mother as she has for all the
world. I don’t believe she enjoys her vacation at all.
Fanny. I dare say it is her mother that keeps her at it so close. I
should think she was bringing her up to be a seamstress; and yet,
considering that everybody knows Mr. Busy is not rich, they dress
Laura extravagantly. Did you see that beautiful French calico she
wore on examination day?
Susan. Yes, I saw it across the room, and thought I would go over
and look at it, but couldn’t take the trouble.
Fanny. Why, how you do gape, Susan!
Susan. I know it; mother says I have a terrible trick of gaping. But
I do get so tired.
Fanny. Tired of what?
Susan. I don’t know; I am tired of the vacation, I believe: and
before the term was over I was wishing so for it! I was tired to death
of school, and dare say I shall be so again in a fortnight.
Fanny. Here comes Laura, glad enough to get away from
mamma’s workbasket. Just see how fast she walks;—ah ha! she is
going to the circulating library; look at that novel under her arm.
Susan. I shall tell my mother of that; she thinks everything right
that the Busy family do.
(Enter Laura.)
Fanny. Well, Laura, poor thing! you are so glad to get out of the
house that I suppose you are running away from it as fast as you
can.
Laura. I am not quite running, I believe, but you know I always
walk fast.
 Susan. I can’t think why, I am sure.
Laura. It saves a deal of time, and the exercise does me more
good than if I were to go sauntering along.
Susan. Saves time? and in the vacation too? why, of what
consequence is time now, when you have no school-hours to mind?
Laura. Because if I don’t take care I shall not get through what I
have planned. Only think how fast the vacation is going! Next
Monday school begins.
Fanny. So the studious Miss Laura Busy is sorry the vacation is
almost over. I thought you told the master, when school broke up,
that you wished there was no vacation.
Laura. I did wish so then, for I thought vacation would be a dull
time.
Susan. I am sure it has been horrid dull to me, and I should think
it must have been worse yet for you.
Laura. Why?
Susan. Because your mother keeps you at work all the time.
Laura. Indeed she does not. She sent me out to walk this very
afternoon, and she always makes me put my work away at just such
hours, for fear I should sit too close at my needle.
Susan. Mercy! do you love to sew? oh, I suppose you are learning
fancy work: well, I don’t know but I might like that for a little while.
Laura. No, mother says I must not learn fancy work till I can do
plain sewing extremely well. I was thinking how I should manage to
pass the vacation, and I took it into my head that I would try to make
a shirt by a particular time, and that is Saturday, my birthday. I shall
be twelve years old next Saturday, and then I shall present my father
with a shirt of my own making.
Susan. Did you do all the fine stitching yourself?
Laura. To be sure.
Susan. I am sure I would not make myself such a slave.
 Laura. There is no slavery about it; it was my own pleasure; and
you cannot think how fast it has made the time go. I set myself a task
every day, and then, you see, trying to get just so much done by
twelve o’clock, made me feel so interested!
Fanny. And the rest of the time you have been reading novels, I
see.
Laura. No, indeed; I never read one in my life. Did you think this
library-book was a novel?
Fanny. Let me see it; “Astoria;” is not that the name of some
heroine? let me look at it a little. (Turning over the leaves.)
Laura. You can’t think how interesting it is. It gives an account of a
place away on the western coast of North America; and of all that the
people suffered to get there; and about the very wildest Indians, and
the trappers, and the Rocky Mountains; and here is a map, you see,
Susan.
Susan. Oh, well! it is a sort of geography-book, I suppose.
Laura. Such books will make your geography pleasanter than
ever, I am sure; do read it.
Susan. Not I; I have hardly touched a book or a needle this
vacation, and I have no idea of it. These long summer days are
tedious enough without that.
Laura. But I do believe they would be pleasanter if you were only
occupied about something or other.
Fanny. And so, Laura, you have really spent this whole vacation
without a bit of amusement? I must say I think there is a little
affectation in that.
Laura. Oh no, indeed! I do not like to sit still from morning till night
any better than you do; and mother would not let me if I did. I have
taken a long, brisk walk every day.
Fanny. What, alone? I hate walking alone.
Laura. Not alone, very often; sister Helen sometimes walks over
the bridge into the country with me, and we get wild flowers, and she
explains all about them; that we call going botanizing, and it makes
the walks much more pleasant. It really made me stare when she
pulled a common head of clover to pieces and showed me how
curiously it is made up of ever so many florets, as she calls them;
and even the dandelion is very queer.
Susan. And did you go botanizing in the rain too?
Laura. No; of course we could not stir out then.
Susan. Then I rather think you found the last three days as dull as
any of us.
Fanny. Not she, Susan. No doubt it was very pleasant to sit
perched up at the window all day, for the passers to admire her
industry.
Laura. O, Fanny, how can you be so uncharitable! if you had not
been at the window so much yourself you would not have seen me.
Fanny. But I was not making a display of myself, with a book or a
needle forever in my hand.
Laura. No, Fanny; if you had been occupied, however, you would
not have been making such unkind remarks about your neighbors,
would you? Did you not observe that my mother sat at the window
with me? The reason was, we cannot see to work in any other part of
the room when it is cloudy. You know our little breakfast-room has
only one window.
Susan. So for the last three days you have been reading and
poking your needle in and out from morning till night? Well! it would
be the death of me. (Gaping.)
Laura. Why no; I tell you I do not like sitting still forever, any more
than you do; I like to use my feet every day as well as my hands, and
I presume they expect it. Too much stitching gives me a stitch in my
side; so when rainy weather came I played battledoor and
shuttlecock with father when he came home to dinner, and one day
we kept it up to five hundred and two. Then before tea I used to skip
rope along the upper entry sometimes; and then there was
something else—but I suppose Fanny will tell all the girls in school
and make them laugh at me; but I really enjoyed it best of anything.
Fanny. What was it? tell us, do. I hate secrets.
Laura. You like to find them out, I am sure; but it is no mighty
secret, after all; and I don’t know why I need be ashamed to tell, for
my father and mother made no objection. I went up into the nursery
every evening before the little ones went to bed, and played blind
man’s buff with them.
Fanny. And could you take any pleasure in it?
Laura. To be sure.
Fanny. Then I must say I had no idea you were such a baby. Mr.
Teachall’s best scholar playing romping games with little children! I
am six months younger than you, Laura, but I hold myself rather too
much of a woman for blind man’s buff! I gave that up three years
ago!
Laura. Well! it seemed to make the children enjoy their fun all the
better, and I am sure it did me a deal of good, and did nobody any
harm; so I am content to be called a baby.
Susan. I don’t see how you could take the trouble; it tires me just
to think of going racing about the room at that rate. I should as soon
think of sitting down to study French for amusement.
Fanny. I wonder you did not do that too, Miss Busy. I declare she
looks as if she had! Who would have thought of that?
Laura. I see no harm. You know how terrible hard those last
lessons were before the term ended, and I was afraid I should forget
them; so I have been reviewing the last thirty pages with sister
Helen, to keep what I had got, as she says, and make the next come
easier.
Susan. A pretty vacation, to be sure! How upon earth did you find
time for it all?
Laura. Why, I don’t know. There are no more hours in my day than
there are in yours, Susan. But good-by, girls; I am going to see if