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Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
A fully comprehensive text for courses in electrical
principles, circuit theory and electrical technology, pro-
viding 800 worked examples and over 1,350 further
problems for students to work through at their own
pace. This book is ideal for students studying engi-
neering for the first time as part of BTEC National
and other pre-degree vocational courses, as well as
Higher Nationals, Foundation Degrees and first-year
undergraduate modules.
John Bird, BSc (Hons), CEng, CSci, CMath, FITE,
FIMA, FCollT, is the former Head of Applied Electron-
ics in the Faculty of Technology at Highbury College,
Portsmouth, UK. More recently he has combined free-
lance lecturing and examining, and is the author of
over 130 textbooks on engineering and mathemati-
cal subjects with worldwide sales of over one mil-
lion copies. He is currently lecturing at the Defence
School of Marine and Air Engineering in the Defence
College of Technical Training at HMS Sultan, Gosport,
Hampshire, UK.
In Memory of Elizabeth
Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Sixth edition

John Bird
Sixth edition published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2017 John Bird

The right of John Bird to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Newnes 1997

Fifth edition published by Routledge 2014

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Bird, J. O., author.
Title: Electrical circuit theory and technology / John Bird.
Description: 6th ed. | New York : Routledge, [2017] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016038154| ISBN 9781138673496 | ISBN 9781315561929
Subjects: LCSH: Electric circuits. | Electrical engineering.
Classification: LCC TK454 .B48 2017 | DDC 621.319/2–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016038154

ISBN: 978-1-138-67349-6 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-56192-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Times by
Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bird

Contents
Preface xii 3.8 Electrical power and energy 54
3.9 Summary of terms, units and their symbols 55
Part 1 Revision of some basic 4 An introduction to electric circuits 56
mathematics 1 4.1 Standard symbols for electrical
components 57
1 Some mathematics revision 3 4.2 Electric current and quantity of
1.1 Use of calculator and evaluating formulae 4 electricity 57
1.2 Fractions 7 4.3 Potential difference and resistance 58
1.3 Percentages 8 4.4 Basic electrical measuring
1.4 Ratio and proportion 10 instruments 58
1.5 Laws of indices 13 4.5 Linear and non-linear devices 59
1.6 Brackets 16 4.6 Ohm’s law 59
1.7 Solving simple equations 16 4.7 Multiples and sub-multiples 59
1.8 Transposing formulae 19 4.8 Conductors and insulators 61
1.9 Solving simultaneous equations 21 4.9 Electrical power and energy 61
4.10 Main effects of electric current 64
2 Further mathematics revision 23
4.11 Fuses 64
2.1 Radians and degrees 24
4.12 Insulation and the dangers of constant
2.2 Measurement of angles 25
high current flow 64
2.3 Trigonometry revision 26
2.4 Logarithms and exponentials 28 5 Resistance variation 65
2.5 Straight line graphs 33 5.1 Resistor construction 66
2.6 Gradients, intercepts and equation 5.2 Resistance and resistivity 66
of a graph 35 5.3 Temperature coefficient of resistance 68
2.7 Practical straight line graphs 37 5.4 Resistor colour coding and ohmic values 70
2.8 Calculating areas of common shapes 38
6 Batteries and alternative sources of energy 73
6.1 Introduction to batteries 74
Main formulae for Part 1 Revision of some 6.2 Some chemical effects of electricity 74
basic mathematics 44
6.3 The simple cell 75
6.4 Corrosion 76
Part 2 Basic electrical engineering 6.5 E.m.f. and internal resistance of a cell 76
principles 47 6.6 Primary cells 78
6.7 Secondary cells 79
3 Units associated with basic electrical 6.8 Lithium-ion batteries 81
quantities 49 6.9 Cell capacity 84
3.1 SI units 49 6.10 Safe disposal of batteries 84
3.2 Charge 50 6.11 Fuel cells 84
3.3 Force 50 6.12 Alternative and renewable energy sources 85
3.4 Work 51 6.13 Solar energy 86
3.5 Power 52
3.6 Electrical potential and e.m.f. 53 Revision Test 1 89
3.7 Resistance and conductance 53
vi Contents

7 Series and parallel networks 90 11 Electromagnetic induction 145

7.1 Series circuits 91 11.1 Introduction to electromagnetic induction 146
7.2 Potential divider 92 11.2 Laws of electromagnetic induction 147
7.3 Parallel networks 94 11.3 Rotation of a loop in a magnetic field 150
7.4 Current division 96 11.4 Inductance 151
7.5 Loading effect 99 11.5 Inductors 152
7.6 Potentiometers and rheostats 100 11.6 Energy stored 153
7.7 Relative and absolute voltages 103 11.7 Inductance of a coil 153
7.8 Earth potential and short circuits 104 11.8 Mutual inductance 155
7.9 Wiring lamps in series and in parallel 104
12 Electrical measuring instruments and
8 Capacitors and capacitance 106 measurements 158
8.1 Introduction to capacitors 107 12.1 Introduction 159
8.2 Electrostatic field 107 12.2 Analogue instruments 159
8.3 Electric field strength 108 12.3 Shunts and multipliers 159
8.4 Capacitance 108 12.4 Electronic instruments 161
8.5 Capacitors 109 12.5 The ohmmeter 161
8.6 Electric flux density 110 12.6 Multimeters 162
8.7 Permittivity 110 12.7 Wattmeters 162
8.8 The parallel plate capacitor 111 12.8 Instrument ‘loading’ effect 162
8.9 Capacitors connected in parallel 12.9 The oscilloscope 164
and series 112 12.10 Virtual test and measuring instruments 169
8.10 Dielectric strength 116 12.11 Virtual digital storage oscilloscopes 170
8.11 Energy stored 117 12.12 Waveform harmonics 173
8.12 Practical types of capacitor 117 12.13 Logarithmic ratios 174
8.13 Supercapacitors 119 12.14 Null method of measurement 176
8.14 Discharging capacitors 121 12.15 Wheatstone bridge 177
12.16 D.c. potentiometer 177
9 Magnetic circuits 122 12.17 A.c. bridges 178
9.1 Introduction to magnetism and
12.18 Measurement errors 179
magnetic circuits 123
9.2 Magnetic fields 124 13 Semiconductor diodes 182
9.3 Magnetic flux and flux density 125 13.1 Types of material 183
9.4 Magnetomotive force and magnetic 13.2 Semiconductor materials 183
field strength 125 13.3 Conduction in semiconductor materials 185
9.5 Permeability and B–H curves 126 13.4 The p–n junction 185
9.6 Reluctance 127 13.5 Forward and reverse bias 186
9.7 Composite series magnetic circuits 129 13.6 Semiconductor diodes 189
9.8 Comparison between electrical and 13.7 Characteristics and maximum ratings 190
magnetic quantities 132 13.8 Rectification 190
9.9 Hysteresis and hysteresis loss 132 13.9 Zener diodes 190
13.10 Silicon controlled rectifiers 192
Revision Test 2 134 13.11 Light emitting diodes 193
13.12 Varactor diodes 193
10 Electromagnetism 135 13.13 Schottky diodes 193
10.1 Magnetic field due to an electric current 136
10.2 Electromagnets 137 14 Transistors 195
10.3 Force on a current-carrying conductor 139 14.1 Transistor classification 196
10.4 Principle of operation of a simple 14.2 Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) 196
d.c. motor 142 14.3 Transistor action 197
10.5 Principle of operation of a moving-coil 14.4 Leakage current 198
instrument 143 14.5 Bias and current flow 199
10.6 Force on a charge 143 14.6 Transistor operating configurations 199
 Contents vii

14.7 Bipolar transistor characteristics 200 17.8 Q-factor 270

14.8 Transistor parameters 201 17.9 Bandwidth and selectivity 272
14.9 Current gain 202 17.10 Power in a.c. circuits 272
14.10 Typical BJT characteristics and maximum 17.11 Power triangle and power factor 274
ratings 203
14.11 Field effect transistors 204 18 Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits 277
18.1 Introduction 278
14.12 Field effect transistor characteristics 205
18.2 R–L parallel a.c. circuit 278
14.13 Typical FET characteristics and maximum
ratings 206 18.3 R–C parallel a.c. circuit 279
14.14 Transistor amplifiers 206 18.4 L–C parallel a.c. circuit 280
14.15 Load lines 208 18.5 LR–C parallel a.c. circuit 282
18.6 Parallel resonance and Q-factor 285
Revision Test 3 213 18.7 Power factor improvement 289

19 D.c. transients 294

Main formulae for Part 2 Basic electrical and 19.1 Introduction 295
electronic principles 215 19.2 Charging a capacitor 295
19.3 Time constant for a C–R circuit 296
Part 3 Electrical principles and 19.4 Transient curves for a C–R circuit 296
19.5 Discharging a capacitor 300
technology 217
19.6 Camera flash 302
19.7 Current growth in an L–R circuit 302
15 D.c. circuit theory 219
19.8 Time constant for an L–R circuit 303
15.1 Introduction 219
19.9 Transient curves for an L–R circuit 303
15.2 Kirchhoff’s laws 220
19.10 Current decay in an L–R circuit 305
15.3 The superposition theorem 224
19.11 Switching inductive circuits 307
15.4 General d.c. circuit theory 226
19.12 The effect of time constant on a
15.5 Thévenin’s theorem 228
rectangular waveform 307
15.6 Constant-current source 233
15.7 Norton’s theorem 233 20 Operational amplifiers 309
15.8 Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks 236 20.1 Introduction to operational amplifiers 310
15.9 Maximum power transfer theorem 239 20.2 Some op amp parameters 311
20.3 Op amp inverting amplifier 312
16 Alternating voltages and currents 242
20.4 Op amp non-inverting amplifier 314
16.1 Introduction 243
20.5 Op amp voltage-follower 315
16.2 The a.c. generator 243
20.6 Op amp summing amplifier 315
16.3 Waveforms 244
20.7 Op amp voltage comparator 316
16.4 A.c. values 245
20.8 Op amp integrator 317
16.5 Electrical safety – insulation and fuses 248
20.9 Op amp differential amplifier 318
16.6 The equation of a sinusoidal waveform 248
20.10 Digital to analogue (D/A) conversion 320
16.7 Combination of waveforms 251
20.11 Analogue to digital (A/D) conversion 320
16.8 Rectification 254
16.9 Smoothing of the rectified output waveform 255
Revision Test 5 322
Revision Test 4 257
21 Ways of generating electricity – the present
17 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 258 and the future 323
17.1 Purely resistive a.c. circuit 259 21.1 Introduction 324
17.2 Purely inductive a.c. circuit 259 21.2 Generating electrical power using coal 324
17.3 Purely capacitive a.c. circuit 260 21.3 Generating electrical power using oil 326
17.4 R–L series a.c. circuit 261 21.4 Generating electrical power using
17.5 R–C series a.c. circuit 264 natural gas 327
17.6 R–L–C series a.c. circuit 266 21.5 Generating electrical power using nuclear
17.7 Series resonance 269 energy 328
viii Contents

21.6 Generating electrical power using hydro 24.8 D.c. machine losses 380
power 329 24.9 Efficiency of a d.c. generator 380
21.7 Generating electrical power using pumped 24.10 D.c. motors 381
storage 330 24.11 Torque of a d.c. machine 382
21.8 Generating electrical power using wind 331 24.12 Types of d.c. motor and their
21.9 Generating electrical power using tidal characteristics 383
power 331 24.13 The efficiency of a d.c. motor 387
21.10 Generating electrical power using biomass 333 24.14 D.c. motor starter 389
21.11 Generating electrical power using solar 24.15 Speed control of d.c. motors 390
energy 333 24.16 Motor cooling 392
21.12 Harnessing the power of wind, tide and
sun on an ‘energy island’ – a future
possibility? 334 25 Three-phase induction motors 393
25.1 Introduction 394
22 Three-phase systems 336 25.2 Production of a rotating magnetic field 394
22.1 Introduction 337 25.3 Synchronous speed 396
22.2 Three-phase supply 337 25.4 Construction of a three-phase induction
22.3 Star connection 337 motor 397
22.4 Delta connection 340 25.5 Principle of operation of a three-phase
22.5 Power in three-phase systems 342 induction motor 397
22.6 Measurement of power in three-phase 25.6 Slip 398
systems 343 25.7 Rotor e.m.f. and frequency 399
22.7 Comparison of star and delta connections 348 25.8 Rotor impedance and current 400
22.8 Advantages of three-phase systems 348 25.9 Rotor copper loss 400
25.10 Induction motor losses and efficiency 401
23 Transformers 349 25.11 Torque equation for an induction motor 402
23.1 Introduction 350 25.12 Induction motor torque–speed
23.2 Transformer principle of operation 350 characteristics 404
23.3 Transformer no-load phasor diagram 352 25.13 Starting methods for induction motors 405
23.4 E.m.f. equation of a transformer 354 25.14 Advantages of squirrel-cage induction
23.5 Transformer on-load phasor diagram 356 motors 406
23.6 Transformer construction 357 25.15 Advantages of wound rotor induction
23.7 Equivalent circuit of a transformer 358 motor 407
23.8 Regulation of a transformer 359 25.16 Double cage induction motor 407
23.9 Transformer losses and efficiency 360 25.17 Uses of three-phase induction motors 407
23.10 Resistance matching 363
23.11 Auto transformers 365 Revision Test 7 408
23.12 Isolating transformers 367
23.13 Three-phase transformers 367
23.14 Current transformers 368 Main formulae for Part 3 Electrical principles
23.15 Voltage transformers 369 and technology 409

Revision Test 6 370

Part 4 Advanced circuit theory

24 D.c. machines 371
and technology 411
24.1 Introduction 372
24.2 The action of a commutator 372
24.3 D.c. machine construction 373 26 Revision of complex numbers 413
24.4 Shunt, series and compound windings 373 26.1 Introduction 413
24.5 E.m.f. generated in an armature winding 374 26.2 Operations involving Cartesian complex
24.6 D.c. generators 375 numbers 415
24.7 Types of d.c. generator and their 26.3 Complex equations 417
characteristics 376 26.4 The polar form of a complex number 418
 Contents ix

26.5 Multiplication and division using complex 33 Introduction to network analysis 497
numbers in polar form 419 33.1 Introduction 497
26.6 De Moivre’s theorem – powers and roots 33.2 Solution of simultaneous equations using
of complex numbers 420 determinants 498
33.3 Network analysis using Kirchhoff’s laws 499
27 Application of complex numbers to series
a.c. circuits 423 34 Mesh-current and nodal analysis 507
27.1 Introduction 423 34.1 Mesh-current analysis 507
27.2 Series a.c. circuits 424 34.2 Nodal analysis 511
27.3 Further worked problems on series 35 The superposition theorem 518
a.c. circuits 430 35.1 Introduction 518
35.2 Using the superposition theorem 518
28 Application of complex numbers to parallel
35.3 Further worked problems on the
a.c. networks 435
superposition theorem 523
28.1 Introduction 435
28.2 Admittance, conductance and susceptance 436 36 Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems 528
28.3 Parallel a.c. networks 439 36.1 Introduction 528
28.4 Further worked problems on parallel 36.2 Thévenin’s theorem 529
a.c. networks 443 36.3 Further worked problems on Thévenin’s
theorem 535
29 Power in a.c. circuits 446 36.4 Norton’s theorem 539
29.1 Introduction 446 36.5 Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks 546
29.2 Determination of power in a.c. circuits 447
29.3 Power triangle and power factor 449 Revision Test 10 551
29.4 Use of complex numbers for
determination of power 450 37 Delta–star and star–delta transformations 552
29.5 Power factor improvement 454 37.1 Introduction 552
37.2 Delta and star connections 552
Revision Test 8 459 37.3 Delta–star transformation 553
37.4 Star–delta transformation 561
30 A.c. bridges 460
30.1 Introduction 461 38 Maximum power transfer theorems and
30.2 Balance conditions for an a.c. bridge 461 impedance matching 565
30.3 Types of a.c. bridge circuit 462 38.1 Maximum power transfer theorems 566
30.4 Worked problems on a.c. bridges 467 38.2 Impedance matching 571

31 Series resonance and Q-factor 471

Revision Test 11 574
31.1 Introduction 472
31.2 Series resonance 472
39 Complex waveforms 575
31.3 Q-factor 474
39.1 Introduction 576
31.4 Voltage magnification 476
39.2 The general equation for a complex
31.5 Q-factors in series 478 waveform 576
31.6 Bandwidth 479 39.3 Harmonic synthesis 577
31.7 Small deviations from the resonant 39.4 Fourier series of periodic and non-periodic
frequency 483 functions 585
32 Parallel resonance and Q-factor 486 39.5 Even and odd functions and Fourier series
32.1 Introduction 486 over any range 590
32.2 The LR–C parallel network 487 39.6 R.m.s. value, mean value and the form
32.3 Dynamic resistance 488 factor of a complex wave 594
32.4 The LR–CR parallel network 488 39.7 Power associated with complex waves 597
32.5 Q-factor in a parallel network 489 39.8 Harmonics in single-phase circuits 599
32.6 Further worked problems on parallel 39.9 Further worked problems on harmonics
resonance and Q-factor 493 in single-phase circuits 602
39.10 Resonance due to harmonics 606
Revision Test 9 496 39.11 Sources of harmonics 608
x Contents

40 A numerical method of harmonic analysis 612 Revision Test 13 697

40.1 Introduction 612
40.2 Harmonic analysis on data given in tabular
or graphical form 612 45 Filter networks 698
40.3 Complex waveform considerations 616 45.1 Introduction 698
45.2 Basic types of filter sections 699
41 Magnetic materials 619
45.3 The characteristic impedance and the
41.1 Revision of terms and units used with
attenuation of filter sections 701
magnetic circuits 620
45.4 Ladder networks 702
41.2 Magnetic properties of materials 621
45.5 Low-pass filter sections 703
41.3 Hysteresis and hysteresis loss 622
45.6 High-pass filter sections 709
41.4 Eddy current loss 626
45.7 Propagation coefficient and time delay in
41.5 Separation of hysteresis and eddy current
filter sections 714
losses 629
45.8 ‘m-derived’ filter sections 720
41.6 Non-permanent magnetic materials 631
45.9 Practical composite filters 725
41.7 Permanent magnetic materials 633

Revision Test 12 634 46 Magnetically coupled circuits 728

46.1 Introduction 728
46.2 Self-inductance 728
42 Dielectrics and dielectric loss 635
46.3 Mutual inductance 729
42.1 Electric fields, capacitance and permittivity 635
46.4 Coupling coefficient 730
42.2 Polarization 636
46.5 Coils connected in series 731
42.3 Dielectric strength 636
46.6 Coupled circuits 734
42.4 Thermal effects 637
46.7 Dot rule for coupled circuits 739
42.5 Mechanical properties 638
42.6 Types of practical capacitor 638
42.7 Liquid dielectrics and gas insulation 638 47 Transmission lines 746
42.8 Dielectric loss and loss angle 638 47.1 Introduction 746
47.2 Transmission line primary constants 747
43 Field theory 642 47.3 Phase delay, wavelength and velocity of
43.1 Field plotting by curvilinear squares 643 propagation 748
43.2 Capacitance between concentric cylinders 646 47.4 Current and voltage relationships 749
43.3 Capacitance of an isolated twin line 651 47.5 Characteristic impedance and
43.4 Energy stored in an electric field 654 propagation coefficient in terms of the
43.5 Induced e.m.f. and inductance 656 primary constants 751
43.6 Inductance of a concentric cylinder (or 47.6 Distortion on transmission lines 755
coaxial cable) 656 47.7 Wave reflection and the reflection
43.7 Inductance of an isolated twin line 659 coefficient 757
43.8 Energy stored in an electromagnetic field 662 47.8 Standing-waves and the standing-wave
ratio 760
44 Attenuators 665
44.1 Introduction 666 48 Transients and Laplace transforms 765
44.2 Characteristic impedance 666 48.1 Introduction 766
44.3 Logarithmic ratios 668 48.2 Response of R–C series circuit to a step
44.4 Symmetrical T- and π-attenuators 670 input 766
44.5 Insertion loss 675 48.3 Response of R–L series circuit to a step
44.6 Asymmetrical T- and π-sections 678 input 768
44.7 The L-section attenuator 681 48.4 L–R–C series circuit response 771
44.8 Two-port networks in cascade 683 48.5 Introduction to Laplace transforms 774
44.9 ABCD parameters 686 48.6 Inverse Laplace transforms and the
44.10 ABCD parameters for networks 689 solution of differential equations 779
44.11 Characteristic impedance in terms of 48.7 Laplace transform analysis directly from
ABCD parameters 695 the circuit diagram 784
 Contents xi

48.8 L–R–C series circuit using Laplace

transforms 794
48.9 Initial conditions 797
On the Website
Some practical laboratory experiments
Revision Test 14 801 1 Ohm’s law 2
2 Series–parallel d.c. circuit 3
Main formulae for Part 4 Advanced circuit 3 Superposition theorem 4
theory and technology 802 4 Thévenin’s theorem 6
5 Use of a CRO to measure voltage,
Part 5 General reference 807 frequency and phase 8
Standard electrical quantities – their symbols 6 Use of a CRO with a bridge rectifier circuit 9
and units 809 7 Measurement of the inductance of a coil 10
8 Series a.c. circuit and resonance 11
Greek alphabet 812
9 Parallel a.c. circuit and resonance 13
Common prefixes 813 10 Charging and discharging a capacitor 15
Resistor colour coding and ohmic values 814
To download and edit go to:
Answers to Practice Exercises 815 www.routledge.com/cw/bird
Index 837
Preface
Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology 6th Edition
provides coverage for a wide range of courses that con-
tain electrical principles, circuit theory and technology
in their syllabuses, from introductory to degree level –
and including Edexcel BTEC Levels 2 to 5 National Cer-
tificate/Diploma, Higher National Certificate/Diploma
and Foundation degree in Engineering
In this new sixth edition, new material added includes
some mathematics revision needed for electrical and
electronic principles, ways of generating electricity –
the present and the future (including more on renew-
able energy), more on lithium-ion batteries, along with
other minor modifications.
The text is set out in five parts as follows:
PART 1, comprising chapters 1 to 12, involves Revision
of some Basic Mathematics needed for Electrical and
Electronic Principles.
PART 2, involving chapters 3 to 14, contains Basic
Electrical Engineering Principles which any student
wishing to progress in electrical engineering would need
to know. An introduction to units, electrical circuits,
resistance variation, batteries and alternative sources
of energy, series and parallel circuits, capacitors and
capacitance, magnetic circuits, electromagnetism, elec-
tromagnetic induction, electrical measuring instruments
and measurements, semiconductor diodes and transis-
tors are all included in this section.
PART 3, involving chapters 15 to 25, contains Electri-
cal Principles and Technology suitable for National
Certificate, National Diploma and City and Guilds
courses in electrical and electronic engineering. D.c.
circuit theory, alternating voltages and currents, single-
phase series and parallel circuits, d.c. transients,
operational amplifiers, ways of generating electricity,
three-phase systems, transformers, d.c. machines and
three-phase induction motors are all included in this
section.
PART 4, involving chapters 26 to 48, contains
Advanced Circuit Theory and Technology suitable
for Degree, Foundation degree, Higher National Certifi-
cate/Diploma and City and Guilds courses in electrical
and electronic/telecommunications engineering. The
three earlier sections of the book will provide a valuable
reference/revision for students at this level.
Complex numbers and their application to series and
parallel networks, power in a.c. circuits, a.c. bridges,
series and parallel resonance and Q-factor, network
analysis involving Kirchhoff’s laws, mesh and nodal
analysis, the superposition theorem, Thévenin’s and
Norton’s theorems, delta-star and star-delta transforms,
maximum power transfer theorems and impedance
matching, complex waveforms, Fourier series, har-
monic analysis, magnetic materials, dielectrics and
dielectric loss, field theory, attenuators, filter networks,
magnetically coupled circuits, transmission line theory
and transients and Laplace transforms are all included
in this section.
PART 5 provides a short General Reference for stan-
dard electrical quantities – their symbols and units, the
Greek alphabet, common prefixes and resistor colour
coding and ohmic values.
At the beginning of each of the 48 chapters a brief
explanation as to why it is important to understand
the material contained within that chapter is included,
together with a list of learning objectives.
At the end of each of the first four parts of the text is a
handy reference of the main formulae used.
There are a number of Internet downloads freely avail-
able to both students and lecturers/instructors; these are
listed on page xiii.
It is not possible to acquire a thorough understanding
of electrical principles, circuit theory and technology
without working through a large number of numerical
problems. It is for this reason that Electrical Circuit
Theory and Technology 6th Edition contains nearly 800
detailed worked problems, together with some 1350
further problems (with answers at the back of the
book), arranged within 202 Practice Exercises that
appear every few pages throughout the text. Some 1153
line diagrams further enhance the understanding of the
theory.

Fourteen Revision Tests have been included, inter-
spersed within the text every few chapters. For example,
Revision Test 1 tests understanding of chapters 3 to
6, Revision Test 2 tests understanding of chapters 7
to 9, Revision Test 3 tests understanding of chapters
10 to 14, and so on. These Revision Tests do not have
answers given since it is envisaged that lecturers/instruc-
tors could set the Revision Tests for students to attempt
as part of their course structure. Lecturers/instructors
may obtain a complimentary set of solutions of the Revi-
sion Tests in an Instructor’s Manual available from the
publishers via the internet – see below.
Learning by example is at the heart of Electrical
Circuit Theory and Technology 6th Edition.
JOHN BIRD
Royal Naval Defence College of Marine and Air
Engineering, HMS Sultan,
formerly University of Portsmouth
and Highbury College, Portsmouth
John Bird is the former Head of Applied Electronics
in the Faculty of Technology at Highbury College,
Portsmouth, UK. More recently, he has combined
freelance lecturing at the University of Portsmouth
with Examiner responsibilities for Advanced Math-
ematics with City and Guilds, and examining for
the International Baccalaureate. He is the author
of some 130 textbooks on engineering and mathe-
matical subjects with worldwide sales of over one
million copies. He is currently lecturing at the
Defence School of Marine and Air Engineering in
the Defence College of Technical Training at HMS
Sultan, Gosport, Hampshire, UK.
Preface xiii
Free Web downloads
The following support material is available from
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
For Students:
1. Full solutions to all 1350 further questions
in the Practice Exercises
2. A set of formulae for each of the first four
sections of the text
3. Multiple choice questions
4. Information on 38 Engineers/Scientists
mentioned in the text
For Lecturers/Instructors:
1–4. As per students 1–4 above
5. Full solutions and marking scheme for each
of the 14 Revision Tests; also, each test may
be downloaded.
6. Lesson Plans and revision material. Typi-
cal 30-week lesson plans for ‘Electrical and
Electronic Principles’, Unit 6, and ‘Further
Electrical Principles’, Unit 64, are included,
together with two practice examination ques-
tion papers (with solutions) for each of the
modules.
7. Ten practical Laboratory Experiments are
available. It may be that tutors will want
to edit these experiments to suit their own
equipment/component availability.
8. All 1153 illustrations used in the text
may be downloaded for use in PowerPoint
Presentations.
 Part 1
Revision of some basic
mathematics
 Chapter 1
Some mathematics revision
Why it is important to understand: Some mathematics revision
Mathematics is a vital tool for professional and chartered engineers. It is used in electrical and
electronic engineering, in mechanical and manufacturing engineering, in civil and structural engi-
neering, in naval architecture and marine engineering and in aeronautical and rocket engineering. In
these various branches of engineering, it is very often much cheaper and safer to design your arte-
fact with the aid of mathematics – rather than through guesswork. ‘Guesswork’ may be reasonably
satisfactory if you are designing an exactly similar artefact as one that has already proven satisfac-
tory; however, the classification societies will usually require you to provide the calculations proving
that the artefact is safe and sound. Moreover, these calculations may not be readily available to you
and you may have to provide fresh calculations, to prove that your artefact is ‘roadworthy’. For
example, if you design a tall building or a long bridge by ‘guesswork’, and the building or bridge
do not prove to be structurally reliable, it could cost you a fortune to rectify the deficiencies. This
cost may dwarf the initial estimate you made to construct these structures, and cause you to go
bankrupt. Thus, without mathematics, the prospective professional or chartered engineer is very severely
disadvantaged.
Knowledge of mathematics provides the basis for all engineering.

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• use a calculator and evaluate formulae
• manipulate fractions
• understand and perform calculations with percentages
• appreciate ratios and direct and inverse proportion
• understand and use the laws of indices
• expand equations containing brackets
• solve simple equations
• transpose formulae
• solve simultaneous equations in two unknowns

Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology. 978-1-138-67349-6, © 2017 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 4 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

1.1 Use of calculator and evaluating 13. Evaluate 2.1 4

Part 1

formulae
14. Evaluate (0.22)5 correct to 5 significant
In engineering, calculations often need to be performed. figures in engineering form
For simple numbers it is useful to be able to use men- 15. Evaluate (1.012)7 correct to 4 decimal places
tal arithmetic. However, when numbers are larger an
electronic calculator needs to be used. 16. Evaluate 1.1 3 + 2.94 − 4.42 correct to 4 sig-
In engineering calculations it is essential to have a nificant figures
scientific notation calculator which will have all the √
17. Evaluate 34528 correct to 2 decimal places
necessary functions needed, and more. This chapter √
assumes you have a CASIO fx-991ES PLUS calcu- 18. Evaluate 3 17 correct to 3 decimal places
lator, or similar. If you can accurately use a calcula- √6
√
tor, your confidence with engineering calculations will 19. Evaluate 2451 − 4 46 correct to 3 decimal
improve. places
Check that you can use a calculator in the following Express the answers to questions 20 to 23 in
Practice Exercise. engineering form.
20. Evaluate 5 × 10 −3 × 7 × 108

Practice Exercise 1 Use of calculator 6 × 103 × 14 × 10−4

21. Evaluate
(Answers on page 815) 2 × 106
1. Evaluate 56.43 × 10 −3 × 3 × 104
378.37 − 298.651 + 45.64 − 94.562 22. Evaluate correct to
8.349 × 10 3
17.35 × 34.27 3 decimal places
2. Evaluate correct to 3 decimal
41.53 ÷ 3.76 99 × 105 × 6.7 × 10−3
places 23. Evaluate correct to 4
36.2 × 10−4
(4.527 + 3.63) significant figures
3. Evaluate + 0.468 correct
(452.51 ÷ 34.75)
to 5 significant figures 4 1
24. Evaluate − as a decimal, correct to 4
5 3
(912.5 ÷ 41.46) decimal places
4. Evaluate 52.34 − correct to
(24.6 − 13.652)
3 decimal places 2 1 3
25. Evaluate − + as a fraction
52.14 × 0.347 × 11.23 3 6 7
5. Evaluate correct to 4
19.73 ÷ 3.54 5 5
significant figures 26. Evaluate 2 + 1 as a decimal, correct to 4
6 8
6. Evaluate 6.85 2 correct to 3 decimal places significant figures

7. Evaluate (0.036)2 in engineering form 6 1

27. Evaluate 5 − 3 as a decimal, correct to 4
7 8
8. Evaluate 1.3 3 significant figures
9. Evaluate (0.38)3 correct to 4 decimal places 3 4 2 4
28. Evaluate × − ÷ as a fraction
3
10. Evaluate (0.018) in engineering form 4 5 3 9

1 8 2
11. Evaluate correct to 1 decimal place 29. Evaluate 8 ÷ 2 as a mixed number
0.00725 9 3
1 1 1 1 7
12. Evaluate − correct to 4 signifi- 30. Evaluate 3 × 1 − 1 as a decimal,
0.065 2.341 5 3 10
cant figures correct to 3 decimal places
 Some mathematics revision 5

  Problem 1. In an electrical circuit the voltage V

1 2

Part 1
4 −1 is given by Ohm’s law, i.e. V = IR. Find, correct to
5 3 2
31. Evaluate   − as a decimal, 4 significant figures, the voltage when I = 5.36 A
1 3 9 and R = 14.76 
3 ×2
4 5
correct to 3 significant figures
V = IR = I × R = 5.36 × 14.76
In questions 32 to 38, evaluate correct to 4 decimal
places. Hence, voltage V = 79.11 V, correct to 4 significant
figures
32. Evaluate sin 67 ◦
33. Evaluate tan 71 ◦ Problem 2. Velocity v is given by v = u + at. If
34. Evaluate cos 63.74 ◦ u = 9.54 m/s, a = 3.67 m/s 2 and t = 7.82 s, find v,
correct to 3 significant figures.
35. Evaluate tan 39.55 ◦ − sin 52.53◦
36. Evaluate sin(0.437 rad) v = u + at = 9.54 + 3.67 × 7.82

37. Evaluate tan(5.673 rad) = 9.54 + 28.6994 = 38.2394

(sin 42.6◦) (tan 83.2◦ ) Hence, velocity v = 38.2 m/s, correct to 3 significant
38. Evaluate
cos 13.8◦ figures
In questions 39 to 45, evaluate correct to 4 signifi-
cant figures. Problem 3. The area, A, of a circle is given by
A = πr2 . Determine the area correct to 2 decimal
39. 1.59π places, given radius r = 5.23 m.
40. 2.7(π − 1)
√  A = πr 2 = π(5.23)2 = π(27.3529)
41. π 2 13 − 1
Hence, area, A = 85.93 m 2, correct to 2 decimal places
42. 8.5e −2.5
mass
43. 3e (2π−1) Problem 4. Density = . Find the density
  volume
5.52π when the mass is 6.45 kg and the volume is
44. √ 300 × 10−6 m3 .
2e −2 × 26.73
⎡  √  ⎤ mass 6.45 kg
2− 3 Density = = =21500 kg/m3
⎣
e
⎦ volume 300 × 10−6 m3
45. √
π× 8.57
Problem 5. The power, P watts, dissipated in an
V2
electrical circuit is given by the formula P = .
R
Evaluate the power, correct to 4 significant figures,
Evaluation of formulae given that V = 230 V and R = 35.63
The statement y = mx + c is called a formula for y in
terms of m, x and c. V2 (230)2 52900
y, m, x and c are called symbols. P= = = = 1484.70390 . . .
R 35.63 35.63
When given values of m, x and c we can evaluate y.
There are a large number of formulae used in engineer- Press ENG and 1.48470390.. × 10 3 appears on the
ing and in this section we will insert numbers in place screen
of symbols to evaluate engineering quantities. Hence, power, P = 1485 W or 1.485 kW correct to 4
Here are some practical examples. Check with your significant figures.
calculator that you agree with the working and answers.
 6 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Problem 6. Resistance, R , varies with found to be 7.2 V and the resistance R is

Part 1

temperature according to the formula 17.7 

R = R0 (1 + αt). Evaluate R, correct to 3 significant
1
figures, given R0 = 14.59, α = 0.0043 and t = 80 6. Find the distance s, given that s = gt2 . Time
2
R = R0 (1 + αt) = 14.59[1 + (0.0043)(80)] t = 0.032 seconds and acceleration due to
gravity g = 9.81 m/s 2. Give the answer in
= 14.59(1 + 0.344) = 14.59(1.344) millimetres correct to 3 significant figures.
Hence, resistance, R = 19.6 , correct to 3 significant 7. The energy stored in a capacitor is given
figures 1
by E = CV2 joules. Determine the energy
2
Problem 7. The current, I amperes, in an a.c. when capacitance C = 5 × 10 −6 farads and
V voltage V = 240 V
circuit is given by: I =  Evaluate the
(R + X2 )
2
current, correct to 2 decimal places, when 8. Find the area A of a triangle, correct to 1 dec-
1
V = 250 V, R = 25.0  and X = 18.0  imal place, given A = bh, when the base
2
V 250 length b is 23.42 m and the height h is 53.7 m
I=  =   =8.11534341 . . .
(R2 +X2 ) 25.02 +18.02 9. Resistance R2 is given by R2 = R1 (1 + αt).
Find R2 , correct to 4 significant figures, when
Hence, current, I = 8.12 A, correct to 2 decimal R1 = 220, α = 0.00027 and t = 75.6
places mass
10. Density = . Find the density, correct
volume
to 4 significant figures, when the mass
Now try the following Practice Exercise
is 2.462 kg and the volume is 173 cm 3 . Give
the answer in units of kg/m 3. Note that
Practice Exercise 2 Evaluation of formulae 1 cm3 = 10−6 m3
(Answers on page 815)
11. Evaluate resistance R T , correct to 4 signif-
1. The area A of a rectangle is given by the 1 1 1 1
icant figures, given = + +
formula A = l × b. Evaluate the area, correct RT R1 R2 R3
to 2 decimal places, when l = 12.4 cm and when R1 = 5.5 , R2 = 7.42  and
b = 5.37 cm R3 = 12.6 
2. The circumference C of a circle is given by 12. The potential difference, V volts, available
the formula C = 2πr. Determine the circum- at battery terminals is given by V = E − Ir.
ference, correct to 2 decimal places, given Evaluate V when E = 5.62, I = 0.70 and
r = 8.40 mm R = 4.30
3. A formula used in connection with gases is 13. The current I amperes flowing in a number
PV nE
R= . Evaluate R when P = 1500, V = 5 of cells is given by I = . Evaluate the
T R + nr
and T = 200 current, correct to 3 significant figures, when
4. The velocity of a body is given by v = u + at. n = 36. E = 2.20, R = 2.80 and r = 0.50
The initial velocity u is measured when time 14. Energy, E joules, is given by the formula
t is 15 seconds and found to be 12 m/s. If the 1
acceleration a is 9.81 m/s 2 calculate the final E = LI2 . Evaluate the energy when
2
velocity v L = 5.5 H and I = 1.2 A
5. Calculate the current I in an electrical circuit, 15. The current I amperes in an a.c. circuit
correct to 3 significant figures, when I = V/R V
amperes when the voltage V is measured and is given by I =  . Evaluate the
(R2 + X2 )
 Some mathematics revision 7

current, correct to 4 significant figures, when 1 2 3

Problem 10. Evaluate A, given A = + +

Part 1
V = 250 V, R = 11.0  and X = 16.2  6 7 2

A suitable common denominator can be obtained by

multiplying 6 × 7 = 42, and all three denominators
1.2 Fractions divide exactly into 42.
2 1 7 2 12 3 63
An example of a fraction is where the top line, i.e. the Thus, = , = and =
3 6 42 7 42 2 42
2, is referred to as the numerator and the bottom line,
i.e. the 3, is referred to as the denominator. 1 2 3 7 12 63
Hence, A= + + = + +
A proper fraction is one where the numerator is 6 7 2 42 42 42
2 1 7 + 12 + 63 82 41
smaller than the denominator, examples being , , = = =
3 2 42 42 21
3 5
, , and so on.
8 16 1 2 3 20
i.e. A= + + =1
An improper fraction is one where the denominator 6 7 2 21
3 2 8
is smaller than the numerator, examples being , , ,
2 1 3 Problem 11. Determine A as a single fraction,
16 1 2
, and so on. given A = +
5 x y
Addition of fractions is demonstrated in the following
worked problems. A common denominator can be obtained by multiplying
the two denominators together, i.e. xy
1 1 1 y 2 2x
Problem 8. Evaluate A, given A = + Thus, = and =
2 3 x xy y xy
The lowest common denominator of the two denomina- 1 2 y 2x y + 2x
Hence, A = + = + i.e. A =
tors 2 and 3 is 6, i.e. 6 is the lowest number that both 2 x y xy xy xy
and 3 will divide into.
1 3 1 2 1 1 Note that addition, subtraction, multiplication and divi-
Then = and = i.e. both and have the
2 6 3 6 2 3 sion of fractions may be determined using a calculator
common denominator, namely 6. (for example, the CASIO fx-991ES PLUS).
The two fractions can therefore be added as:  
Locate the and  functions on your calcula-
 
1 1 3 2 3+2 5 tor (the latter function is a shift function found above
A= + = + = =
2 3 6 6 6 6 
the function) and then check the following worked

problems.
2 3
Problem 9. Evaluate A, given A = +
3 4 1 2
Problem 12. Evaluate + using a calculator
A common denominator can be obtained by multiply- 4 3
ing the two denominators together, i.e. the common 
denominator is 3 × 4 = 12 (i) Press function

The two fractions can now be made equivalent, i.e.
2 8 3 9 (ii) Type in 1
= and =
3 12 4 12 (iii) Press ↓ on the cursor key and type in 4
so that they can be easily added together, as follows:
1
2 3 8 9 8 + 9 17 (iv) appears on the screen
A= + = + = = 4
3 4 12 12 12 12
(v) Press → on the cursor key and type in +
2 3 5
i.e. A = + = 1 
3 4 12 (vi) Press function

 8 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

(vii) Type in 2 Now try the following Practice Exercise

Part 1

(viii) Press ↓ on the cursor key and type in 3

Practice Exercise 3 Fractions (Answers on
(ix) Press → on the cursor key page 815)
11
(x) Press = and the answer appears In problems 1 to 3, evaluate the given fractions
12 1 1
(xi) Press S ⇔ D function and the fraction changes 1. +
3 4
to a decimal 0.9166666 . . ..
1 1
1 2 11 2. +
Thus, + = = 0.9167 as a decimal, correct to 4 5 4
4 3 12
decimal places. 1 1 1
3. + −
6 2 5
In problems 4 and 5, use a calculator to evaluate
It is also possible to deal with mixed numbers on the the given expressions
calculator.
  1 3 8
Press Shift then the function and  appears. 4. − ×
  3 4 21
3 4 2 4
1 3 5. × − ÷
Problem 13. Evaluate 5 − 3 using a calculator 4 5 3 9
5 4
3 5 1
6. Evaluate + − as a decimal, correct to 4
  8 6 2
(i) Press Shift then the function and  appears decimal places.
 
on the screen 8 2
7. Evaluate 8 ÷ 2 as a mixed number.
(ii) Type in 5 then → on the cursor key 9 3
1 1 7
(iii) Type in 1 and↓on the cursor key 8. Evaluate 3 × 1 − 1 as a decimal, correct
5 3 10
1 to 3 decimal places.
(iv) Type in 5 and 5 appears on the screen
5 2 3
(v) Press → on the cursor key 9. Determine + as a single fraction.
x y

(vi) Type in – and then press Shift then the function

1 
and 5 −  appears on the screen 1.3 Percentages
5 
(vii) Type in 3 then → on the cursor key
Percentages are used to give a common standard. The
(viii) Type in 3 and ↓ on the cursor key use of percentages is very common in many aspects
1 3 of commercial life, as well as in engineering. Interest
(ix) Type in 4 and 5 − 3 appears on the screen rates, sale reductions, pay rises, exams and VAT are all
5 4
29 examples where percentages are used.
(x) Press = and the answer appears Percentages are fractions having 100 as their denom-
20
inator.
9 40
(xi) Press shift and then S ⇔ D function and 1 For example, the fraction is written as 40% and
20 100
appears is read as ‘forty per cent’.
(xii) Press S ⇔ D function and the fraction changes to The easiest way to understand percentages is to go
a decimal 1.45 through some worked examples.

1 3 29 9 Problem 14. Express 0.275 as a percentage

Thus, 5 − 3 = = 1 = 1.45 as a decimal
5 4 20 20
0.275 = 0.275 × 100% = 27.5%
 Some mathematics revision 9

15
Problem 15. Express 17.5% as a decimal number = by dividing numerator
40

Part 1
and denominator by 25
17.5
17.5% = = 0.175 3
100 = by dividing numerator
8
5 and denominator by 5
Problem 16. Express as a percentage
8
Problem 20. Find 27% of £65
5 5 500
= × 100% = % = 62.5% 27
8 8 8 27% of £65 = × 65 = £17.55 by calculator
100

Problem 17. In two successive tests a student

gains marks of 57/79 and 49/67. Is the second mark Problem 21. A 160 GB iPod is advertised as
better or worse than the first? costing £190 excluding VAT. If VAT is added at
20%, what will be the total cost of the iPod?
57 57 5700
57/79 = = × 100% = % 20
79 79 79 VAT = 20% of £190 = × 190 = £38
100
= 72.15% correct to 2 decimal places.
Total cost of iPod = £190 + £38 = £228
49 49 4900
49/67 = = × 100% = % A quicker method to determine the total cost is:
67 67 67
1.20 × £190 = £228
= 73.13% correct to 2 decimal places
Hence, the second test mark is marginally better than Problem 22. Express 23 cm as a percentage of
the first test. 72 cm, correct to the nearest 1%
This question demonstrates how much easier it is
to compare two fractions when they are expressed as 23 cm as a percentage of 72 cm
percentages.
23
= × 100% = 31.94444 . . .. . . %
72
Problem 18. Express 75% as a fraction
= 32% correct to the nearest 1%
75 3
75% = =
100 4 Problem 23. A box of screws increases in price
75 from £45 to £52. Calculate the percentage change
The fraction is reduced to its simplest form by in cost, correct to 3 significant figures.
100
cancelling, i.e. dividing numerator and denominator by
25. new value – original value
% change = × 100%
original value
Problem 19. Express 37.5% as a fraction
52 − 45 7
= × 100% = × 100 = 15.6%
45 45
37.5
37.5% = = percentage change in cost
100
375 Problem 24. A drilling speed should be set to 400
= by multiplying numerator
1000 rev/min. The nearest speed available on the machine
and denominator by 10 is 412 rev/min. Calculate the percentage over-speed.
 10 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

% over-speed
available speed – correct speed 14. When signing a new contract, a Premiership
Part 1

= × 100% footballer’s pay increases from £15,500 to

correct speed
£21,500 per week. Calculate the percentage
412 − 400 12
= × 100% = × 100% = 3% pay increase, correct to 3 significant figures.
400 400
15. A metal rod 1.80 m long is heated and its length
Now try the following Practice Exercise expands by 48.6 mm. Calculate the percentage
increase in length.
Practice Exercise 4 Percentages (Answers
on page 815) 1.4 Ratio and proportion
In problems 1 and 2, express the given numbers as
percentages. Ratios
1. 0.057 Ratio is a way of comparing amounts of something; it
shows how much bigger one thing is than the other.
2. 0.374 Ratios are generally shown as numbers separated by a
colon ( : ) so the ratio of 2 and 7 is written as 2:7 and
3. Express 20% as a decimal number
we read it as a ratio of ‘two to seven’.
11 Here are some worked examples to help us understand
4. Express as a percentage more about ratios.
16
5
5. Express as a percentage, correct to 3 Problem 25. In a class, the ratio of female to
13 male students is 6:27. Reduce the ratio to its
decimal places
simplest form.
6. Place the following in order of size, the small-
Both 6 and 27 can be divided by 3
est first, expressing each as percentages, cor-
rect to 1 decimal place: Thus, 6:27 is the same as 2:9
12 9 5 6 6:27 and 2:9 are called equivalent ratios.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
21 17 9 11
It is normal to express ratios in their lowest, or simplest,
7. Express 65% as a fraction in its simplest form form. In this example, the simplest form is 2:9 which
8. Calculate 43.6% of 50 kg means for every 2 females in the class there are 9 male
students.
9. Determine 36% of 27 mv
Problem 26. A gear wheel having 128 teeth is in
10. Calculate correct to 4 significant figures: mesh with a 48 tooth gear. What is the gear ratio?
(a) 18% of 2758 tonnes
(b) 47% of 18.42 grams Gear ratio = 128:48
(c) 147% of 14.1 seconds A ratio can be simplified by finding common factors.
11. Express: 128 and 48 can both be divided by 2, i.e. 128:48 is the
(a) 140 kg as a percentage of 1 t same as 64:24
(b) 47 s as a percentage of 5 min 64 and 24 can both be divided by 8, i.e. 64:24 is the
(c) 13.4 cm as a percentage of 2.5 m same as 8:3
12. A computer is advertised on the internet at There is no number that divides completely into both 8
£520, exclusive of VAT. If VAT is payable at and 3 so 8:3 is the simplest ratio, i.e. the gear ratio is
20%, what is the total cost of the computer? 8:3
128:48 is equivalent to 64:24 which is equivalent to 8:3
13. Express 325 mm as a percentage of 867 mm,
correct to 2 decimal places. 8:3 is the simplest form.

Problem 27. A wooden pole is 2.08 m long.
Divide it in the ratio of 7 to 19.
Since the ratio is 7:19, the total number of parts is
7 + 19 = 26 parts
26 parts corresponds to 2.08 m = 208 cm, hence, 1 part
208
corresponds to =8
26
Thus, 7 parts corresponds to 7 × 8 = 56 cm,
and 19 parts corresponds to 19 × 8 = 152 cm
Hence, 2.08 m divides in the ratio of 7:19 as 56 cm
to 152 cm
(Check: 56 + 152 must add up to 208, otherwise an
error would have been made.)
Problem 28. Express 45 p as a ratio of £7.65 in
its simplest form.
Changing both quantities to the same units, i.e. to pence,
gives a ratio of 45:765
Dividing both quantities by 5 gives: 45:765 ≡ 9:153
Dividing both quantities by 3 gives: 9:153 ≡ 3:51
Dividing both quantities by 3 again gives: 3:51 ≡ 1:17
Thus, 45p as a ratio of £7.65 is 1:17
45:765, 9:153, 3:51 and 1:17 are equivalent ratios and
1:17 is the simplest ratio
Problem 29. A glass contains 30 ml of whisky
which is 40% alcohol. If 45 ml of water is added
and the mixture stirred, what is now the alcohol
content?
The 30 ml of whisky contains 40% alcohol
40
= × 30 = 12 ml
100
After 45 ml of water is added we have 30 + 45 = 75 ml
of fluid of which alcohol is 12 ml
12
Fraction of alcohol present =
75
12
Percentage of alcohol present = × 100% = 16%
75
Some mathematics revision 11
Now try the following Practice Exercise
Part 1
Practice Exercise 5 Ratios (Answers on page
815)
1. In a box of 333 paper clips, 9 are defec-
tive. Express the non-defective paper clips
as a ratio of the defective paper clips, in its
simplest form.
2. A gear wheel having 84 teeth is in mesh with
a 24 tooth gear. Determine the gear ratio in
its simplest form.
3. A metal pipe 3.36 m long is to be cut into
two in the ratio 6 to 15. Calculate the length
of each piece.
4. In a will, £6440 is to be divided between three
beneficiaries in the ratio 4:2:1. Calculate the
amount each receives.
5. A local map has a scale of 1:22,500. The
distance between two motorways is 2.7 km.
How far are they apart on the map?
6. Express 130 g as a ratio of 1.95 kg
7. In a laboratory, acid and water are mixed in
the ratio 2:5. How much acid is needed to
make 266 ml of the mixture?
8. A glass contains 30 ml of gin which is
40% alcohol. If 18 ml of water is added
and the mixture stirred, determine the new
percentage alcoholic content.
9. A wooden beam 4 m long weighs 84 kg.
Determine the mass of a similar beam that
is 60 cm long.
10. An alloy is made up of metals P and Q in the
ratio 3.25:1 by mass. How much of P has to
be added to 4.4 kg of Q to make the alloy.
Direct proportion
Two quantities are in direct proportion when they
increase or decrease in the same ratio.
Here are some worked examples to help us understand
more about direct proportion.
Problem 30. 3 energy saving light bulbs cost
£7.80. Determine the cost of 7 such light bulbs.
 12 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

If 3 light bulbs cost £7.80 (b) Voltage is directly proportional to the current.
7.80 When current is 3 A, the voltage is 90 mV,
Part 1

then 1 light bulb cost = £2.60

3 hence a current of 1 A corresponds to a voltage of
Hence, 7 light bulbs cost 7 × £2.60 = £18.20 90
mV = 30 mV
3
Problem 31. If 56 litres of petrol costs £59.92, and when the current is 4.2 A,
calculate the cost of 32 litres. the voltage = 30 × 4.2 = 126 mV

If 56 litres of petrol costs £59.92
59.92
then 1 litre of petrol costs = £1.07
56
Hence, 32 litres cost 32 × 1.07 = £34.24
Problem 32. Hooke’s law states that stress, σ , is
directly proportional to strain, ε, within the elastic
limit of a material. When, for mild steel, the stress
is 63 MPa, the strain is 0.0003. Determine
(a) the value of strain when the stress is 42 MPa
(b) the value of stress when the strain is 0.00072
(a) Stress is directly proportional to strain.
When the stress is 63 MPa, the strain is 0.0003,
hence a stress of 1 MPa corresponds to a strain
0.0003
of
63
and the value of strain when the stress is
0.0003
42 MPa = × 42 = 0.0002
63
(b) If when the strain is 0.0003, the stress is 63 MPa,
63
then a strain of 0.0001 corresponds to MPa
3
and the value of stress when the strain is
63
0.00072 = × 7.2 = 151.2 MPa
3
Problem 33. Ohm’s law state that the current
flowing in a fixed resistance is directly proportional
to the applied voltage. When 90 mV is applied
across a resistor the current flowing is 3 A.
Determine
(a) the current when the voltage is 60 mV
(b) the voltage when the current is 4.2 A
(a) Current is directly proportional to the voltage.
When voltage is 90 mV, the current is 3 A,
hence a voltage of 1 mV corresponds to a current
3 lon, determine (a) the number of litres in 35
of A
90
and when the voltage is 60 mV,
3
the current = 60 × = 2A
90
Now try the following Practice Exercise
Practice Exercise 6 Direct proportion
(Answers on page 815)
1. 3 engine parts cost £208.50. Calculate the cost
of 8 such parts.
2. If 9 litres of gloss white paint costs £24.75,
calculate the cost of 24 litres of the same
paint.
3. The total mass of 120 household bricks is 57.6
kg. Determine the mass of 550 such bricks.
4. Hooke’s law states that stress is directly pro-
portional to strain within the elastic limit of
a material. When, for copper, the stress is 60
MPa, the strain is 0.000625. Determine (a) the
strain when the stress is 24 MPa, and (b) the
stress when the strain is 0.0005
5. Charles’s law states that volume is directly
proportional to thermodynamic temperature
for a given mass of gas at constant pressure. A
gas occupies a volume of 4.8 litres at 330 K.
Determine (a) the temperature when the vol-
ume is 6.4 litres, and (b) the volume when the
temperature is 396 K.
6. Ohm’s law states that current is proportional
to p.d. in an electrical circuit. When a p.d. of
60 mV is applied across a circuit a current of
24 μA flows. Determine:
(a) the current flowing when the p.d. is 5 V,
and
(b) the p.d. when the current is 10 mA
7. If 2.2 lb = 1 kg, and 1 lb = 16 oz, determine the
number of pounds and ounces in 38 kg (correct
to the nearest ounce).
8. If 1 litre = 1.76 pints, and 8 pints = 1 gal-
gallons, and (b) the number of gallons in 75
litres.
 Some mathematics revision 13

Inverse proportion
Problem 37. Boyle’s law states that at constant

Part 1
Two variables, x and y, are in inverse proportion to one temperature, the volume V of a fixed mass of gas is
1 1 k inversely proportional to its absolute pressure p. If a
another if y is proportional to , i.e. y α or y = or
x x x gas occupies a volume of 0.08 m 3 at a pressure of
k = xy where k is a constant, called the coefficient of
1.5 × 106 pascals, determine (a) the coefficient of
proportionality.
proportionality and (b) the volume if the pressure is
Inverse proportion means that as the value of one vari-
changed to 4 × 10 6 pascals.
able increases, the value of another decreases, and that
their product is always the same. 1 k
Here are some worked examples on inverse propor- (a) Vα i.e. V = or k = pV
p p
tion.
Hence, the coefficient of proportionality,
k = (1.5 × 106)(0.08) = 0.12 × 10 6
Problem 34. It is estimated that a team of four
designers would take a year to develop an k 0.12 × 106
(b) Volume, V = = = 0.03m3
engineering process. How long would three p 4 × 106
designers take?
Now try the following Practice Exercise
If 4 designers take 1 year, then 1 designer would take 4
years to develop the process. Practice Exercise 7 Further inverse
4 proportion (Answers on page 816)
Hence, 3 designers would take years, i.e. 1 year 4
3
months 1. A 10 kg bag of potatoes lasts for a week with a
family of 7 people. Assuming all eat the same
Problem 35. A team of five people can deliver amount, how long will the potatoes last if there
leaflets to every house in a particular area in four were only two in the family?
hours. How long will it take a team of three people? 2. If 8 men take 5 days to build a wall, how long
would it take 2 men?
If 5 people take 4 hours to deliver the leaflets, then 1
person would take 5 × 4 = 20 hours 3. If y is inversely proportional to x and y = 15.3
20 2 when x = 0.6, determine (a) the coefficient of
Hence, 3 people would take hours, i.e. 6 hours, i.e. proportionality, (b) the value of y when x is
3 3
6 hours 40 minutes 1.5, and (c) the value of x when y is 27.2

Problem 36. The electrical resistance R of a 4. A car travelling at 50 km/h makes a journey in
piece of wire is inversely proportional to the 70 minutes. How long will the journey take at
cross-sectional area A. When A = 5 mm 2 , 70 km/h?
R = 7.2 ohms. Determine 5. Boyle’s law states that for a gas at constant
(a) the coefficient of proportionality and temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of gas
is inversely proportional to its absolute pres-
(b) the cross-sectional area when the resistance is sure. If a gas occupies a volume of 1.5 m 3
4 ohms. at a pressure of 200 × 10 3 Pascal’s, determine
(a) the constant of proportionality, (b) the
1 k
(a) R α i.e. R = or k = RA. Hence, volume when the pressure is 800 × 10 3
A A Pascals and (c) the pressure when the volume
when R = 7.2 and A = 5, the
is 1.25 m3
coefficient of proportionality, k = (7.2)(5) = 36
k
(b) Since k = RA then A =
R
When R = 4, the cross sectional area, 1.5 Laws of indices
36
A= = 9 mm2 The manipulation of indices, powers and roots is a
4
crucial underlying skill needed in algebra.
 14 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Law 1: When multiplying two or more numbers

having the same base, the indices are added. 24
Problem 40. Evaluate
Part 1

For example, 2 2 × 23 = 22+3 = 25 24

and 54 × 52 × 53 = 54+2+3 = 59 24
More generally, a m × an = am+n = 24−4 from law 2
24
For example, a 3 × a4 = a3+4 = a7
= 20 = 1 from law 4
Law 2: When dividing two numbers having the same
base, the index in the denominator is subtracted from Any number raised to the power of zero equals 1
the index in the numerator.
25 78 3 × 32
For example, 3 = 25−3 = 22 and 5 = 78−5 = 73 Problem 41. Evaluate
2 7 34
am m−n
More generally, n = a 3 × 3 2 31 × 32 31+2 33
a = = =
c5 34 34 34 34
For example, 2 = c5−2 = c3
c
Law 3: When a number which is raised to a power is = 33−4 = 3−1 from laws 1 and 2
raised to a further power, the indices are multiplied. 1
 3  2 = from law 5
For example, 22 = 22×3 = 26 and 34 = 34×2 = 38 3
More generally, (a m )n = amn
 5
For example, d 2 = d2×5 = d10 103 × 102
Problem 42. Evaluate
Law 4: When a number has an index of 0, its value 108
is 1.
103 × 102 103+2 105
For example, 3 0 = 1 and 17 0 = 1 = = from law 1
108 108 108
More generally, a 0 = 1
Law 5: A number raised to a negative power is the = 105−8 = 10−3 from law 2
reciprocal of that number raised to a positive power.
1 1
1 1 = = from law 5
For example, 3 −4 = 4 and −3 = 23 10+3 1000
3 2
1 1 103 × 102 1
More generally, a = n For example, a −2 = 2
−n
Hence, = 10−3 = = 0.001
a a 108 1000
Law 6: When a number is raised to a fractional
power the denominator of the fraction is the root Problem 43. Simplify: (a) (2 3 )4 (b) (32 )5
of the number and the numerator is the power. expressing the answers in index form.
2 √
3
For example, 8 3 = 82 = (2)2 = 4
1 √2
√ √ √ From law 3:
and 25 2 = 251 = 251 = ±5 (Note that ≡ 2 )
m √ 4 √3 (a) (23 )4 = 23×4 = 212
More generally, a n = n am For example, x 3 = x4
(b) (32 )5 = 32×5 = 310
Problem 38. Evaluate in index form 5 3 × 5 × 52
(102 )3
Problem 44. Evaluate:
53 × 5 × 52 = 53 × 51 × 52 (Note that 5 means 5 1 ) 104 × 102

= 53+1+2 = 56 from law 1 (102 )3 10(2×3)

From laws 1, 2, and 3: =
104 × 102 10(4+2)
35 106
Problem 39. Evaluate = = 106−6 = 100 = 1 from law 4
34 106
35 Problem 45. Evaluate (a) 4 1/2 (b) 163/4 (c) 272/3
From law 2: = 35−4 = 31 = 3 1
34 (d) 9− 2
Another random document with
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eighteen from the South, and but eleven from the North; although
nearly four-fifths of the judicial business has arisen in the Free
States, yet a majority of the Court has always been from the South.
This we have required so as to guard against any interpretation of the
Constitution unfavorable to us. In like manner we have been equally
watchful to guard our interests in the Legislative branch of
Government. In choosing the presiding Presidents (pro tem.) of the
Senate, we have had twenty-four to their eleven. Speakers of the
House we have had twenty-three, and they twelve. While the
majority of the Representatives, from their greater population, have
always been from the North, yet we have so generally secured the
Speaker, because he, to a great extent, shapes and controls the
legislation of the country. Nor have we had less control in every other
department of the General Government. Attorney-Generals we have
had fourteen, while the North have had but five. Foreign ministers
we have had eighty-six, and they but fifty-four. While three-fourths
of the business which demands diplomatic agents abroad is clearly
from the Free States, from their greater commercial interest, yet we
have had the principal embassies so as to secure the world-markets
for our cotton, tobacco, and sugar on the best possible terms. We
have had a vast majority of the higher offices of both army and navy,
while a larger proportion of the soldiers and sailors were drawn from
the North. Equally so of Clerks, Auditors, and Comptrollers filling
the executive department, the records show for the last fifty years
that of the three thousand thus employed, we have had more than
two-thirds of the same, while we have but one-third of the white
population of the Republic.
Again, look at another item, and one, be assured, in which we have
a great and vital interest; it is that of revenue, or means of supporting
Government. From official documents, we learn that a fraction over
three-fourths of the revenue collected for the support of the
Government has uniformly been raised from the North.
Pause now while you can, gentlemen, and contemplate carefully
and candidly these important items. Look at another necessary
branch of Government, and learn from stern statistical facts how
matters stand in that department. I mean the mail and Post-Office
privileges that we now enjoy under the General Government as it has
been for years past. The expense for the transportation of the mail in
the Free States was, by the report of the Postmaster-General for the
year 1860 a little over $13,000,000, while the income was
$19,000,000. But in the Slave States the transportation of the mail
was $14,716,000, while the revenue from the same was $8,001,026,
leaving a deficit of $6,704,974, to be supplied by the North for our
accommodation, and without it we must have been entirely cut off
from this most essential branch of Government.
Leaving out of view, for the present, the countless millions of
dollars you must expend in a war with the North; with tens of
thousands of your sons and brothers slain in battle, and offered up as
sacrifices upon the altar of your ambition—and for what, we ask
again? Is it for the overthrow of the American Government,
established by our common ancestry, cemented and built up by their
sweat and blood, and founded on the broad principles of Right,
Justice and Humanity? And as such, I must declare here, as I have
often done before, and which has been repeated by the greatest and
wisest of statesmen and patriots in this and other lands, that it is the
best and freest Government—the most equal in its rights, the most
just in its decisions, the most lenient in its measures, and the most
aspiring in its principles to elevate the race of men, that the sun of
heaven ever shone upon. Now, for you to attempt to overthrow such
a government as this, under which we have lived for more than
three-quarters of a century—in which we have gained our wealth, our
standing as a nation, our domestic safety while the elements of peril
are around us, with peace and tranquillity accompanied with
unbounded prosperity and rights unassailed—is the height of
madness, folly, and wickedness, to which I can neither lend my
sanction nor my vote.
The seven seceding States (South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia,
Florida, Alabama, Louisiana and Texas,) as shown by data previously
given, organized their Provisional Government, with Jefferson Davis,
the most radical secession leader, as President; and Alex. H.
Stephens, the most conservative leader, as Vice-President. The
reasons for these selections were obvious; the first met the views of
the cotton States, the other example was needed in securing the
secession of other States. The Convention adopted a constitution, the
substance of which is given elsewhere in this work. Stephens
delivered a speech at Savannah, March 21st, 1861, in explanation and
vindication of this instrument, which says all that need be said about
it:
“The new Constitution has put at rest forever all the agitating
questions relating to our peculiar institutions—African slavery as it
exists among us—the proper status of the negro in our form of
civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and
present revolution. Jefferson, in his forecast, had anticipated this as
the ‘rock upon which the old Union would split.’ He was right. What
was conjecture with him, is now a realized fact. But whether he fully
comprehended the great truth upon which that rock stood and
stands, may be doubted. The prevailing ideas entertained by him and
most of the leading statesmen at the time of the formation of the old
Constitution, were that the enslavement of the African was in
violation of the laws of nature: that it was wrong in principle,
socially, morally, and politically. It was an evil they knew not well
how to deal with, but the general opinion of the men of that day was,
that somehow or other, in the order of Providence, the institution
would be evanescent and pass away. This idea, though not
incorporated in the Constitution, was the prevailing idea at the time.
The Constitution, it is true, secured every essential guarantee to the
institution while it should last, and hence no argument can be justly
used against the constitutional guarantees thus secured, because of
the common sentiment of the day. Those ideas, however, were
fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the
equality of races. This was an error. It was a sandy foundation, and
the idea of a government built upon it; when the ‘storm came and the
wind blew, it fell.’
“Our new Government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea;
its foundations are laid, its corner-stone rests upon the great truth
that the negro is not equal to the white man. That slavery—
subordination to the superior race, is his natural and normal
condition. This, our new Government, is the first, in the history of
the world, based upon this great physical and moral truth. This truth
has been slow in the process of its development, like all other truths
in the various departments of science. It has been so even amongst
us. Many who hear me, perhaps, can recollect well, that this truth
was not generally admitted, even within their day. The errors of the
past generation still clung to many as late as twenty years ago. Those
at the North who still cling to these errors, with a zeal above
knowledged, we justly denominate fanatics.***
“In the conflict thus far, success has been, on our side, complete
throughout the length and breadth of the Confederate States. It is
upon this, as I have stated, our actual fabric is firmly planted; and I
cannot permit myself to doubt the ultimate success of a full
recognition of this principle throughout the civilized and enlightened
world.
“As I have stated, the truth of this principle may be slow in
development, as all truths are, and ever have been, in the various
branches of science. It was so with the principles announced by
Galileo—it was so with Adam Smith and his principles of political
economy—it was so with Harvey and his theory of the circulation of
the blood. It is stated that not a single one of the medical profession,
living at the time of the announcement of the truths made by him,
admitted them. Now they are universally acknowledged. May we not,
therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate universal
acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system rests. It is the
first government ever instituted upon principles of strict conformity
to nature, and the ordination of Providence, in furnishing the
materials of human society. Many governments have been founded
upon the principle of certain classes; but the classes thus enslaved,
were of the same race, and in violation of the laws of nature. Our
system commits no such violation of nature’s laws. The negro, by
nature, or by the curse against Canaan, is fitted for that condition
which he occupies in our system. The architect, in the construction of
buildings, lays the foundation with the proper materials, the granite;
then comes the brick or the marble. The substratum of our society is
made of the material fitted by nature for it, and by experience we
know that it is best, not only for the superior, but for the inferior race
that it should be so. It is, indeed, in conformity with the ordinance of
the Creator. It is not for us to inquire into the wisdom of His
ordinances, or to question them. For His own purposes He has made
one race to differ from another, as He has made ‘one star to differ
from another star in glory.’
“The great objects of humanity are best attained when conformed
to His laws and decrees, in the formation of governments, as well as
in all things else. Our Confederacy is founded upon principles in
strict conformity with these laws. This stone which was first rejected
by the first builders ‘is become the chief stone of the corner’ in our
new edifice.
“The progress of disintegration in the old Union may be expected
to go on with almost absolute certainty. We are now the nucleus of a
growing power, which, if we are true to ourselves, our destiny, and
high mission, will become the controlling power on this continent.
To what extent accessions will go on in the process of time, or where
it will end, the future will determine.”
It was determined by the secession of eleven States in all, the
Border States except Missouri, remaining in the Union, and West
Virginia dividing from old Virginia for the purpose of keeping her
place in the Union.
The leaders of the Confederacy relied to a great extent upon the
fact that President Buchanan, in his several messages and replies to
commissioners, and in the explanation of the law by his Attorney-
General, had tied his own hands against any attempt to reinforce the
garrisons in the Southern forts, and they acted upon this faith and
made preparations for their capture. The refusal of the
administration to reinforce Fort Moultrie caused the resignation of
General Cass, and by this time the Cabinet was far from harmonious.
As early as the 10th of December, Howell Cobb resigned as Secretary
of the Treasury, because of his “duty to Georgia;” January 26th, John
B. Floyd resigned because Buchanan would not withdraw the troops
from Southern forts; and before that, Attorney-General Black,
without publicly expressing his views, also resigned. Mr. Buchanan
saw the wreck around him, and his administration closed in
profound regret on the part of many of his northern friends, and,
doubtless, on his own part. His early policy, and indeed up to the
close of 1860, must have been unsatisfactory even to himself, for he
supplied the vacancies in his cabinet by devoted Unionists—by Philip
F. Thomas of Maryland, Gen’l Dix of New York, Joseph Holt of
Kentucky, and Edwin M. Stanton of Pennsylvania—men who held in
their hands the key to nearly every situation, and who did much to
protect and restore the Union of the States. In the eyes of the North,
the very last acts of Buchanan were the best.
With the close of Buchanan’s administration all eyes turned to
Lincoln, and fears were entertained that the date fixed by law for the
counting of the electoral vote—February 15th, 1861—would
inaugurate violence and bloodshed at the seat of government. It
passed, however, peaceably. Both Houses met at 12 high noon in the
hall of the House, Vice-President Breckinridge and Speaker
Pennington, both democrats, sitting side by side, and the count was
made without serious challenge or question.
On the 11th of February Mr. Lincoln left his home for Washington,
intending to perform the journey in easy stages. On parting with his
friends at Springfield, he said:
“My Friends: No one, in my position, can realize the sadness I feel
at this parting. To this people I owe all that I am. Here I have lived
more than a quarter of a century. Here my children were born, and
here one of them lies buried. I know not how soon I shall see you
again. I go to assume a task more difficult than that which has
devolved upon any other man since the days of Washington. He
never would have succeeded except for the aid of Divine Providence,
upon which he at all times relied. I feel that I cannot succeed without
the same Divine blessing which sustained him; and on the same
Almighty Being I place my reliance for support. And I hope you, my
friends, will all pray that I might receive that Divine assistance,
without which I cannot succeed, but with which success is certain.
Again, I bid you all an affectionate farewell.”
Lincoln passed through Indiana, Ohio, New York, New Jersey and
Pennsylvania on his way to the Capitol. Because of threats made that
he should not reach the Capitol alive, some friends in Illinois
employed a detective to visit Washington and Baltimore in advance
of his arrival, and he it was who discovered a conspiracy in Baltimore
to mob and assassinate him. He therefore passed through Baltimore
in the night, two days earlier than was anticipated, and reached
Washington in safety. On the 22d of February he spoke at
Independence Hall and said:
“All the political sentiments I entertain have been drawn, so far as
I have been able to draw them, from the sentiments which originated
in, and were given to the world from, this hall. I never had a feeling,
politically, that did not spring from the sentiments embodied in the
Declaration of Independence.
 “It was not the mere matter of the separation of the Colonies from
the motherland, but that sentiment in the Declaration of
Independence, which gave liberty, not alone to the people of this
country, but, I hope, to the world for all future time. It was that
which gave promise that, in due time, the weight would be lifted
from the shoulders of men. This is the sentiment embodied in the
Declaration of Independence. Now, my friends, can this country be
saved upon that basis? If it can, I will consider myself one of the
happiest men in the world, if I can help to save it. If it cannot be
saved upon that principle, it will be truly awful! But if this country
cannot be saved without giving up the principle, I was about to say, ‘I
would rather be assassinated on the spot than surrender it.’ *** I
have said nothing but what I am willing to live by, and if it be the
pleasure of Almighty God, to die by!”
 Lincoln’s First Administration.

Such was the feeling of insecurity that the President elect was
followed to Washington by many watchful friends, while Gen’l Scott,
Col. Sumner, Major Hunter and the members of Buchanan’s Cabinet
quickly made such arrangements as secured his safety. Prior to his
inauguration he took every opportunity to quell the still rising
political excitement by assuring the Southern people of his kindly
feelings, and on the 27th of February,[17] “when waited upon by the
Mayor and Common Council of Washington, he assured them, and
through them the South, that he had no disposition to treat them in
any other way than as neighbors, and that he had no disposition to
withhold from them any constitutional right. He assured the people
that they would have all of their rights under the Constitution—‘not
grudgingly, but freely and fairly.’”
He was peacefully inaugurated on the 4th of March, and yet
Washington was crowded as never before by excited multitudes. The
writer himself witnessed the military arrangements of Gen’l Scott for
preserving the peace, and with armed cavalry lining every curb stone
on the line of march, it would have been difficult indeed to start or
continue a riot, though it was apparent that many in the throng were
ready to do it if occasion offered.
The inaugural ceremonies were more than usually impressive. On
the eastern front of the capitol, surrounded by such of the members
of the Senate and House who had not resigned their seats and
entered the Confederacy, the Diplomatic Corps, the Judges of the
Supreme Court, headed by Chief Justice Taney, the author of the
Dred Scott decision; the higher officers of Army and Navy, while
close by the side of the new President stood the retiring one—James
Buchanan—tall, dignified, reserved, and to the eye of the close
observer apparently deeply grieved at the part his party and position
had compelled him to play in a National drama which was now
reaching still another crisis. Near by, too, stood Douglas (holding
Lincoln’s hat) more gloomy than was his wont, but determined as he
had ever been. Next to the two Presidents he was most observed.

If the country could then have been pacified, Lincoln’s inaugural

was well calculated to do it. That it exercised a wholesome influence
in behalf of the Union, and especially in the border States, soon
became apparent. Indeed, its sentiments seemed for weeks to check
the wild spirit of secession in the cotton States, and it took all the
efforts of their most fiery orators to rekindle the flame which seemed
to have been at its highest when Major Anderson was compelled to
evacuate Fort Moultrie.
It is but proper in this connection, to make a few quotations from
the inaugural address, for Lincoln then, as he did during the
remainder of his life, better reflected the more popular Republican
sentiment than any other leader. The very first thought was upon the
theme uppermost in the minds of all. We quote:
“Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern
States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their
property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered.
There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension.
Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while
existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the
published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote
from one of those speeches when I declare that ‘I have no purpose
directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the
States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I
have no inclination to do so.’ Those who nominated and elected me
did so with full knowledge that I had made this and many similar
declarations, and had never recanted them. And more than this, they
placed in the platform for my acceptance, and as a law to themselves
and to me, the clear and emphatic resolution which I now read:
‘Resolved, That the maintenance inviolate of the rights of the
States, and especially the right of each State to order and control its
own domestic institutions according to its own judgment exclusively,
is essential to the balance of power on which the perfection and
endurance of our political fabric depend, and we denounce the
lawless invasion by armed force of the soil of any State or Territory,
no matter under what pretext, as among the gravest of crimes.’
I now reiterate these sentiments; and in doing so, I only press
upon the public attention the most conclusive evidence of which the
case is susceptible, that the property, peace, and security of no
section are to be in anywise endangered by the now incoming
Administration. I add, too, that all the protection which, consistently
with the Constitution and the laws, can be given, will be cheerfully
given to all the States when lawfully demanded, for whatever cause—
as cheerfully to one section as to another.
After conveying this peaceful assurance, he argued the question in
his own way, and in a way matchless for its homely force:
“Physically speaking, we cannot separate. We cannot remove our
respective sections from each other, nor build an impassable wall
between them. A husband and wife may be divorced, and go out of
the presence and beyond the reach of each other; but the different
parts of our country cannot do this. They cannot but remain face to
face; and intercourse, either amicable or hostile, must continue
between them. Is it possible, then, to make that intercourse more
advantageous or more satisfactory after separation than before? Can
aliens make treaties easier than friends can make laws? Can treaties
be more faithfully enforced between aliens than laws can among
friends? Suppose you go to war, you cannot fight always; and when
after much loss on both sides, and no gain on either, you cease
fighting, the identical old questions, as to terms of intercourse, are
again upon you.
“This country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who
inhabit it. Whenever they shall grow weary of the existing
Government they can exercise their constitutional right of amending
it, or their revolutionary right to dismember or overthrow it. I
cannot be ignorant of the fact that many worthy and patriotic citizens
are desirous of having the National Constitution amended. While I
make no recommendation of amendments, I fully recognize the
rightful authority of the people over the whole subject, to be
exercised in either of the modes prescribed in the instrument itself;
and I should under existing circumstances, favor rather than oppose
a fair opportunity being afforded the people to act upon it. I will
venture to add that to me the convention mode seems preferable, in
that it allows amendments to originate with the people themselves,
instead of only permitting them to take or reject propositions
originated by others, not especially chosen for the purpose, and
which might not be precisely such as they would wish to either accept
or refuse. I understand a proposed amendment to the Constitution—
which amendment, however, I have not seen—has passed Congress,
to the effect that the Federal Government shall never interfere with
the domestic institutions of the States, including that of persons held
to service. To avoid misconstruction of what I have said, I depart
from my purpose not to speak of particular amendments so far as to
say that, holding such a provision now to be implied constitutional
law, I have no objection to its being made express and irrevocable.
“The Chief Magistrate derives all his authority from the people,
and they have conferred none upon him to fix terms for the
separation of the States. The people themselves can do this also if
they choose; but the Executive, as such, has nothing to do with it. His
duty is to administer the present Government, as it came to his
hands, and to transmit it, unimpaired by him, to his successor.***
“In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in
mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The Government will not
assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the
aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the
Government, while I shall have the most solemn one to ‘preserve,
protect and defend it.’
“I am loth to close. We are not enemies but friends. We must not
be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it must not break
our bonds of affection. The mystic chords of memory, stretching
from every battle-field and patriot grave to every living heart and
hearth-stone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the
union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better
angels of our nature.”
Lincoln appointed a Cabinet in thorough accord with his own
views, and well suited to whatever shades of difference there were in
the Republican party. Wm. H. Seward, Secretary of State, and
Salmon P. Chase represented the more advanced anti-slavery
element; General Simon Cameron, Secretary of War, from the first
saw only a prolonged war in which superior Northern resources and
appliances would surely win, while Seward expressed the view that
“all troubles would be over in three months;” Gideon Welles,
Secretary of the Navy; Caleb B. Smith of the Interior; Edward Bates,
Attorney-General, and Montgomery Blair, Postmaster-General,
represented the more conservative Republican view—the two last
named being well adapted to retaining the National hold on the
Border States.
Political events now rapidly succeeded each other. As early as
March 11, John Forsyth of Alabama and Martin J. Crawford of
Georgia, submitted to the Secretary of State a proposition for an
unofficial interview. Mr. Seward the next day, from “purely public
considerations,” declined. On the 13th the same gentlemen sent a
sealed communication, saying they had been duly accredited by the
Confederate government as Commissioners, to negotiate for a speedy
adjustment of all questions growing out of the political separation of
seven States, which had formed a government of their own, etc. They
closed this remarkable document by requesting the Secretary of State
to appoint as early a day as possible in order that they may present to
the President of the United States the credentials which they bear,
and the objects of the mission with which they are charged.
 Mr. Seward’s reply in substance, said that his “official duties were
confined, subject to the direction of the President, to the conducting
of the foreign relations of the country, and do not at all embrace
domestic questions or questions arising between the several States
and the Federal Government, is unable to comply with the request of
Messrs. Forsyth and Crawford, to appoint a day on which they may
present the evidences of their authority and the object of their visit to
the President of the United States. On the contrary, he is obliged to
state to Messrs. Forsyth and Crawford that he has no authority, nor
is he at liberty to recognize them as diplomatic agents, or hold
correspondence or other communication with them.”
An extended correspondence followed, but the administration in
all similar cases, refused to recognize the Confederacy as a
government in any way. On the 13th of April the President granted
an interview to Wm. Ballard Preston, Alex. H. Stuart, and George W.
Randolph, who had been sent by the Convention of Virginia, then in
session, under a resolution recited in the President’s reply, the text of
which is herewith given:—
Gentlemen: As a committee of the Virginia Convention, now in
session, you present me a preamble and resolution in these words:
“Whereas, in the opinion of this Convention, the uncertainty which
prevails in the public mind as to the policy which the Federal
Executive intends to pursue toward the seceded States is extremely
injurious to the industrial and commercial interests of the country,
tends to keep up an excitement which is unfavorable to the
adjustment of pending difficulties, and threatens a disturbance of the
public peace: Therefore,
“Resolved, That a committee of three delegates be appointed to
wait on the President of the United States, present to him this
preamble and resolution, and respectfully ask him to communicate
to this Convention the policy which the Federal Executive intends to
pursue in regard to the Confederate States.”
“In answer I have to say, that, having at the beginning of my
official term expressed my intended policy as plainly as I was able, it
is with deep regret and some mortification I now learn that there is
great and injurious uncertainty in the public mind as to what that
policy is, and what course I intend to pursue.
 “Not having as yet seen occasion to change, it is now my purpose
to pursue the course marked out in the inaugural address. I
commend a careful consideration of the whole document as the best
expression I can give of my purposes. As I then and therein said, I
now repeat:
“The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and
possess the property and places belonging to the Government, and to
collect the duties and imposts; but beyond what is necessary for
these objects there will be no invasion, no using of force against or
among the people anywhere.”
“By the words ‘property and places belonging to the Government’ I
chiefly allude to the military posts and property which were in the
possession of the Government when it came into my hands.
“But if, as now appears to be true, in pursuit of a purpose to drive
the United States authority from these places, an unprovoked assault
has been made upon Fort Sumter, I shall hold myself at liberty to
repossess, if I can, like places which had been seized before the
Government was devolved upon me. And, in any event, I shall, to the
best of my ability, repel force by force.
“In case it proves true that Fort Sumter has been assaulted, as is
reported, I shall perhaps cause the United States mails to be
withdrawn from all the States which claim to have seceded, believing
that the commencement of actual war against the Government
justifies and possibly demands it.”
“I scarcely need to say that I consider the military posts and
property situated within the States which claim to have seceded as
yet belonging to the Government of the United States as much as
they did before the supposed secession.
“Whatever else I may do for the purpose, I shall not attempt to
collect the duties and imposts by any armed invasion of any part of
the country—not meaning by this, however, that I may not land a
force deemed necessary to relieve a fort upon the border of the
country.
“From the fact that I have quoted a part of the inaugural address, it
must not be inferred that I repudiate any other part, the whole of
which I reaffirm, except so far as what I now say of the mails may be
regarded as a modification.”
 We have given the above as not only fair but interesting samples of
the semi-official and official transactions and correspondence of the
time. To give more could not add to the interest of what is but a
description of the political situation.
The Border states and some others were “halting between two
opinions.” North Carolina at first voted down a proposition to secede
by 46,671 for, to 47,333 against, but the secessionists called another
convention in May, the work of which the people ratified, the
minority, however, being very large.
Before Lincoln had entered office most of the Southern forts,
arsenals, docks, custom houses, etc., had been seized, and now that
preparations were being made for active warfare by the Confederacy,
many officers of the army and navy resigned or deserted, and joined
it. The most notable were General Robert E. Lee, who for a time
hesitated as to his “duty,” and General David E. Twiggs, the second
officer in rank in the United States Army, but who had purposely
been placed by Secretary Floyd in command of the Department of
Texas to facilitate his joining the Confederacy, which he intended to
do from the beginning. All officers were permitted to go, the
administration not seeking to restrain any, under the belief that until
some open act of war was committed it ought to remain on the
defensive. This was wise political policy, for it did more than all else
to hold the Border States, the position of which Douglas understood
fully as well as any statesman of that hour. It is remarked of Douglas
(in Arnold’s “History of Abraham Lincoln”) that as early as January
1, 1861, he said to General Charles Stewart, of New York, who had
made a New Year’s call at his residence in Washington, and inquired,
“What will be the result of the efforts of Jefferson Davis, and his
associates, to divide the Union?” “Rising, and looking,” says my
informant, “like one inspired, Douglas replied, ‘The cotton States are
making an effort to draw in the border States to their schemes of
secession, and I am but too fearful they will succeed. If they do
succeed, there will be the most terrible civil war the world has ever
seen, lasting for years.’ Pausing a moment, he exclaimed, ‘Virginia
will become a charnel house, but the end will be the triumph of the
Union cause. One of their first efforts will be to take possession of
this Capitol to give them prestige abroad, but they will never succeed
in taking it—the North will rise en masse to defend it;—but
Washington will become a city of hospitals—the churches will be
used for the sick and wounded—even this house (Minnesota block,
afterwards, and during the war, the Douglas Hospital) may be
devoted to that purpose before the end of the war.’ The friend to
whom this was said inquired, ‘What justification for all this?’
Douglas replied, ‘There is no justification, nor any pretense of any—if
they remain in the Union, I will go as far as the Constitution will
permit, to maintain their just rights, and I do not doubt a majority of
Congress would do the same. But,’ said he, again rising on his feet,
and extending his arm, ‘if the Southern States attempt to secede from
this Union, without further cause, I am in favor of their having just
so many slaves, and just so much slave territory, as they can hold at
the point of the bayonet, and NO MORE.’”
In the border states of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina,
Tennessee and Missouri there were sharp political contests between
the friends of secession and of the Union. Ultimately the Unionists
triumphed in Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri—in the latter state
by the active aid of U. S. troops—in Maryland and Kentucky by
military orders to arrest any members of the Legislature conspiring
to take their states out. In Tennessee, the Union men, under the lead
of Andrew Johnson, Governor (“Parson”) Brownlow, Horace
Maynard and others, who made a most gallant fight to keep the state
in, and they had the sympathy of the majority of the people of East
Tennessee. The Secessionists took Virginia out April 17th, and North
Carolina May 20th. The leading Southerners encouraged the timid
and hesitating by saying the North would not make war; that the
political divisions would be too great there, and they were supported
in this view by the speeches and letters of leaders like Clement L.
Vallandigham. On the other hand they roused the excitable by
warlike preparations, and, as we have stated, to prevent
reconsideration on the part of those who had seceded, resolved to
fire upon Sumter. Beauregard acted under direct instructions from
the government at Montgomery when he notified Major Anderson on
the 11th of April to surrender Fort Sumter. Anderson replied that he
would evacuate on the 15th, but the original summons called for
surrender by the 12th, and they opened their fire in advance of the
time fixed for evacuation—a fact which clearly established the
purpose to bring about a collision. It was this aggressive spirit which
aroused and united the North, and made extensive political division
therein impossible.
The Southern leaders, ever anxious for the active aid of the Border
States, soon saw that they could only acquire it through higher
sectional excitement than any yet cultivated, and they acted
accordingly. Roger A. Pryor, in a speech at Richmond April 10th,
gave expression to this thought, when he said in response to a
serenade:—
“Gentlemen, I thank you, especially that you have at last
annihilated this accursed Union, [applause,] reeking with corruption,
and insolent with excess of tyranny. Thank God, it is at last blasted
and riven by the lightning wrath of an outraged and indignant
people. [Loud applause.] Not only is it gone, but gone forever. [Cries
of ‘You’re right,’ and applause.] In the expressive language of
Scripture, it is water spilt upon the ground, which cannot be
gathered up. [Applause.] Like Lucifer, son of the morning, it has
fallen, never to rise again. [Continued applause.] For my part,
gentlemen, if Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin to-morrow
were to abdicate their offices and were to give me a blank sheet of
paper to write the conditions of reannexation to the defunct Union,
I would scornfully spurn the overture. * * * I invoke you, and I make
it in some sort a personal appeal—personal so far as it tends to our
assistance in Virginia—I do invoke you, in your demonstrations of
popular opinion, in your exhibitions of official intent, to give no
countenance to this idea of reconstruction. [Many voices,
emphatically, ‘Never,’ and applause.] In Virginia they all say, if
reduced to the dread dilemma of this memorable alternative, they
will espouse the cause of the South as against the interest of the
Northern Confederacy, but they whisper of reconstruction, and they
say Virginia must abide in the Union, with the idea of reconstructing
the Union which you have annihilated. I pray you, gentlemen, rob
them of that idea. Proclaim to the world that upon no condition, and
under no circumstance, will South Carolina ever again enter into
political association with the Abolitionists of New England. [Cries of
‘Never,’ and applause.]
“Do not distrust Virginia. As sure as to-morrow’s sun will rise upon
us, just so sure will Virginia be a member of this Southern
Confederation. [Applause.] And I will tell you, gentlemen, what will
put her in the Southern Confederation in less than an hour by
Shrewsbury clock—STRIKE A BLOW! [Tremendous applause.] The
very moment that blood is shed, old Virginia will make common
cause with her sisters of the South. [Applause.] It is impossible she
should do otherwise.”
Warlike efforts were likewise used to keep some of the states firmly
to their purpose. Hon. Jeremiah Clemens, formerly United States
Senator from Alabama, and a member of the Alabama Seceding
Convention who resisted the movement until adopted by the body, at
an adjourned Reconstruction meeting held at Huntsville, Ala., March
13, 1864, made this significant statement:—
Mr. Clemens, in adjourning the meeting, said he would tell the
Alabamians how their state was got out of the Union. “In 1861,” said
Mr. C., “shortly after the Confederate Government was put in
operation, I was in the city of Montgomery. One day I stepped into
the office of the Secretary of War, General Walker, and found there,
engaged in a very excited discussion, Mr. Jefferson Davis, Mr.
Memminger, Mr. Benjamin, Mr. Gilchrist, a member of our
Legislature from Loundes county, and a number of other prominent
gentlemen. They were discussing the propriety of immediately
opening fire on Fort Sumter, to which General Walker, the Secretary
of War, appeared to be opposed. Mr. Gilchrist said to him, ‘Sir,
unless you sprinkle blood in the face of the people of Alabama they
will be back in the old Union in less than ten days!’ The next day
General Beauregard opened his batteries on Sumter, and Alabama
was saved to the Confederacy.”
When the news flashed along the wires that Sumter had been fired
upon, Lincoln immediately used his war powers and issued a call for
75,000 troops. All of the northern governors responded with
promptness and enthusiasm; but this was not true of the governors
of the southern states which at that time had not seceded, and the
Border States.
We take from McPherson’s admirable condensation, the evasive or
hostile replies of the Governors referred to, and follow it with his
statement of the military calls and legislation of both governments,
but for the purposes of this work omit details which are too
extended.
 REPLIES OF SOUTHERN STATE GOVERNORS TO
LINCOLN’S CALL FOR 75,000 TROOPS.

Governor Burton, of Delaware, issued a proclamation, April 26,

recommending the formation of volunteer companies for the
protection of the lives and property of the people of Delaware against
violence of any sort to which they may be exposed, the companies
not being subject to be ordered by the Executive into the United
States service, the law not vesting him with such authority, but
having the option of offering their services to the General
Government for the defence of its capital and the support of the
Constitution and laws of the country.
Governor Hicks, of Maryland, May 14, issued a proclamation for
the troops, stating that the four regiments would be detailed to serve
within the limits of Maryland or for the defence of the capital of the
United States.
Governor Letcher, of Virginia, replied that “The militia of Virginia
will not be furnished to the powers of Washington for any such use
or purpose as they have in view. Your object is to subjugate the
southern States, and a requisition made upon me for such an object
—an object, in my judgment, not within the purview of the
Constitution or the act of 1795—will not be complied with. You have
chosen to inaugurate civil war, and having done so we will meet it in
a spirit as determined as the Administration has exhibited toward
the South.”
Governor Ellis, of North Carolina, replied April 15:
“Your dispatch is received, and if genuine—which its extraordinary
character leads me to doubt—I have to say in reply that I regard the
levy of troops made by the Administration, for the purpose of
subjugating the States of the South, as in violation of the
Constitution and a usurpation of power. I can be no party to this
wicked violation of the laws of the country, and to this war upon the
liberties of a free people. You can get no troops from North Carolina.
I will reply more in detail when your call is received by mail.”
Governor Magoffin, of Kentucky, replied, April 15:
“Your dispatch is received. In answer I say emphatically, Kentucky
will furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister
Southern States.”
Governor Harris, of Tennessee, replied, April 18:
“Tennessee will not furnish a single man for coercion, but fifty
thousand, if necessary, for the defence of our rights or those of our
southern brethren.”
Governor Jackson, of Missouri, replied:
“Your requisition is illegal, unconstitutional, revolutionary,
inhuman, diabolical, and cannot be complied with.”
Governor Rector, of Arkansas, replied, April 22:
“None will be furnished. The demand is only adding insult to
injury.”

ALL OTHER CALLS FOR TROOPS.

May 3, 1861—The President called for thirty-nine volunteer

regiments of infantry and one regiment of cavalry, with a minimum
aggregate of 34,506 officers and enlisted men, and a maximum of
42,034; and for the enlistment of 18,000 seamen.
May 3, 1861—The President directed an increase of the regular
army by eight regiments of infantry, one of cavalry, and one of
artillery—minimum aggregate, 18,054; maximum, 22,714.
August 6—Congress legalized this increase, and all the acts, orders,
and proclamations respecting the Army and Navy.
July 22 and 25, 1861—Congress authorized the enlistment of
500,000 volunteers.
September 17, 1861—Commanding officer at Hatteras Inlet, N. C.,
authorized to enlist a regiment of loyal North Carolinians.
November 7, 1861—The Governor of Missouri was authorized to
raise a force of State militia for State defence.
December 3, 1861—The Secretary of War directed that no more
regiments, batteries, or independent companies be raised by the
Governors of States, except upon the special requisition of the War
Department.
July 2, 1862—The President called for three hundred thousand
volunteers.