Module-3

Industrial control and automation

Midhya Mathew
Assistant Professor
EXCP, KJSCE

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 Electrical Relays

- Electromechanical switch used to make or break an electrical connection

- It uses basic switching principles and solenoid actuation
- It consists of a flexible moving mechanical part which can be controlled electronically
through an electromagnet
Construction of Relay and its operation:

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 Electrical Relays

- On a casing, a core with copper windings (forms a coil) winded on it is placed

- A movable armature consists of a spring support or stand like structure connected to one end,
and a metal contact connected to another side, all these arrangements are placed over the core
such that, when the coil is energized, it attracts the armature.
- The movable armature is generally considered as a common terminal which is to be connected
to the external circuitry.
- The relay also has two pins namely normally closed and normally opened (NC and NO), the
normally closed pin is connected to the armature or the common terminal whereas the
normally opened pin is left free (when the coil is not energized).
- When the coil is energized the armature moves and is get connected to the normally opened
contact till there exists flow of current through the coil.
- When it is de-energized it goes to its initial position.

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 Electrical Relays
- The general circuit representation of the relay is as shown in the figure below

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 Electrical Relays - Working Principle
- When no voltage is applied to the core, it cannot generate any magnetic field and it doesn’t act
as a magnet. It cannot attract the movable armature.
- The initial position itself is the armature connected in normally closed position (NC)
- When sufficient voltage is applied to the core it starts to create a magnetic field around it and
acts as a magnet.
- Since the movable armature is placed within its range, it gets attracted to that magnetic field
created by the core, thus the position of the armature is being altered.
- It is now connected to the normally opened pin of the relay and external circuit connected to it
function in a different manner.

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 Electrical Motors
- Electric motors are frequently used as the final control element in positional or speed control
systems.
- Motors can be classified into two main categories: d.c. motors and a.c. motors.
- It is possible to divide d.c. motors into two main groups, those using brushes to make contact
with a commutator ring assembly on the rotor to switch the current from one rotor winding to
another and the brushless type.
- With the brush type of motor, the rotor has the coil winding and the stator can be either a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
- With the brushless type, the arrangement is reversed in that the rotor is a permanent magnet
and the stator has the coil winding.

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 Brush-type d.c. motor
- A brush-type d.c. motor is essentially a coil of wire which is free to rotate, and so termed the
rotor, in the field of a permanent magnet or an electromagnet, the magnet being termed the
stator since it is stationary
- When a current is passed through the coil, the resulting forces acting on its sides at right
angles to the field cause forces to act on those sides to give rotation.
- For the rotation to continue, when the coil passes through the vertical position the current
direction through the coil has to be reversed and this is achieved by the use of brushes making
contact with a split-ring commutator, the commutator rotating with the coil.

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 Principle of DC motor
- When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and
has a tendency to move.
- This is known as motoring action

T = KI and E = K ω

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 Principle of DC motor
- The input voltage E, is applied across the brushes.
- Electric current which flows through the rotor armature via brushes, in presence of the
magnetic field, produces a torque T
- Due to this torque T the dc motor armature rotates
- As the armature conductors are carrying currents and the armature rotates inside the stator
magnetic field, it also produces an emf Eb
- Eb is the back emf and it opposes the main field

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 Principle of DC motor
Φ𝑍𝑁𝑃
Eb =
60.𝐴
P  no of poles
φ  flux per pole
Z  No. of conductors
A  No. of parallel paths
N  speed of the DC Motor

E = Ia Ra + Eb
- The armature current, Ia is represented by
𝐸 −𝐸𝑏
Ia =
𝑅𝑎
at starting, speed ω = 0 so at starting Eb = 0
𝐸
Ia =
𝑅𝑎
- Since the armature winding electrical resistance Ra is small, this motor has a very high starting
current in the absence of back Emf. So starter is used for starting a DC Motor.

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 Brush-type d.c. motor
- For a permanent magnet d.c. motor, the force resulting from a magnetic flux density B
at right angles to the conductor is

F = BiL

B Magnetic Flux density

L Length of the armature conductor
i  current through the conductor

- The torque T about the coil axis T = Fb

b  breadth of the coil
Torque on a armature turn T = BbLi = Φi
Φ  flux linked per armature turn
In practice there will be more than one armature turn and more than one set of poles
Torque T = ktΦi

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 Brush-type d.c. motor with field coils
- Based on the arrangements of armature and field windings, the DC motors are
classified as

- Series wound motor

- Shunt-wound motor
- Compound motor
- Separately excited motor

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 1. Series wound motor
- The armature and field coils are in series and thus carry the
same current

- Ise is the series current in the field coil and Ia is the armature
current

- Eb  back emf
- Rse  series coil resistance
- Ra  armature resistance

- The field flux is proportional to field current

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 1. Series wound motor
- The armature and field coils are in series and thus carry the same current
- The flux, Φ depends on the armature current ia and so the torque acting on the armature
is

T = kt Φ ia = kia2

- At start-up, when ω = 0, ia = V/R and so the starting torque

= k (V/R)2

- As such motors have a low resistance, they have a high starting torque and high no-
load speed.

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 Torque-Armature Characteristics
- The flux produced is proportional to the armature current

- The torque in case of dc series motor is proportional to the square of the armature
current. This relation is parabolic in nature.

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 Torque-Armature Characteristics
- As load increases, armature current increases and torque produces increases
proportional to the square of the armature current up to a particular limitation.
- As the whole armature current passes through the series field, there is a property
of an electromagnet called saturation, may occur.
- Saturation means although the current through the winding increases, the flux
produces remains constant.
- After the saturation, the characteristic take the form of the straight line as flux
becomes constant.

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 Speed-Armature Characteristics
- From the speed equation,

- The values of Ra and Rsc are so small that the effect of change in Ia on speed
overrides the effect of change in V-IaRa-IaRsc on the speed.
- Hence in the speed of the equation, Eb ≈ V and can be assumed constant. So the
speed equation reduces:

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 Speed-Armature Characteristics
- The speed- armature current characteristics is rectangular hyperbola.

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 Torque Speed Characteristics of DC series motor

- As torque increases when load increases, the speed decreases. On no load, torque is
very small and hence speed increases to dangerously high value.
- Torque increases as load increases, the speed decreases. On no load the torque is
very small.

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 Series wound motor
- The speed drops quite markedly when the load is increased.
- Reversing the polarity of the supply to the coils has no effect
on the direction of rotation of the motor; it will continue rotating
in the same direction since both the field and armature currents
have been reversed.
- Series wound d.c. motors are used where large starting torques
are required.
- With light loads there is a danger that a series-wound motor
might run at too high a speed.

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 Speed Control of DC motor
- The speed of a DC motor (N) is equal to

𝑉−𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎
N=
𝑘Φ

- The speed can be varied by changing:

- The terminal voltage of the armature, V
- The external resistance in armature circuit, Ra
- The flux per pole, Φ
- Terminal voltage and external resistance involve a change that affects the armature
circuit, while flux involves a change in the magnetic field.
- Speed control of DC motor can be classified into:
- Armature Control Methods
- Field Control Methods
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 Armature Controlled DC Motor
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by armature control may be done by:
- Armature Resistance Control Method
- Shunted Armature Control Method
- Armature Terminal Voltage Control
Armature Resistance Control Method
- The controlling resistance is connected directly in series with the supply of the motor

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 Armature Controlled DC Motor
Shunted Armature Control
- The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series with
the armature is involved in this method of speed control.
- The voltage applied to the armature is varies by varying series rheostat R1.
- The exciting current can be varied by varying the armature shunting resistance R2
- It is not economical due to considerable power losses in speed controlling
resistances

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 Armature Controlled DC Motor
Armature Terminal Voltage Control

- The speed control of DC series motor can be accomplished by supplying the power
to the motor from a separate variable voltage supply. This method involves high
cost so it rarely used.

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 Motor Field Controlled DC Motor
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by field control may be done by:

𝑉−𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎
- Field Diverter Method N=
𝑘Φ
- Tapped Field Control

Field Diverter Method

- The field flux can be reduced by shunting a portion of motor current around the
series field.
- Lesser the diverter resistance less is the field current, less flux therefore more
speed.
- This method gives speed above normal and the method is used in electric drives in
which speed should rise sharply as soon as load is decreased.

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 Motor Field Controlled DC Motor
Field Diverter Method

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 Motor Field Controlled DC Motor
Tapped Field Control
- Increasing the speed by reducing the flux and it is done by lowering number of
turns of field winding through which current flows.
- In this method a number of tapping from field winding are brought outside. This
method is employed in electric traction.

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