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SE VE NTH EDITION
EMPOWERMENT SERIES
Generalist Practice with

Organizations and Communities
Karen K. Kirst-Ashman and Grafton H. Hull, Jr.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Generalist Practice with
Organizations and Communities
Seventh Edition
Karen K. Kirst-Ashman
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Grafton H. Hull, Jr.

University of Utah
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
Generalist Practice with Organizations and © 2018, 2015 Cengage Learning
Communities, Seventh Edition
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
To Linda Kirst and Jim Spielman, the best relatives anyone could ask for
To my grandchildren, Patrick, Tatiana, Gregory, Ilsa, Marcus, Michael, Savannah, and Jonah
Brief Contents
Preface xvii
1 Introduction to Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities 1
2 Stress and Time Management 43
3 Using Micro Skills with Organizations and Communities 71
4 Group Skills for Organizational and Community Change 98
5 Understanding Organizations 143
6 Decision Making for Organizational Change 203
7 Implementing Organizational Change: Agency Policy, Projects, and Programs 235
8 Understanding Neighborhoods and Communities 289
9 Macro Practice in Communities 340
10 Evaluating Macro Practice 378
11 Advocacy and Social Action with Populations at Risk 412
12 Ethics and Ethical Dilemmas in Practice with Organizations and Communities 454
13 Using Supervision 501
14 Developing and Managing Agency Resources 517
References 567
Name Index 581
Subject Index 587
Contents
Preface xvii Broker 22

Facilitator 22
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Generalist Practice with
Initiator 22
Organizations and Communities 1
Negotiator 23
LO 1-1 Generalist Practice Using the Generalist Mobilizer 23
Intervention Model 2 Advocate 24
Example: A Micro Approach 4 Maintaining a Professional Identity and Roles 24
Example: A Mezzo Approach 5 LO 1-10 Using Critical Thinking Skills 25
Example: A Macro Approach 5 A Formula for Critical Thinking 25
Generalist Practice: An Eclectic Avoiding Fallacies 26
Knowledge Base 7 A Final Note on Critical Thinking
Human Behavior and the Social and Generalist Practice 26
Environment (HBSE) 9 Utilizing Research-Informed Practice 26
Social Welfare Policy and Policy Practice 9
Social Work Practice 10 LO 1-11 Using a Planned Change Process 28
Research 10 Engagement 28
Values and Principles that Guide Generalist Practice 11 Assessment: Identifying Clients, Issues,
and Collecting Information 28
LO 1-2 Sources That Guide Professional Values Planning in Macro Practice 30
and Ethics in Practice 12 Implementing and Evaluating Macro Practice 30
National Association of Social Managing Termination in Macro Practice 30
Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics 12 Engaging in Follow-Up in Macro Practice 30
Specific Steps for Pursuing Planned Change
LO 1-3Awareness of Personal Values 12
in Macro Practice 30
Managing Ethical Dilemmas 13
Why Do You Need to Know About Practice
LO 1-4 Range of Practice Skills Used to Target Systems with Organizations and Communities? 31
of Any Size 13
Understanding Macro Practice: Three Models
LO 1-5 Differentiating Client Empowerment, of Community Organization 33
Strengths, and Resiliency 14 The Importance of Historical Perspectives 34
LO 1-6 Engaging Human Diversity 14 Chapter Summary 38
Recognizing the Influence of Differences 17
Competency Notes 40
LO 1-7 Advocating for Human Rights
HIGHLIGHTS
and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice 18
1.1 Dimensions in the Definition of Generalist Practice 6
LO 1-8 Working Effectively Within 1.2 Core Values of the NASW Code of Ethics 12
1.3 Resiliency: Seeking Strength amid Adversity 15
an Organizational Structure 18
1.4 Variables of Human Diversity 16
LO 1-9 Professional Social 1.5 Empowerment of Lesbian and Gay People
at the Macro Level 17
Work Roles 19
1.6 More Fallacies to Avoid When Using Critical
Enabler 20 Thinking 27
Mediator 20 1.7 Updating Traditional Models of Community
Manager 21 Organization 34
Educator 21 1.8 Generalist Practice with Organizations
and Communities in Historical Context 35
Analyst/Evaluator 21
vii
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 Stress and Time Management 43 Facial Expressions 77

Body Positioning 78
Introduction 45 Multicultural Sensitivity and
LO 2-1 The Relationship Between Stress and the General Nonverbal Behavior 79
Adaptation Syndrome 45 Demonstrating Warmth, Empathy,
General Adaptation Syndrome 46 and Genuineness 79
LO 2-2 Identifying Potential Stressors Warmth 79
in Agency Settings 47 Empathy 80
Perceptions of Stress 48 Genuineness 83
LO 2-3 Stress-Management Strategies to Improve LO 3-2 Utilize Nonverbal Communication and

Practice Effectiveness 49 Empowerment with People Who Have Physical
Managing your Stress 49 Disabilities 83
LO 2-4 The Relationship Between Poor Time LO 3-3 Interviewing and Communicating Effectively
Management and Stress 56 in Macro Contexts 84
How Poor Time Management Causes Stress 56 Simple Encouragement 84
Styles of Dealing with Time 57 Sensitivity to Cultural Differences 84
Paraphrasing 84
LO 2-5 Use Time-Management Techniques to Improve Reflective Responding 85
Practice Effectiveness 58 Clarification 85
Planning Your Time 58 Interpretation 85
Get Control of Your Own Behavior 62 Providing Information 85
LO 2-6 Utilize Mechanisms for Eliminating Emphasizing People’s Strengths 86
Procrastination 67 Summarization 86
Reasons for Procrastination 67 Eliciting Information 86
The Cons of Procrastination 68 The Use of “Why?” 87
Battling Procrastination 68 Overlap of techniques 87
Chapter Summary 69 LO 3-4 Personal Reflection and Professional

Development 87
Competency Notes 70
LO 3-5 Using Assertiveness Skills in Macro Settings 88
HIGHLIGHTS Using Appropriate Assertiveness in the Macro
2.1 Time-Management Problems 57 Environment: Empowering Yourself and
2.2 Time-Tracking 60
2.3 Planning Time-Management Goals 60
Others 88
2.4 Prioritized Plan for “A Day in My Life” 61 Recognizing Nonassertive, Assertive,
2.5 Prioritized Plan for a Professional Workday 62 and Aggressive Communication 89
2.6 Self-Analysis of Procrastination 68 The Advantages of Assertiveness 95
CHAPTER 3 Using Micro Skills with Organizations Assertiveness Training 96
and Communities 71 A Final Note on Assertiveness Training 96
Chapter Summary 96
Introduction 73
Competency Notes 97
LO 3-1 Using Empathy and Other Interpersonal Skills
to Work Effectively Within Larger Systems 73 HIGHLIGHTS
3.1 Practicing Empathic Responses
A Review of Basic Micro Skills 74 in Macro-Practice Contexts 81
Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior 74 3.2 Nonverbal Behavior, Communication, Empowerment,
Eye Contact 75 and People Who Have Physical Disabilities 83
3.3 Each of Us Has Certain Assertive Rights 90
Attentive Listening 75
3.4 What Would You Do? 95
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 4 Group Skills for Organizational Amendments 122

and Community Change 98 Voting Rights 122
Introduction 99 LO 4-5 Conflict Management 124

Advocating and Conflict 124
Understanding Conflict 100 Recognizing Types of Conflict 126
LO 4-6 The Pros of Conflict 128
LO 4-1 Employ Leadership Skills in Social Work
Services 100 The Cons of Conflict 128
Identifying Targets for Change 100 Personal Styles for Addressing Conflict 129
Inspiring Others 100 Procedures for Conflict Resolution 131
Using Assertiveness 100 Step 1: The Confrontation 131
Employing Communication Skills 101 Step 2: Establish Common Ground 132
Leading by Example 101 Step 3: Emphasize the Importance
Bringing New Perspectives 101 of Communication 132
Using Self 101 Step 4: Emphasize Your Willingness to Cooperate 133
Understanding the Media 102 Step 5: Empathize with Your Opponent’s
Providing Leadership Skills in Task Groups 102 Perspective 133
Managing Conflict 102 Step 6: Evaluate Motivations to Address
Distinguishing Leadership and Administration 102 the Conflict 134
Employing Leadership and Power 102 Step 7: Come to Some Mutually
LO 4-2 Networking to Analyze, Formulate, and Satisfactory Agreement 134
Advocate for Policies and Practices That Advance Advanced Conflict Management:
Social Well-Being 102 Guidelines and Strategies 135
Recognizing the Importance of Networking 103 Focusing on Power 136
Networks: Mutual Aid 107 Generating Conflict 137
Types of Networks 107 Conflict Management by Covert Means 137
Problems with Networks 108 More Specific Tactics 138
Worker Roles in Networking 109 Conflict Management by Emergent Agreement 139
LO 4-3 Teamwork and Collaboration with Colleagues Conflict Management by Coactive Disputation 139
and Clients 110 Conflict Management by Negotiated Agreement 139
Characteristics of Effective Teams 111 Conflict Management by Indirect Means
or Procedural Measures 140
LO 4-4 Planning and Conducting Meetings 114 Conflict Management by Exercise of Authority/
Plan Ahead 114 Power 140
Clarify Purpose and Establish Objectives 115
Select Participants 115 Chapter Summary 140
Select a Time and Place 115 Competency Notes 142
Prepare an Agenda 116
Start Meetings on Time 117 HIGHLIGHTS
4.1 Networking in Action 103
State Ending Time at the Start 117 4.2 Networking for Latchkey Kids 106
Keep the Group on Target 117 4.3 Worker Roles in Self-Help Groups 110
End the Meeting on Time 118 4.4 Example of an Agenda 116
Plan for Follow-Up Meetings 119 4.5 Ending Meetings 119
4.6 Minutes of a Meeting 120
Parliamentary Procedure 120 4.7 Common Parliamentary Definitions 121
Advantages and Disadvantages 4.8 Classes of Motions 123
4.9 Conflict in the Hospital 125
of Parliamentary Procedure 120
4.10 Guidelines for Managing Conflict 130
Basic Parliamentary Concepts 121 4.11 Dealing with Confrontation 135
x CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5 Understanding Organizations 143 LO 5-6 Social Work Values and Organizational Values 184
How to Survive in a Bureaucracy 185
Introduction 144
Management and Worker Empowerment 187
Defining Organizations, Social Services, Constructing a Culture Of Caring 187
and Social Agencies 144 The Learning Organization 187
Organizations 144 Teamwork and Team Empowerment 188
Social Services 145 Managing Diversity 190
Social Agencies 145
Comparing Specific Management Approaches 190
LO 5-1 The Macro Context of Organizations 146 Total Quality Management 190
The Shifting Macro Environment and Shrinking
Resources 146 LO 5-7 Empower Macro Client Systems to Improve
Legitimation 149 Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice 195
LO 5-2 Client Sources 153 Servant Leadership 196
LO 5-3 Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Common Problems Encountered in Organizations 197

Organizations 153 Impersonal Behavior 197
Classical Organizational Theories 154 Lack of Rewards and Recognition 197
Neoclassical Organizational Theories 156 Agency Policy and Worker Discretion 198
Human Relations Theories 156 Traditions and Unwritten Rules 198
Feminist Theories and Organizations 157 Chapter Summary 199
The Cultural Perspective 160
Political-Economy Theory 160 Competency Notes 201
The Institutional Perspective 161 HIGHLIGHTS
Contingency Theory 161 LO 5-2 5.1 Assessing the Impact of Managed Health Care on
Culture-Quality Theories 162 Social Well-Being 147
Systems Theories 162 LO 5-3 5.2 Helping Immigrants and Refugees: Organizations
Which Organizational Theory Is Best? 162 in a Global Context 150
5.3 Faith-Based Social Services 170
LO 5-4 Assessing Organizations and Agencies 5.4 Achieving Organizational Objectives 171
from a Systems Perspective 164 5.5 Goal Displacement: Process Superseding Progress 173
Appraising Organizations from a Systems 5.6 Dynamics Contributing to Political Behavior in
Agencies 180
Perspective 166
5.7 Orientation Conflicts Between Helping Professionals
Resource Input 166 and Bureaucracies 184
Process Through Organizational Technology 166 5.8 Recognizing Challenges in Creating Learning
Output 167 Organizations 189
Outcomes 167 5.9 The Seven Sins of Service 191
5.10 Empower Macro Client Systems to Improve Social,
Defining the Nature of Organizations 167 Economic, and Environmental Justice 195
Agency Settings 167
CHAPTER 6 Decision Making for Organizational
Organizational Mission Statements 169
Change 203
Defining Organizational Goals 169
Organizational Culture 174 Introduction 204
Organizational Structure 175
Power and Politics in Organizations 179 LO 6-1 Changing Organizations Through Agency
Policies, Projects, and Programs 205
LO 5-5 Ethical Behavior Within Organizational Undertaking Specific Projects 206
Contexts 181 Initiating and Developing Programs 206
Centralized Versus Decentralized Changing Agency Policies 208
Organizations 183 Informal Agency Policies 209
Comparing Methods of Management 183 Beginning the Change Process 212
Working in a Traditional Bureaucracy 183 LO 6-2 Assess the Potential for Organizational Change 212
CONTENTS xi
Step 1: Problem Identification—Identify Problems CHAPTER 7 Implementing Organizational

to Address 215 Change: Agency Policy, Projects,
Substep 1: Seriously Evaluate the Potential for and Programs 235
Macro-Level Intervention 215
Substep 2: Define and Prioritize Problems 215 Introduction 236
Substep 3: Translate Problems into Needs 216 LO 7-1 Conceptualize the Macro-Practice Environment,
Substep 4: Determine Which Need or Needs to Client, Change Agent, Target, and Action Systems 237
Address 218 The Macro Client System 237
Step 2: Reality Check—Review Your Macro and The Change Agent System 237
Personal Reality 218 The Target System 238
Substep 1: Evaluate Variables Working for or Against The Action System 239
You in the Macro-Change Process 218 LO 7-2 Change Agency Policy to Advance Social
Substep 2: Review Your Personal Reality—Strengths Well-Being 240
and Weaknesses that May Act for or Against Understanding Agency Policy 241
Successful Change Efforts 221 Types of Agency Policy Changes 241
Step 3: Establish Primary Goals 223 LO 7-4 Initiate and Implement a Program 245
Step 4: People Resources—Identify Relevant People Articulating the Planned Change Process
of Influence 224 and Organizational Change 247
Rationales for Internal Advocacy 226 LO 7-5 Utilize a Process for Implementing Macro-System
Step 5: Assess Potential Costs and Benefits Change 247
to Clients and Agency 227 Identify an Innovative Idea 247
Muster Support and Formulate an Action System 251
LO 6-3 Step 6: Assess Personal Strengths and Weaknesses LO 7-6 Formulate an Action System 252
in the Context of Organizational Change 227 Identify Assets 253
Could I Lose My Job? 228
Will My Career Path Be Affected? 228 LO 7-7 Communicate Effectively Utilizing Memos
Will I Strain Interpersonal Relationships at Work? 229 and E-mails 255
A Strengths Perspective on Risk 229 LO 7-8 Develop Goals, Objectives, and Action Steps
LO 6-4 Appraise the Potential for Internal Advocacy to Attain Them 256
to Improve Client Access to Services 231 Goals 256
Objectives 256
Step 7: Evaluate the Potential Success of a Macro- Action Steps 256
Change Process 231 Implement the Plan 258
Substep 1: Review the Process and Weigh Describe How the Changes Will Affect Services 258
the Pros and Cons of Proceeding 231 Anticipate Target System Receptiveness 258
Substep 2: Identify Possible Macro Approaches to Use, Emphasize Communications 258
Estimate their Effectiveness, and Select the Most
Appropriate one 232 LO 7-9 Utilize a Planning Tool to Achieve Organizational
Change 259
Looking Ahead 232 PERT Charts Illustrate Objectives and Action
Chapter Summary 233 Steps 260
PERT Charts Portray Specific Tasks 260
Competency Notes 234 PERT Charts Depict Task Sequence 260
HIGHLIGHTS PERT Charts and Necessary Resources 260
6.1 A Word About Innovations 206 PERT Charts Establish a Time Frame 261
6.2 Case Example: “Hidden” Informal Policies 210 Advantages of Pert Charts 261
6.3 Leadership Styles of Decision Makers 225
6.4 Consider “Covert Operations” 230 LO 7-10 Neutralize Opposition to a Planned Change
6.5 Summary Outline of the Process 233 Effort 264
xii CONTENTS
Communicating with Decision Makers 265 Spatial Communities 295

Logical Administrative Reactions 265 Social Communities 296
Phases of Resistance 266 Political Communities 296
Collaborative and Adversarial Strategies 266 Communities and Neighborhoods 296
Collaboration and Persuasion 266 Functions of Communities 296
Types of Spatial Communities 298
LO 7-11 Evaluate Outcomes in Macro Practice 271
Monitor Daily Activities and Evaluate Impact 271 LO 8-3 Systems Perspective for Viewing the Community
as an Ecological and Social System 302
LO 7-12 Use the Macro-Change Process to Establish a
Culturally Competent, Empowering The Community as an Ecological and Social
Organization 273 System 303
Defining Cultural Competence 273 Ecological Perspective 303
Assessing Cultural Competency 274 Social Systems Perspective 304
Recommendations for Attaining Social Structural Perspective 305
Cultural Competence 275 Human Behavior Perspective 305
Additional Perspectives on the Community 305
Program Development: A Case Example 276
The Shape Program 276 LO 8-4 Key Concepts to Discover and Assess Changes
Start with An Innovative Idea 276 in Neighborhoods and Communities 306
Muster Support 278 Competition 306
Identify Assets 278 Centralization 307
Specify Goals, Objectives, and Action Steps to Concentration 307
Attain Them 279 Invasion 308
Implement the Plan 284 Gentrification 308
Neutralize Opposition 284 Succession 308
Evaluate Progress 285 Concepts Characterize Real Life 308
Looking Ahead 285 LO 8-5 Utilize Community Resource Systems with

Neighborhoods and Communities 309
Chapter Summary 285
Demographic Development of Communities 311
Competency Notes 287 Urbanization and Suburbanization 311
Rural Communities 312
HIGHLIGHTS
7.1 A Word About Engagement 237 Where is the Best Place to Live? 314
LO 7-3 7.2 Changing a Policy on Practice Procedures 242
7.3 Examples of Projects in Macro Practice 244 LO 8-6 Community Factors Affecting Human Rights
7.4 A Project Example: Substance Abuse Prevention for and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice:
Puerto Rican Adolescents 246 Social Stratification, Economic and Political Systems,
7.5 Why Program Development Is Relevant to You 248 and Power 314
7.6 Program Development Ideas are Endless 250
Social Stratification 315
7.7 Observations About Memos and E-mail
Communications 254 Community Economic Systems 315
7.8 Being an Adversary and Pressuring 268 Community Political Systems 317
7.9 What Is Sexual Harassment? 277 Formal Organizations and Informal Political
Processes 317
CHAPTER 8 Understanding Neighborhoods
Power in the Community 319
and Communities 289
LO 8-7 Neighborhoods as Helping Networks
Introduction 291 and Resources 323
LO 8-1 Professional Roles of Social Workers in Functions of Neighborhoods 323
Neighborhoods and Communities 292 Types of Neighborhoods 325
Neighborhoods as Helping Networks 326
LO 8-2 Theoretical Frameworks for Understanding Neighborhood Organizations 326
Communities and Neighborhoods 295 Community and Neighborhood Resources 329
CONTENTS xiii
LO 8-8 The Ability of Communities and Neighborhoods Chapter Summary 375

to Advance Social Well-Being and Respond to
Competency Notes 376
Residents’ Needs 330
HIGHLIGHTS
Community Needs Assessments 333 9.1 Community Change Activities 343
Purposes of a Community Assessment 333 9.2 A Community Response to Suicide 343
Steps in Conducting a Community Assessment 333 9.3 Empowering Clients’ Participation in Decision
Making 347
Chapter Summary 336 9.4 Gang Graffiti 350
9.5 Logic Model 352
Competency Notes 338 9.6 Geri’s Force Field Analysis 356
HIGHLIGHTS 9.7 Identifying People of Influence 361
8.1 Examples of Two Communities 299 9.8 Gathering People of Influence 362
8.2 Key Concepts for Understanding Communities 306 9.9 Evaluating Potential Success 364
8.3 Social Work in Rural Areas 314 9.10 An Innovative Idea 365
8.4 Governmental Activities in the Community 318 9.11 Goal, Objectives, and Action Steps: Reducing Gang
8.5 Power at Work 319 Activity 367
8.6 Goodbye to Geneva 325 9.12 Getting Things Done 368
8.7 Two Effective Neighborhood Associations 328 9.13 Goal, Objective, and Action Steps: Obtaining
8.8 Neighborhood Organizations 328 a Permanent Shelter 369
8.9 Neighborhood Resources 329 9.14 Implementing the Plan 370
8.10 A Model for Community Assessment 331 9.15 Confronting a Bad Idea 371
8.11 Kids-Place 332 9.16 Bargaining and Negotiating 372
8.12 A Failed Windshield Survey 335 9.17 Evaluating Progress and a Follow-Up 374
CHAPTER 9 Macro Practice in Communities 340 CHAPTER 10 Evaluating Macro Practice 378
Introduction 341 LO 10-1 Program Evaluation Research Informs

Practice 380
LO 9-1 Advance Social, Economic, and Environmental
Justice in Communities 342 LO 10-2 The Context of Program Evaluation 380
Purposes of Program Evaluation:
Philosophical Perspective on Macro Practice: Pursuit A Summary 381
of Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice 344
LO 10-3 A Review of Key Concepts in Evaluation 381
LO 9-2 Utilize Theoretical Frameworks and Strategies Control Group 381
for Empowering Communities 344 Experimental Group 381
Perspectives on the Community 346 Dependent Variable 382
Independent Variable 382
Approaches to Community Change 348 Sampling 382
Beginning the Change Process 348 Experimental Design 382
LO 9-3 Engage and Assess the Potential for Community Quasi-Experimental Designs 382
Change 348 Baseline 382
LO 9-4 Community Asset Mapping to Identify Measures of Central Tendency 383
Community Resources 356 Standard Deviation 383
Reliability 383
LO 9-5 Intervene and Evaluate Change Validity 383
in a Community 365 Descriptive Statistics 384
Start with an Innovative Idea 365 Inferential Statistics 384
Muster Support and Formulate an Action System 365 Outcome 384
Identify Assets 366 Outcome Measures 384
Specify Goals, Objectives, and Action Steps 367 Statistical Significance 385
Implement the Plan 368 Chi-Square Test 385
Neutralize Opposition 369 Correlation Test 386
Evaluate Progress 374
xiv CONTENTS
LO 10-4 Problems and Barriers in Program Evaluation 386 CHAPTER 11 Advocacy and Social Action with
Failure to Plan for Evaluation 386 Populations at Risk 412
Lack of Program Stability 386
Relationships Between Evaluators Introduction 414
and Practitioners 387 LO 11-1 Key Concepts Involved with Macro Practice 414
Evaluation Results are Unclear 387 Advocacy 414
Evaluation Results are Not Accepted 388 Social Action 416
When Evaluation is Not Worth the Effort 388 Empowerment 416
LO 10-5 Models of Evaluation 389 Populations at Risk 417
Formative (or Monitoring) Evaluations 389 LO 11-2 Risk Factors for Social, Economic,
Summative (or Impact) Evaluations 389 and Environmental Injustice 418
Effectiveness and Efficiency Evaluations 390 Factors Contributing to Putting Populations at Risk 418
Evaluation Approaches 390 Examples of Populations at Risk 419
Quantitative Methods 391 LO 11-3 Advocacy, Social Action, and Empowerment
Qualitative Methods 391 Activities 422
One-Group Posttest Designs 391
Pretest/Posttest Designs 391 Advocacy 423
Client Satisfaction Surveys 392 The Values and Limitations of Advocacy 423
Goal Attainment Scaling 392 Agency Commitment to Advocacy 424
Target Problem Scaling 393 Opportunities for Macro-Level Advocacy 425
Case Studies 394 Principles of Macro-Level Advocacy 426
Group Comparisons 394 Guidelines for Macro-Level Advocacy 427
Quality Assurance Reviews 395 Advocacy Tactics 428
Summary of Evaluation Designs 395 Grassroots and Grasstop Advocacy
LO 10-6 Stages and Steps in Evaluation 395 and Organizing 431
Stage 1: Conceptualization and Goal Setting 395 Locating Grasstop Supporters 433
Stage 2: Measurement 398 Identity the Help You Need 433
Stage 3: Sampling 398 Recruitment Strategies 433
Stage 4: Design 399 LO 11-4 The Use, Value, and Limitations of Advocacy 434
Stage 5: Data Gathering 401
Stage 6: Data Analysis 404 LO 11-5 Theoretical and Conceptual Models of Social
Stage 7: Data Presentation 404 Action 434
Alinsky’s Social Action Approach 434
LO 10-7 Communicate Evaluation Data 405
Part 1: Introduction 405 LO 11-6 Critique Macro Practice Using Professional
Part 2: Literature Review 405 Knowledge, Skills, and Values 436
Part 3: Methodology 405 Legal Action 437
Part 4: Results 405 LO 11-7 Participatory Action Research: Practice Informs
Part 5: Discussion 406 Research, and Research Informs Practice 439
Part 6: References and Appendices 407 Social Worker Roles in PAR 439
Summary of Data Presentation 407 Empowerment 440
LO 10-8 Uphold Ethics and Values in Evaluation 407 Recognizing Strengths 440
Chapter Summary 408 LO 11-8 Legislative Advocacy and Political Activity

Advance Social, Economic, and Environmental
Competency Notes 410 Justice 441
HIGHLIGHTS Factors Affecting Legislative Advocacy 442
10.1 Guidelines for Planning an Evaluation 397 Steps in Legislative Advocacy 442
10.2 Six Common Evaluation Designs 400 Other Political Activities 449
CONTENTS xv
Chapter Summary 450 LO 12-5 Ethical Reasoning Strategies to Make

Principled Decisions 476
Competency Notes 452
Facing an Ethical Dilemma: Decision-Making
HIGHLIGHTS Steps 477
11.1Key Terms 414
11.2Advocacy Produces System Change 416
Ranking Ethical Principles 478
11.3Coordinated Social Action Efforts 417 Reamer’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making 478
11.4Caveats in Empowerment 417 Dolgoff, Harrington, and Loewenberg’s, “Ethical
11.5Advocacy for Change 425 Principles Screen” 479
11.6Advocacy in Action 429
11.7Embarrassing the Target 430 Ethical Dilemmas in Macro Contexts 481
11.8A Petition Form 432 Distribution of Limited Resources 481
11.9Social Action on Behalf of the Homeless: Community Support (or Lack Thereof) for Service
Some Considerations 436
11.10 Steps in the Legislative Process 443
Provision 483
11.11 Communicating with Elected Officials 447 Relationships with Colleagues 485
CHAPTER 12 Ethics and Ethical Dilemmas in Practice LO 12-6 Ambiguity Affects Ethical Decision Making 489
with Organizations and Conforming to Agency Policy 491
Communities 454 Breaching Confidentiality in a Macro Context 493
LO 12-7 Cultural Differences Influence Ethical

Introduction 456
Practice 494
LO 12-1 The NASW Code of Ethics in Organizational
Other Potential Ethical Dilemmas 496
and Community Practice 456
Co-Optation versus Cooperation 496
The NASW Code of Ethics 457 Conflict of Interest 497
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities Potential Harm to Participants 497
to Clients 458 Stigmatization Tactics 498
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to Furthering Ethical Practice in Agency Settings 498
Colleagues 463
Chapter Summary 498
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities in Practice
Settings 464 Competency Notes 499
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities as
HIGHLIGHTS
Professionals 466 12.1 A Summary of the Ethical Standards in the
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibility to the Social NASW Code of Ethics 458
Work Profession 469 12.2 Combating Your Own Stereotypes and
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to the Broader Prejudices 467
Society 470 12.3 Ethical Boundaries and Spirituality 471
12.4 Negative Responsibility 487
LO 12-2 The Role of Ethical Boundaries When Addressing
CHAPTER 13 Using Supervision 501
Spirituality 471
Introduction 502
LO 12-3 Demonstrate Familiarity with International Social
Work Ethical Principles 472 LO 13-1 The Functions of Supervision 502
Administrative Functions of Supervisors 503
Human Rights and Social Justice 473
Educational Functions of Supervisors 504
What Can You Do? 473
Support Functions of Supervisors 505
LO 12-4 Manage Personal Values and Use Professional
LO 13-2 Using Supervision, Improving Supervisory
Values to Guide Practice 474
Relationships, and Enhancing the Communication
Types of Ethical Issues Confronting Agency Process 506
Practitioners 475 Use Communication Skills with Your Supervisor 506
Ethical Absolutism Versus Ethical Relativism 475 Keep Your Records Up to Date 506
xvi CONTENTS
Plan Your Supervisory Agenda Ahead of Time 507 Understanding the Software 525
Put Yourself in Your Supervisor’s Shoes 507 Agency Software Usage 527
Display Openness to Learning and to Improving General Observations About Computers 532
Yourself 507 Other Macro Uses of Technology 532
Demonstrate a Liking for Your Work 508
LO 14-4 Fund-raising 533
Follow the Rules 508
Sources of Funds 534
Think Beyond Tomorrow 508
Work Cooperatively with Other Staff 508 LO 14-5 Differentiating Grants from Contracts 540
Do More Than Expected 508 Grants and Contracts: Who’s Got the Money? 541
Give Your Supervisor Feedback 509 Government Grants 542
Forewarn Your Supervisor Foundation Grants 543
About Problematic Situations 509 Business and Corporate Grants 544
Learn Your Supervisor’s Evaluation System 509
LO 14-6 Key Steps in Securing Grants 545
LO 13-3 Manage Potential Problems in Supervision 510 Pre-Application Phase 545
Supervisor-Supervisee Misunderstandings 514 Application Phase 545
Supervisors Who Take Credit Writing a Grant Proposal 546
for Your Achievements 514 Kinds of Grants and Contract Proposals 549
Supervisory Incompetence 514 Post-Application Phase 563
Laziness 515
Chapter Summary 564
Problems with Delegation 515
Inability to Deal with Conflict 515 Competency Notes 565
A Final Note 515 HIGHLIGHTS
14.1 The Media’s Influence 521
Chapter Summary 515 14.2 Example of a News Release 523
14.3 Example of a Newspaper Editorial 524
Competency Notes 516 14.4 Management Information Systems 528
HIGHLIGHTS 14.5 Fund-raising 534
14.6 My First Grant—A First Person Account 543
13.1 Workers’ General Expectations of Supervisors:
14.7 Critical Topics Regarding Grant Applications 546
Keys to Empowerment 503
14.8 Example of a Cover Page 550
13.2 Games Supervisors and Supervisees
14.9 Example of a Summary or Abstract 550
Sometimes Play 510
14.10 Example of a Grant Application Problem
13.3 What Would You Do? 512
Statement 552
CHAPTER 14 Developing and Managing Agency 14.11 Examples of Goals and Objectives 554
Resources 517 14.12 Example of a Description of the Method 554
14.13 Example of an Evaluation Section 557
14.14 Example of a Bibliography 558
Introduction 519
14.15 Example of a Line-Item Budget 558
LO 14-1 Working with the Media to Advance Social 14.16 Example of a Functional or Program Budget from
a Peer Counselor and Drug Education Program 559
Well-Being and Social, Economic, and Environmental
14.17 Example of Allocating Time and Space Costs 560
Justice 519 14.18 Example of a Budget Narrative 561
The Nature and Role of Social Media 520
General Guidelines for Working with the Media 521 References 567
LO 14-2 Utilize Professional Communication Strategies Name Index 581
with the Media 523 Subject Index 587
Media Interviews 523
Letters to the Editor and Editorials 524
LO 14-3 Technology for Managing Resources, Service

Delivery, and Evaluating Agency Effectiveness 525
Understanding Computer Hardware 525
Preface
This book is a guide to generalist social work practice address significant issues relevant to this practice.
with organizations and communities. The three adjec- Skills include working with the media, using new tech-
tives that best describe this text are relevant, practical, nological advances, fund-raising, grant writing, evalu-
and readable. Generalist practice is clearly defined, ating macro-practice effectiveness, resolving ethical
and specific macro-practice skills are presented in a dilemmas in macro contexts, and advocating for
straightforward and interesting manner. Applications diverse populations at risk.
to actual macro-practice situations are emphasized The fifth basic goal is to present material that is
throughout, as is the importance of client system not only relevant and interesting but also inclusive of
strengths. The content is geared to both the under- major concepts currently considered critically important
graduate and graduate generalist practice sequences. by the social work profession and social work educators.
This text aims to fulfill five major goals. First, it New material and concepts from the current accredita-
provides a readable and practical guide to working in tion standards have been included. (Please see the subse-
and with organizations and communities (macro prac- quent section on new content.) Enhanced emphasis is
tice). Numerous real-world situations and case exam- placed on critical thinking, empowerment and resilien-
ples are presented to make the material interesting and cy, and the global context of social work practice. The
relevant. Organizational and community theories are text adopts a generalist perspective, emphasizes evalu-
examined and linked to practice applications. ation of practice and research-informed practice, fo-
Second, the text proposes a generalist perspective cuses on the use of various communication skills with
to emphasize how micro, mezzo, and macro skills are colleagues and community members, demonstrates the
interlinked. This generalist approach assumes that appropriate use of supervision, and examines practi-
group (mezzo) skills are built on a firm foundation tioner functioning within organizational structures
of individual (micro) skills. Likewise, skills involved and communities.
in working with organizations and communities
(i.e., macro skills) rest on a solid base of both micro
and mezzo skills. This text links the three levels of About the Cover
practice—micro, mezzo, and macro—so that students Generalist Practice with Organizations and Commu-
can clearly see how all three skill levels are used in nities is focused on the need to work with and cre-
everyday practice situations. Whole chapters and nu- ate change within larger systems. Often this process
merous examples throughout illustrate how micro and involves working with others to achieve difficult and
mezzo skills can be applied to macro-practice situ- intractable goals. From citizen protests and dem-
ations. The text also aims to structure how students onstrations in the Middle East (i.e., Arab Spring) to
think about clients and clients’ problems so that, as similar efforts in the United States (e.g., Occupy Wall
practitioners, they will automatically explore alterna- Street, Black Lives Matter), individuals and groups are
tives beyond the individual and small-group levels. demanding changes in their environments, including
The text’s third basic goal is to provide clearly de- both government and business policies. Achieving and
fined, step-by-step frameworks for thinking about and maintaining positive outcomes in any system requires
initiating macro change in organizations and commu- continuous effort, and any gains must be guarded
nities. A model to decide whether to pursue macro in- and protected. Rights won must be defended against
tervention is proposed. Additionally, a procedure for groups and organizations seeking their repeal. This is
pursuing the macro-intervention process is described. part of your obligation as a social worker committed
The text’s fourth goal is to identify, explain, and to the pursuit of social, economic, and environmental
examine specific skills useful in macro practice and justice.
xvii
xviii PREFACE
summary chart of the icons’ locations in all chapters

The Empowerment Series: and their respective competencies or practice behav-
Relationship with the Educational iors is placed in the front matter of the book.
Policy Statement and Accreditation
Standards (EPAS), and New Content
Professional Competencies New content includes the following:
This book is part of the Cengage Learning Empow- Chapter 1

erment Series and addresses accreditation standards
● Reduced redundancy with a stronger focus on macro
established by the Council on Social Work Education
practice
(CSWE). Our intent is to facilitate programs’ ability
● Provided recent case examples
to link content provided in this textbook with expec-
● Material on environmental justice
tations for student learning and accomplishment. As
● Enhanced content on resiliency
is true in almost all learning, students must acquire
knowledge before they can apply it to practice situa-
tions.1
Chapter 2
The CSWE has identified 9 com- ● Chapter 14 on Stress and Time Management from
petencies with 31 component behaviors the previous edition is now Chapter 2 based on
that are critical for professional practice reviewers’ requests
(CSWE, 2015). Each competency is de- ● More emphasis on mindfulness as a stress-reduction
signed to reflect knowledge, skills and mechanism
values needed by social workers along ● More on the structural causes of stress and burnout
with related “cognitive and affective processes” that
inform social work practice (CSWE, 2015, P. 7). For Chapter 3
clarity, we have alphabetized in lowercase the practice ● Improved clarity through greater use of bullet points
behaviors under each competency. “EP” icons (i.e., instead of narrative
Educational Policy) located within paragraphs clearly ● Reduced redundancy with additional macro agency
show the linkage between content in the textbook and examples
specific practice behaviors and competencies. Each
icon is labeled with the specific practice behavior or Chapter 4
competency that relates directly to the content con- ● Increased content on electronic networking and
veyed in the paragraph. For example, an icon might be using technology to connect and organize
labeled EP 1, which is the competency, “Demonstrate ● Additional examples of networking by women veterans
ethical and professional behavior” (CSWE, 2015, P. 7). ● Emphasized conflict-resolution approaches
Accredited social work programs are required to prove
that students have mastered all practice behaviors for Chapter 5
competence as specified in the EPAS. (Please refer to
● More detailed description of Type A and B
http://www.cswe.org for the EPAS document.)
personalities
For all icons, “Competency Notes” are provided at
● Reduction in length
the end of each chapter. These “Competency Notes”
explain the relationship between chapter content and
the CSWE’s competencies and practice behaviors.
Chapter 6
They also list page numbers or page ranges where ● Additional examples provided of macro change
icons are located and where the content is discussed. A efforts
Chapter 7
1. Please note that this content addresses standards posed in the
EPAS. In no way does it claim to verify compliance with standards.
● Updated chapter title to more accurately capture
Only the CSWE’s Commission on Accreditation can make those intent
determinations. ● Reduced redundancy
PREFACE xix
Chapter 8 is also available for download. Finally, as with every

● Incorporated major section on doing community text in the Empowerment Series, a Curriculum Quick
needs assessments Guide: A Resource for Program Accreditation is avail-
● Added discussion of Tax Incremental Financing able online. The “quick guide” provides an overview
(TIF) issues of textbook and supplementary resources correlated
to the EPAS recommended competencies and practice
Chapter 9 behaviors to help programs prepare self-study materi-
als more efficiently. Log in to the book-specific web
● Expanded discussion of Logic models and theories
site at login.cengage.com to access the quick guide.
of change
This text is one of two for generalist practice, the
other being Understanding Generalist Practice, Eighth
Chapter 10 Edition (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2018), which focuses
● Reduced redundancy on micro skills within a generalist context. Both stress
● Updating of content the links across all practice levels necessary to maintain
● New sources of evaluation instruments the generalist perspective. The texts can be used in se-
● New examples quence—one builds on the other—or each can be used
independently in conjunction with other practice texts.
Chapter 11 Either can be used to integrate a generalist perspective
● Added material on grassroots and grasstop at some point during the practice sequence. Similar
advocacy and organizations supplementary materials to those available for this text
are also available for Understanding Generalist Practice.
Chapter 12
● Added case examples to illustrate concepts and
points
MindTap
Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communi-
Chapter 13 ties comes with MindTap, an online learning solution
created to harness the power of technology to drive
● Added examples of potential problems in
student success. This cloud-based platform integrates
supervision
a number of learning applications (“apps”) into an
● Added examples of ways to strengthen your position
easy-to-use and easy to access tool that supports a
in the agency
personalized learning experience. MindTap combines
student learning tools—readings, multimedia, activi-
Chapter 14 ties and assessments—into a singular Learning Path
● Added major section on using the Internet for fund- that guides students through the course. This Mind-
raising along with case examples Tap includes the following:
As in the previous edition, we have listing the relevant ● Case studies that provide students with examples
learning objectives at the start of each chapter. This and stories from social workers in the field
helps students understand the primary topics that will highlighting real work application of concepts
be covered in the chapter. ● Self-reflection activities that encourage students to
connect the book content to their own experiences
and practice
Instructor Ancillaries ● Newly selected videos from CNN and BBC that
A suite of instructor resources makes teaching with the bring basic concepts to contemporary real-life
Seventh Edition of Generalist Practice with Organiza- scenarios
tions and Communities even easier. An online Instruc- ● Research activities that give students further
tor’s Manual provides useful information for faculty, insight into social work concepts in practice
and an electronic Test Bank includes chapter-specific ● Chapter quizzes at the end of each chapter
test questions that can be used immediately or adapted ● A glossary and flashcards of key terms and
as needed. A complete set of PowerPoint lecture slides concepts
xx PREFACE
Liz Fisher – Shippensburg University

Acknowledgments Carmelita Dotson – Middle Tennessee State
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to Vicki University
Vogel for her exceptional professionalism, techni-
Stephanie Adams – Eastern Kentucky University
cal assistance, and support, and to Karen Thomson
for her excellent assistance. We would like to thank Kelly Reath – East Tennessee State University
Julie Martinez, Product Manager; Michelle Clark, Barbara Kasper – The College at Brockport
Senior Content Project Manager; and Casey Lozier, Deborah Wills – Cleveland State University
Content Coordinator. Many thanks to Nicole Sala, Mari Alschuler – Youngstown State University
Marketing Coordinator at Cengage, who demon-
Cassandra Bowers – Wayne State University
strates exceptional marketing skills, and also to
Jitendra Kumar, Project Manager at MPS Limited, Stacie McGee – Texas State University
for his conscientious, responsive, and insightful help Catherine Macomber – Saginaw Valley State
and coordination. University
Also due our gratitude is the staff of UlsterCorp Carol Wheeler-Strother – University of Cincinnati
and Colleen Spratt for permission to use their Logic Laura Parker-Barua – Concord University
model and discuss the New Visions Hunger Project.
Kathleen Walsh – Millersville University
We would especially like to thank our reviewers
who provided us with expert and excellent feedback to Margaret Pittman – Morgan State University
improve our work: Genesis Player – Miles College
1 Introduction to Generalist
Practice with Organizations
and Communities
© Anton Oparin/Shutterstock.com
Learning Objectives (LOs)
This chapter will help prepare students to:
LO 1-1 Describe generalist practice using the LO 1-6 Engage human diversity.
Generalist Intervention Model.
LO 1-7 Advocate for human rights and social,
LO 1-2 Recognize sources that guide professional economic, and environmental justice.
values and ethics in practice.
LO 1-8 Work effectively within an organizational
LO 1-3 Demonstrate awareness of personal values. structure.
LO 1-4 Describe the wide range of practice skills LO 1-9 Attend to a wide range of professional
used to target systems of any size. social work roles.
LO 1-5 Differentiate client empowerment, strengths, LO 1-10 Use critical thinking skills.
and resiliency.
2 Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities
Rudolph will gRaduate in a week and has already accepted a position in an agency
that provides family counseling, foster care, and adoption services. having done his field
placement in the agency, he feels more comfortable about transitioning to this new position.
however, as he begins to pack up his books, he comes across a book from one of the last
practice courses he completed. the book focused on generalist practice with organizations
and communities using a generalist approach. looking at the title and thinking about his
new position brings up several questions:
● how would i describe generalist practice if asked by my new supervisor?

● why do i need to understand organizations and communities when my job will be
working primarily with individual clients and families?
● won’t my supervisor or other agency administrators take care of all those agency and
policy matters?
these are logical questions for social work students to consider. after all, most students enter
the social work field with a desire to help people and focus their attention on learning how
to work with individuals and families. in this chapter, we will try to answer these questions
and provide information that is essential for generalist practitioners with a specific focus on
working within larger systems.
professional values and ethics, and a wide range of

Generalist Practice Using skills to target systems of any size for change within
the Generalist Intervention the context of three primary principles, a practice con-
text, and four major processes.1 Keep this definition in
Model LO 1-1 mind because we will return to it with greater elabora-
By now, you have likely been introduced tion later in this and subsequent chapters.
to the concept of generalist practice. Generalist practice may involve almost any help-
Other social work courses often make ing process, from working to establish a homeless
reference to generalist practice, and shelter, to arranging help for a sexually abused child,
it is the model upon which this text is EP 1c a pregnant teenager, or an older adult who is no lon-
based. It is not our intent to bore you ger able to care for herself. Generalist social workers
with repetition, but in case any space aliens have might assist an alcoholic parent, a community try-
just joined your social work program, we will risk it ing to address its drug abuse problem, or a public
by summarizing the basic components of generalist assistance agency struggling to amend its policies to
practice. conform to new federal regulations. Generalist prac-
For our purposes, generalist practice is defined titioners also pursue efforts to achieve social justice
as the application of an eclectic knowledge base, for groups and individuals who have been denied this
1. Most of these concepts are taken directly from the Educational is intended to assist in a social work program’s accreditation
Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) developed by the Coun- process.) Throughout the chapter, icons such as that located in this
cil on Social Work Education (CSWE) (CSWE, 2015). One major paragraph call attention to the location of EPAS-related content.
goal of social work education is to facilitate students’ attainment Each identifies what competency or practice behavior is relevant
of the EPAS-designated 10 core competencies and their 41 related by specifying the designated Educational Policy (EP) reference
component behaviors so that students develop into competent number. “Competency Notes” are provided at the end of each
practitioners. Students require knowledge in order to develop chapter that relate EPAS competencies and component behaviors
skills and become competent. Our intent here is to specify what to content in the chapter. A summary chart of the icons’ locations
chapter content and knowledge coincides with the development of in all chapters and their respective competencies or component
specific competencies and component behaviors. (This ultimately behaviors appears in the inside cover of the book.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities 3
right. As a consequence of this breadth of responsibil-

ity, generalist practitioners must be well prepared to FOUNDATION FOR GENERALIST PRACTICE
address many kinds of difficult situations. KNOWLEDGE SKILLS VALUES
Social workers require a wide array of skills
because they don’t pick and choose what problems and
issues they would like to address. They must prepare
themselves to help people with personal problems on Step 1: Engagement
the one hand and to address very wide-ranging prob-
lems that affect whole organizations and communities
on the other. They may work in a broad assortment of
settings that can focus on children and families, health, Step 2: Assessment
justice, education, economic status, and many more
issues too numerous to list.
The generalist practice approach used throughout
this book is called the Generalist Intervention Model2 Step 3: Planning
(GIM) and is oriented toward solving problems at mul-
tiple levels of intervention by employing a series of
planned steps. The steps in GIM are shown in Figure 1.1.
As you can see from the figure, the model is founded Step 4: Implementation
on the knowledge, skills, and values that characterize
the unique nature of social work. We review and explain
this definition more thoroughly later in the chapter.
Second, this generalist perspective uses a spe- Step 5: Evaluation
cific, seven-step planned change method that includes
engagement, assessment, planning, implementation,
evaluation, termination, and follow-up. We address
each step briefly in this chapter. Step 6: Termination
GIM recognizes that problems may involve indi-
viduals, families, groups, organizations, and communi-
ties. Sometimes these various-size systems are referred
to as micro, mezzo, and macro systems. Depending Step 7: Follow-up
on one’s definition, micro systems include individu-
als, whereas mezzo systems are small groups. Macro
systems are any large systems, including organizations
Discontinue
and communities. Families, because of their intimate Reassess
contact
nature, arbitrarily lie somewhere between micro sys-
tems and mezzo systems. F i g u r e 1 . 1 Planned Change Steps in the Generalist
Figure 1.2 illustrates how, as a generalist practi- Intervention Model
tioner, you might choose any or all of the four levels
of intervention to address a particular problem. First, choose to pursue work with an individual, family,
you must often use micro skills to engage (i.e., estab- group, organization, or community, or a combination
lish a relationship and begin effective communication of these, to solve the problem. Figure 1.2 depicts how
with) the individual or individuals with whom you you might progress through the planning, implementa-
are talking about the problem. Second, you assess the tion, evaluation, termination, and follow-up process,
problem, which entails seeking information about var- regardless of the level of intervention you pursue.
ious aspects of the problem. After Step 2, you might For example, suppose you are a generalist prac-
titioner for a rural Midwest county. Your job entails
receiving referrals from the agency’s intake worker.
2. GIM was first proposed in Understanding Generalist Practice You then establish initial connections with clients and
(Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 1993, and subsequent editions). other referral people by engaging them in the planned
Step 1 Engagement
Step 2 Assessment
Individuals Families Groups Organizations &

(Micro) Communities
(Macro)
Step 3 Planning Planning Planning Planning
Step 4 Implementation Implementation Implementation Implementation
Step 5 Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation
Step 6 Termination Termination Termination Termination
Step 7 Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up
F i g u r e 1 . 2 Steps in the Planned Change Process—Initiating Macro Change
change process, familiarize clients with the agency and and help. With this call, you have engaged Mr. Earl
supply them with information, solicit necessary data in the problem-defining process. Engagement is the
to assist in service provision, provide short-term coun- initial period when a practitioner becomes oriented to
seling when needed, and make appropriate referrals to the problem at hand and begins to establish commu-
agency units and other community resources. nication and a relationship with any other individu-
You receive a referral involving an older adult, als addressing the problem. Subsequently, you figure
Murray Strewynskowski. The person making the initial out what to do about Mr. Strewynskowski. You must
referral, Duke Earl, is one of Mr. Strewynskowski’s con- also engage him as the client in the planned change
cerned neighbors. Mr. Earl expresses concern because process. Of course, as a generalist practitioner, you
Mr. Strewynskowski has twice fallen down on his icy must work with the client to establish what he needs
sidewalk and been unable to get back up and into the and wants.
house. Both times, Mr. Earl happened to notice the fall During the assessment phase, you may decide to
and was able to assist Mr. Strewynskowski into the house. pursue planning and implementation at the micro,
While inside, Mr. Earl noticed extremely chaotic condi- mezzo, or macro level. You might also decide that
tions: Rotting garbage was strewn about the kitchen, and intervention at more than one level is appropriate.
about a dozen cats leisurely wandered around. Mr. Earl
noticed that a black cat with a white patch over the left Example: A Micro Approach
eye was eating what seemed to be canned creamed corn A micro-level plan might be to refer Mr. Strewynskowski
mixed with ketchup from a plate on the table that looked to the appropriate services and oversee service provi-
as if it might have been Mr. Strewynskowski’s lunch. sion. You might then continue Mr. Strewynskowski’s
Mr. Earl also expresses concerns about Mr. Strewyn- assessment and arrange for additional services such as
skowski’s diet in a general sense and wonders whether a traveling homemaker and daily hot meal delivery. You
Mr. Strewynskowski is able to shop or cook adequately might also arrange for supportive services as needed,
because he looks unhealthily thin. such as assisting Mr. Strewynskowski with paying his
Initially, you call Mr. Earl to clarify any ques- bills, obtaining medical assistance, or making arrange-
tions you might have and to thank him for his interest ments to get groceries and other needed items.
Example: A Mezzo Approach the possibility of funneling funds and resources away
Assuming another perspective, however, you might from other, less critical areas to these older adult cli-
choose to focus on a mezzo- or group-/family-oriented ents who are in what you consider grave need. Sup-
approach. Suppose there are no services for traveling pose services and resources are already available in the
homemakers or hot meal delivery in Mr. Strewyns- agency but are accessible only to other client popula-
kowski’s immediate area. Perhaps the county in which tions (e.g., people who have specific types of physical
you work is neither very populated nor very wealthy. or developmental disabilities). It may be that an agency
In fact, suppose that the county is downright poor. policy change could extend eligibility for resources to
Without all the services and resources you would like the older adult population. Perhaps a community orga-
to have, what would you do? nization might be willing to sponsor some type of help
For one thing, you might decide to research whether for people like Mr. Strewynskowski. Pursuing changes
Mr. Strewynskowski’s family could provide help and in agency service provision, policy, or distribution of
support. Upon further investigation, you find out that resources are what macro practice—and this book—
Mr. Strewynskowski has two sons and a daughter liv- are all about. Change may have to occur in policies at
ing in the county. You decide to explore the extent to the local, state, or national level, and a social worker
which they are aware of their father’s situation and can can be involved in one or more of these efforts.
provide some of the help he needs. This would involve (Note that “EP” icons illustrated in
engaging his relatives in the helping process. Addition- this paragraph are located throughout
ally, you decide to look into whether Mr. Strewyn- the book. The Council on Social Work
skowski has any friends or neighbors who might be Education (CSWE, 2015), the national
accrediting organization for bachelor’s EP
willing to help him. You already know that Mr. Earl is
concerned about Mr. Strewynskowski’s well-being. and master’s social work programs,
Using a mezzo perspective therefore involves peo- specifies the areas where social workers must demon-
ple and family who are close to Mr. Strewynskowski. strate competency. A competency is the proven ability
You might also pursue the mezzo approach of get- to demonstrate sufficient knowledge, skills, and val-
ting Mr. Strewynskowski into some type of social or ues in a designated area in order to practice effective
support group to minimize his isolation. This might social work. Component behaviors, as conceptual-
include involving him in a local senior center. Perhaps ized by CSWE, are actions that students complete to
Mr. Strewynskowski belongs to a church that could demonstrate the overarching competency. In research
serve some of his needs, such as having volunteers take terms, each competency is operationalized by a series
him shopping or involving him in both religious and of specified component behaviors. Accredited social
social activities. work programs must show that they are teaching
students to be proficient in these competencies and
related behaviors. These competencies and compo-
Example: A Macro Approach nent behaviors are listed inside the front cover of the
Finally, in addition to thinking purely in micro or mezzo book. The occurrence of an icon with a numerical ref-
terms, you might decide to pursue a macro approach. erence means that the corresponding content in the
Once again, suppose there are no services that offer paragraph relates directly to the referenced compe-
traveling homemakers, meal delivery, older adult pro- tency or component behavior. “Competency Notes”
tection, or supportive workers in your area. Perhaps you listed at the end of the chapter further clarify these
discover that you and your colleagues have a number of relationships. The intent is to help faculty and social
older adult clients who are struggling to maintain them- work programs in the accreditation process.)
selves in their own homes. You find that, on a regular Earlier, we defined generalist practice as the
basis, you and other practitioners are having difficulty application of an eclectic knowledge base, professional
helping such clients because this issue extends beyond values and ethics, and a wide range of skills to target
the simple provision of help to an individual client. systems of any size for change within the context of
You determine that services are needed at a larger three primary principles, a practice context, and four
system level. Perhaps your county agency should major processes.
develop a new program to serve these clients. Maybe The three primary principles characterizing gen-
you should approach agency administrators to explore eralist practice all involve values. The first of these
principles entails an emphasis on client empowerment, and is critical to the formation of identity” (emphasis
strengths, and resiliency. Empowerment is “the process added). The third principle accentuated in generalist
of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power practice concerns advocacy for human rights and the pur-
so that individuals can take action to improve their suit of social, economic, and environmental justice. Sub-
life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210). It involves sequent sections discuss these concepts in greater detail.
ensuring that others have the right power, ability, and Social workers are usually employed by an orga-
authority to achieve self-determination (each individu- nization and practice within the context of an orga-
al’s right to make his or her own decisions). Strengths nizational structure. Within this context, they engage
include any “capacities, resources, and assets” that can in four processes that characterize generalist practice.
be accessed to increase empowerment (Saleebey, 2009, First, generalist practice requires the assumption of
p. 99). Resiliency (discussed further in Highlight 1.4) a wide range of professional roles. Second, it requires
is the ability of any system to withstand and recover the application of critical thinking skills throughout
from adversity and resume functioning even when suf- their efforts to help. Third, generalist practice incorpo-
fering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship (Glicken, rates research-informed practice to determine the most
2006). Evidence suggests that most people have some effective ways to help people and serve clients. Fourth,
degree of resilience that helps them cope with a variety practitioners follow a seven-step planned change
of crises (Rutter, 2008). While they experience typical process as they engage in their practice.
bouts of sadness, pain, or discomfort, these individuals This chapter will address the 12 key dimensions
continue to function and bounce back from the trauma inherent in that definition. The order in which they
(American Psychological Association, 2016). are presented does not imply that one dimension is
The second principle emphasized in generalist prac- more important than another. Each is significant.
tice is the importance of “understanding how [human] Highlight 1.1 summarizes these concepts in outline
diversity characterizes and shapes the human experience form. Subsequent discussion of each is introduced
HIGHLIGHT 1.1 Dimensions in the Definition of Generalist Practice
1. Acquisition of an eclectic knowledge base 5. Emphasis on client empowerment, strengths,

A. Theoretical foundation: Systems theories and resiliency
B. Human behavior and the social environment 6. The importance of human diversity
C. Social welfare policy and policy practice 7. Advocacy for human rights and the pursuit of
D. Social work practice social, economic, and environmental justice
E. Research-informed practice and practice- 8. Assumption of a wide range of professional
informed research roles
F. Values and principles that guide practice A. Enabler
2. Acquisition of professional values and B. Mediator
application of professional ethics C. Manager
A. National Association of Social Workers D. Educator
Code of Ethics E. Analyst/evaluator
B. Awareness of personal values F. Broker
C. Management of ethical dilemmas G. Facilitator
3. Use of a wide range of practice skills H. Initiator
A. Micro I. Negotiator
B. Mezzo J. Mobilizer
C. Macro K. Advocate
4. Orientation to target systems of any size 9. Employment of critical thinking skills
A. Micro 10. Research-informed practice
B. Mezzo 11. Use of the planned change process
C. Macro
with the headings numbered 1 through 12. The intent will work in this environment with all its constraints,
here is to present a definition of generalist practice requirements, and rules. Thus, Figure 1.3 pictures you,
that you can remember. the generalist practitioner, as a rectangle within this
Figure 1.3 demonstrates how the various con- large square. In that same square, you see the terms
cepts introduced thus far fit together. The large square Knowledge, Values, and Skills. These illustrate that
labeled Organizational Structure represents the orga- you bring to your job a broad knowledge base, profes-
nization (or agency) that employs you to engage in sional values, and a wide range of skills.
social work practice. Organizational structure involves The concentric circles at the bottom of Figure 1.3
the operation of lines of authority and communica- illustrate your potential target systems. As we have estab-
tion within an agency, how the administration runs lished, generalist practitioners may choose to work with
the organization, and what the agency environment is a micro, mezzo, or macro system as the target of their
like (Chapter 5, “Understanding Organizations,” dis- change efforts. These three systems are positioned in
cusses this in detail). As a generalist practitioner, you concentric circles according to their respective sizes.
An arrow flows from the Organizational Structure
square down to the Target System circles. This indi-
cates that you will apply your knowledge, skills, and
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE values to help change systems of various sizes.
Other arrows point from concepts on the right
You
as generalist and left to the central “application” arrow. This means
practitioner that generalist practitioners apply the concepts the
arrows represent as they undertake generalist practice.
1. Knowledge
“Principles/values” concepts, portrayed on the left,
2. Values
3. Skills include empowerment, human diversity, and advocacy
for human rights and social, economic, and environ-
mental justice. Social workers also apply the “pro-
APPLICATION (of): cesses” inherent in generalist practice. These, depicted
Principles/Values Processes on the right, consist of the assumption of various
professional roles, the use of critical thinking skills,
Empowerment Professional Roles the employment of research-informed practice, and
Human Diversity Critical Thinking the undertaking of the planned change process. Each
concept portrayed in Figure 1.3 will subsequently be
Advocacy/Social & Research-Informed addressed in greater detail.
Economic Justice Practice Note that terms can sometimes be confusing. This
Planned Change book focuses on generalist practice and assumes that
social workers are generalists. Therefore, the terms
generalist social worker, worker, generalist practitioner,
TARGET SYSTEM
and practitioner are used interchangeably throughout
this book to refer to professionals undertaking gener-
Macro system
alist social work practice.
Mezzo system Generalist Practice: An Eclectic
Knowledge Base
Micro The acquisition of an eclectic knowledge
system
base is a key requirement for social work
practice. By an eclectic knowledge base,
we mean that social workers acquire the
most useful and effective information, EP 6b, 7b,
theoretical frameworks, and practice 8b, 9b
skills from multiple sources. Knowl-
F i g u r e 1 . 3 Definition of Generalist Practice edge entails understanding the dynamics of people’s
situations and determining what skills work best under residents. Sometimes, a macro level change occurs when
particular circumstances. This knowledge may be a worker seeking changes on behalf of an individual
drawn from many different fields such as psychology, client gets results that help multiple beneficiaries. For
political science, and sociology, among others. example, you might persuade an agency to be more
In addition, (as shown in Highlight 1.1), social flexible in interpreting its policies to benefit client A,
work historically has taught the knowledge, skills, and which ends up helping other clients in a like situation.
values needed to develop the competencies and com-
ponent behaviors in a series of distinct courses: human Identifying the Target System
behavior and the social environment, social wel- The target system is the system that social workers
fare policy and policy practice, social work practice, must modify or influence in order to reach their goals
research-informed practice, and practice-informed and have clients benefit from the planned change pro-
research. These courses help provide the theories and cess (Compton et al., 2005; Pincus & Minahan, 1973;
perspectives used in most areas of social work, includ- Sheafor & Horejsi, 2014). In macro practice, this
ing macro practice. usually involves an organization or community. For
example, perhaps the agency in which you work needs
Conceptualizing Macro Practice to improve some of its policies or services. Likewise,
The term macro practice, used throughout the book, your community may need to provide some new ser-
is the application of generalist practice skills to larger vice that citizens really need (e.g., a drug rehabilita-
organizational, institutional, or community systems. We tion program or a crime prevention effort). Consider
may be pursuing a planned change process on behalf of Mr. Strewynskowski’s case discussed earlier. Suppose
others to make the larger system more responsive to the supportive services such as hot meal delivery, part-time
needs of clients, the general public, or even to organiza- homemaker services, or community support groups
tional employees. Sometimes, we will be helping a larger do not exist for numerous senior residents. In that
system achieve changes it has decided are necessary. case, you might decide to target “the system,” either
agency or community, to develop such resources.
Defining the Macro Client System The concepts of organization and community
A client system is any individual, family, group, organi- are broad. They can refer to very small organizations
zation, or community that will ultimately benefit from or communities (such as small field offices, isolated
generalist social work intervention. A macro client sys- church groups, or villages) or to systems that are huge
tem typically involves larger numbers of clients, fami- entities (such as city, county, state, or federal govern-
lies, or groups of clients with similar characteristics or ment units). Similarly, a community in its broad sense
needs for resources or services. This might include such might be the citizens of an entire state or nation. Much
diverse groups as children needing alternative care or of the recent unrest in the Middle East reflects the
older adults needing services to help them remain in desire of huge segments of citizens in several coun-
their own home. For example, you may work to develop tries to bring about change and achieve social justice.
and implement a job placement program that will As you can see, systems can be of virtually any size.
eventually affect dozens or perhaps even hundreds of Therefore, the target system is any system that macro
unemployed people. Likewise, an agency, organization, intervention intends to change.
or community might be a macro client system seeking
help responding to internal or external events or pres- Defining the Change Agent System
sures. You may need to develop an internal agency Within a macro-practice perspective, the change agent
training program on new intervention techniques is the individual or group that initiates the macro-
intended to benefit the agency by improving its service change process. In our context, you are the change
provision. You may also be involved in efforts to pursue agent because this book intends to teach you how
social justice goals in concert with other members of to implement macro-level change. You might seek
the community, such as strengthening the laws prevent- changes such as improving agency effectiveness or
ing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. enhancing a community’s quality of life. Later on, you
The difference is that macro change benefits larger might gain the support of, and join coalitions with,
groups of people, whether the group involves a particu- others who also believe in the proposed macro change.
lar client population, agency personnel, or community In such situations, you become part of a larger system.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Attila and the
Huns
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
Title: Attila and the Huns
Author: Edward Hutton
Release date: November 4, 2023 [eBook #72031]
Language: English
Original publication: London: Constable & Co, 1915
Credits: Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ATTILA AND

THE HUNS ***
ATTILA AND THE HUNS
BY
EDWARD HUTTON
AUTHOR OF “RAVENNA”
LONDON
CONSTABLE & COMPANY LTD.
1915
TO
BELOVED ITALY
WITH WHOM
IN THIS HOUR
OF RENEWED PERIL
ONCE MORE
WE FIGHT
THE BARBARIANS
A.D. 401-1915
INTRODUCTION
“There is a race on Scythia’s verge extreme

Eastward beyond the Tauris’ chilly stream.
The Northern Bear looks on no uglier crew;
Bare is their garb, their bodies foul to view,
Their souls are ne’er subdued to sturdy toil
Or Ceres’ webs. Their sustenance is spoil.
With horrid wounds they gash their brutal brows
And o’er their murdered parents bind their vows....”
In these words, Claudian the poet of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, describes the Huns of the fifth century, the brood of
Attila to whom the German Kaiser appealed before the whole world
when he sent his brother to China to meet the Boxers:—
“When you meet the foe you will defeat him. No quarter will
be given, no prisoners will be taken. Let all who fall into your
hands be at your mercy. Just as the Huns a thousand years
ago under the leadership of Attila gained a reputation in virtue
of which they still live in historic tradition, so may the name of
Germany become known in such a manner in China that no
Chinaman will ever again dare even to look askance at a
German.”
These words will never be forgotten, for they have since been
translated into action not only upon the Chinese but upon the body of
Europe, upon the Belgians and the people of Northern France as
upon the long martyred people of Poland.
That appeal to the Hun startled Europe, and yet had we
remembered the history of Prussia, had we recalled the ethnology of
that race we ought not to have been surprised, for the Hun and the
Prussian have certainly much in common even racially, and Attila, or
Etzel, as the Germans call him, has ever played his part in the
Nibelungenlied and the legends of the Prussian people.
We know so little of the Huns of the fifth century: who they were,
whence indeed they came and whither they went, that it is
impossible definitely to assert or to deny that the Prussians of to-day
are their actual descendants. We must, it seems, give up the old
theory which Gibbon took from De Guignes that this savage people
were identical with the Hioung-nou whose ravages are recorded in
the history of China; but of this at least it seems we may be sure,
that they were a Turanian race, a race to which the Finns, Bulgarians
and Magyars also belong as well as the Croatians and the Turks.
Can we with any certainty claim that the Prussians also are of this
family?
Quatrefages has demonstrated that the population of the Prussias
is by its ethnological origin essentially Finno-Slavian. In every
respect, he asserts, and history bears him out, Prussia is
ethnologically distinct from the peoples she now rules over under the
pretence of a unity of race with them. Identity of language may mask
this truth, but it cannot alter it, for the difference is real and
fundamental.
Teutonic Germany has accepted Prussia as its sovereign, and no
one can question her right to do so; but being what she is, she has
been led astray by an anthropological error. Not content with
subordinating herself to these Finno-Slavs the real Germany has
adopted their hatred and worked out the brutal instincts of these
strangers whose iron yoke she has placed upon her nobler spirit. Her
union with Prussia has been founded by the sword and by blood,
cemented by war and crowned by spoliation. It is a crime not less
than the crime of that Attila to whom Prussia appeals as her true and
original hero, and now, as then, we have the right to believe in a
divine Nemesis. What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world
and lose his own soul?
It would seem, then, that as well physically as spiritually the
Prussians in so far as they are Finnic[1] are of the same Turanian
stock to which the Huns belonged and if only thus related to them.
That the relationship is closer still a thousand things of which we are
witnesses to-day, as for many hundred years past, would lead us to
surmise. And if they are not the same Barbarians, their barbarism is
the same.
It was at any rate Attila’s name that Kaiser Wilhelm II flung across
an astonished world a decade ago as the French might cry out upon
Charlemagne or Blessed Joan of Arc or Napoleon. And since he has
appealed to the Huns, to the Huns let him go.
For us there remain these facts to be considered, if, as is so
difficult, we are to benefit from the lessons of History.
Rome always defeated the Barbarians, but never succeeded in
destroying their power to renew the attack. Stilicho defeated Alaric
whenever he met him, yet Alaric at last entered Rome. Aetius broke
Attila repeatedly, yet Attila at last was able to threaten Italy.
Belisarius and Narses broke Vitiges and Totila, yet these Barbarians
ruined the peninsula. In spite of defeat the attack was always
renewed, because Rome had never really broken the Barbarian
power. And if we to-day spare the Germanies the uttermost price and
the last, if we fail to push this war to the bitter and the necessary
end, in twenty years or in fifty they will fall upon us again and
perhaps in an hour for us less fortunate. Delenda est Carthago.
It was perhaps not within the power of Rome to break once and for
all the advance of the Barbarians. Time has been upon our side. To-
day if our courage and our endurance are strong enough, if we set
our face like a flint, we may once for all rid Europe of this Barbarian
peril, which, now as always intent on the destruction and the loot of
civilisation, pleads necessity, invokes its gods, and knows neither
justice nor mercy.
Rome could not mobilise: we can. In the old days the Barbarians
could break off first the point, as it were, of civilisation, then a little
more, and so on till the butt choked them. They can no longer do
that. The railway and the automobile, the telegraph and the
telephone have endowed us with such a power of mobilisation that
we can compel the Barbarians to meet the butt of civilisation first
instead of last. If we have the will we may destroy once and for all
the power of the Barbarians, who have attempted to destroy
civilisation, not only under Alaric, Attila, and Totila, but under
Frederick of Hohenstaufen and Luther, and having finally overcome
them we may erect once more in Europe the Pax Romana and
perhaps—who knows?—even the old unity of Christendom.
May, 1915.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Godron says with truth: “The Prussians are neither Germans
nor Slavs; the Prussians are the Prussians. But one must
remember that they were of Finno-Slavonic race, not Teutonic,
and were subject to the King of Poland till comparatively recent
times. They remained heathen long after the rest of Germany was
Christianised.”
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER I
The Empire and the 3
Barbarians
CHAPTER II
The Huns and Attila 21
CHAPTER III
Attila and the Eastern 37
Empire
CHAPTER IV
The Imperial Embassy at 61
the Court of Attila
CHAPTER V
The Attack upon the 77
West
CHAPTER VI
Attila’s Advance from 93
the Rhine to Orleans
CHAPTER VII
The Retreat of Attila 111
and the Battle of the
Catalaunian Plains
CHAPTER VIII
Attila’s Attack upon 127
and Retreat from Italy
CHAPTER IX
Attila’s Home-coming 145
MAIN SOURCES
I. Ammiani Marcellini 153
Rerum Gestarum, Liber
XXXI
II. Ex Historia Byzantina 159
Prisci Rhetoris et
Sophistae
Ex Historia Gothica 170
Prisci Rhetoris et
Sophistae
III. Jornandes: De Rebus 207
Geticis
IV. Ex Vita MS. Sancti 225
Aniani Episcopi
Aurelianensis
I
THE EMPIRE AND THE BARBARIANS
At the opening of the fifth century of our era the Roman Empire
had long been not only the civilised world but Christendom. The four
centuries which had passed since the birth of Our Lord had seen in
fact the foundation of Europe, not as we know it to-day a mosaic of
hostile nationalities, but as one perfect whole in which all that is
worth having in the world lay like a treasure. There were born and
founded that they might always endure, the culture, the civilisation
and the Faith which we enjoy and by which we live. There were
established for ever the great lines upon which our art was to
develop, to change and yet not to die. There was erected the
supremacy of the idea that it might always renew our lives, our
culture, and our polity, that we might always judge everything by it
and fear neither revolution, nor defeat nor decay. There we
Europeans were established in the secure possession of our own
souls; so that we alone in the world develop from within to change
but never to die, and to be, alone in the world, Christians.
The outward and visible sign of the Empire, which above
everything else distinguished it from the world which surrounded it,
as an island is surrounded by an unmapped sea, was the Pax
Romana. This was domestic as well as political. It ensured a
complete and absolute order, the condition of civilisation, and,
established through many generations, it seemed immutable and
unbreakable. Along with it went a conception of law and of property
more fundamental than anything we are now able to appreciate,
while free exchange was assured by a complete system of
communication and admirable roads. There is indeed scarcely
anything that is really fundamental in our lives and in our politics that
was not there created. It was there our religion, the soul of Europe,
was born and little by little became the energy and the cause of all
that undying but changeful principle of life and freedom which rightly
understood is Europe. Our ideas of justice, our ideas of law, our
conception of human dignity and the structure of our society were
there conceived, and with such force that while we endure they can
never die. In truth, the Empire which it had taken more than a
millennium to build was the most successful and perhaps the most
beneficent experiment in universal government that has ever been
made.
The Empire fell. Why?
We cannot answer that question. The causes of such a
catastrophe, spiritual and material, are for the most part hidden from
us in the darkness that followed the catastrophe, in which civilisation
in the West all but perished. All we can do is to note that the
administration of this great State became so expensive that when
Alaric came over the Alps in 401 it was probably already bankrupt
and in consequence the population was declining; and that the
military problem before the Empire, the defence of its frontiers
against the outer welter of barbarism, was so expensive and so
naturally insecure that it was difficult to ensure and impossible with
due economy. Finally we ought to be sure that though the Empire
decayed and fell, it was not overthrown by the Barbarians. As in this
book we are concerned not indeed with the Barbarian invasions as a
whole but nevertheless with the most frightful and perhaps the most
destructive among them, we shall do well to consider more
particularly here for a moment one of the causes of that fall, though
not the chief one as we have said; the insecurity of the frontiers,
namely, and the problem this proposed which the Empire was, alas,
unable to solve.
The Empire was confined on the west by the ocean, on the south
by the desert of Africa, on the east by the Caspian Sea and the
Persian Gulf, on the north by the Rhine and the Danube, the Black
Sea and the Caucasus.
It was that northern frontier which was a fundamental weakness
and which at least from the middle of the third century continually
occupied the mind of the Roman administration. How to hold it?
Beyond that frontier lay a world largely unknown, a mere
wilderness of barbarians, tribes
always restless, always at war, always pressing upon the confines of
civilisation. Within lay all that is worth having in our lives, the hope of
the world. It was this which, then as now, had to be defended and
against the same enemy—barbarism. For barbarism does not
become less barbarous when it becomes learned, a savage is a
savage even in professorial dress. For this cause it is written:
change your hearts and not your garments.
The defence, then, of the frontier had been the chief problem of
the Empire perhaps from its foundation by Augustus and certainly for
two hundred years before Alaric crossed the Alps. Its solution was
attempted in various ways, before, in the year 292, Diocletian
attempted to deal with it by the revolutionary scheme of dividing the
Empire. But the division he made was, and perhaps unavoidably,
rather racial than strategic, the two parts of the Empire met at a
critical point on the Danube and by force of geography the eastern
part was inclined to an Asiatic outlook and to the neglect of the
Danube, while the western was by no means strong enough to hold
the tremendous line of the two rivers. Nevertheless the West made
an heroic attempt to fulfil its too onerous duty. The capital of the
vicariate of Italy was removed from Rome to Milan. This tremendous
act was purely strategical. It was thought, and rightly, that the frontier
would be more readily secured from Milan, which held, as it were, all
the passes of the Alps in its hands, than from Rome in the midst of
the long peninsula of Italy. It was a change more amazing than the
removal of the capital of the British Empire from London to
Edinburgh would be; but it was not enough. In 330, seventeen years
after Christianity had become the official religion of the Empire,
Constantine the Great for the same reasons of defence removed the
seat of the Empire to Byzantium, the new Rome on the Bosphorus,
which he renamed Constantinople.
That move, which has been so strongly condemned, would seem
in any right apprehension of what followed to have saved what could
be saved out of the foreseen and perhaps inevitable débâcle.
Constantinople remained till 1453 the secure capital of the Eastern
Government and of a Roman civilisation; it endured, and in more
than one critical period held up the citadel of the West—Italy—in its
hands.
It may be that nothing could have secured the West; that the
foundation of Constantinople saved the East is certain. Because the
West was the weaker and the richer, because the name of Rome
was so tremendous, the West, as we know, bore the full brunt of the
Barbarian assault. That assault was a much looser and more
haphazard affair than we have been wont to believe. The West was
rather engulfed than defeated. For a time it was lost in a sea of
barbarism; that it emerged, that it rearose, and that we are what we
are, we owe to the foundation of Constantinople and to the Catholic
Church.
I say that the Empire was rather engulfed than defeated. Let us
consider this.
In the year 375 the frontiers were secure; nevertheless before then
the defence had failed. Long before then it had become obvious that
the vast hordes of Barbarians beyond the Rhine and the Danube
could not be held back if anything should occur to drive them on. If
they came on they would have to be met, not beyond, or even upon
the rivers, but within the Empire itself.
If anything should occur to drive them on.... In the year 375 this
befell. Ammianus Marcellinus, the contemporary Roman historian,
writing of the incursions of the Barbarians, asserts that all the evils
which befell the Empire at that time were due to one people—the
Huns. In the year 375 the Huns were finally victorious over the Goths
who in 376 in utter despair appealed to the Eastern Emperor Valens
for protection. “Suppliant multitudes of that warlike nation,” we read
of the Goths, “whose pride was now humbled in the dust, covered a
space of many miles along the banks of the Danube. With
outstretched arms and pathetic lamentations they loudly deplored
their past misfortunes and their present danger; acknowledged that
their only hope of safety was in the clemency of the Roman
Government; and most solemnly protested that if the gracious
liberality of the Emperor would permit them to cultivate the waste
lands of Thrace they would ever hold themselves bound by the
strongest obligations of duty and gratitude to obey the laws and
guard the tenets of the republic.” Their prayers were granted and
their service was accepted by the Imperial Government. They were
transported over the Danube into the Roman Empire. In some ways
this act and its date 376 are among the most momentous in the
history of Europe.
Undisciplined and restless this nation of near a million Barbarians
suddenly introduced into civilisation was a constant anxiety and
danger. Ignorant of the laws they had sworn to keep, as well as of
the obligations and privileges of civilisation, the Goths were at the
mercy of their masters, who exploited them without scruple, till driven
to madness they revolted and began the fatal march through Moesia,
entering Thrace at last not as the guests of the Empire but as its
victorious enemy. They encamped under the walls of Hadrianople
which presently they besieged, laying waste the provinces; and it
was not till Theodosius had ascended the Imperial throne that they
were successfully dealt with, forced to submit, and settled in Thrace
and Asia Minor.
But such a result could not endure. The Barbarians but awaited a
leader, and when he appeared, as he did in the person of Alaric,
after the death of Theodosius, they turned on Constantinople itself,
which they were able to approach but not to blockade. In 396 Alaric
marched southward into Greece; from Thermopylae to Sparta he
pursued his victorious way, avoiding Athens rather from superstition
than from fear of any mortal foe. Early in 396, however, Stilicho, who
was later to win such fame in the Italian campaign, set sail from Italy,
met Alaric in Arcadia, turned him back and seemed about to compel
his surrender in the prison of the Peloponnesus. In this, however, he
was not successful. Alaric was able to cut his way out and by rapid
marches to reach the Gulf of Corinth and to transport his troops, his
captives and his spoil to the opposite shore. There he succeeded in
negotiating a treaty with Constantinople whereby he entered its pay
and was declared Master General of Eastern Illyricum. This befell in
399.
The intervention of Stilicho, successful though it had been, had
proved one thing before all others; the political separation of the East
and the West. The sailing of Stilicho and his army was the
intervention of the West to save the East, for it was the East that was
then in danger. The West was betrayed. The East made terms with
the Barbarian and employed him. It behoved the West to look to
itself, for it was obvious that the East would save itself at last by
sacrificing the West.
The West was ready. A scheme of defence had been prepared
which, as we shall see, was the best that could in the circumstances
have been devised. With a directness and a clarity worthy of Rome
the advisers of Honorius, then in Milan, determined to sacrifice
everything if need be to the defence of the European citadel, of Italy
that is; and, after all, considering the position of Alaric in Illyricum, it
was that which was chiefly threatened. If it fell it was certain that the
whole of the West must collapse.
The problem before the advisers of Honorius was not an easy one.
To solve it with certainty enormous sacrifices were necessary, but to
solve it meant the salvation of the world. It was therefore determined
to abandon the Rhine and the Danube, for already Alaric was within
those lines. It was determined—and this was the decisive thing—to
abandon the Alps, to make, that is to say, Cisalpine Gaul, or as we
say the Lombard Plain, the battlefield, and to hold Italy proper along
the line of the Apennines. I have examined and explained this
strategy at length elsewhere;[2] here it is only necessary to say that
its amazing success justified a policy so realistic.
The theory of the commanders of Honorius was that the
Apennines were by nature impregnable save at one place, the
narrow pass between them and the Adriatic, which they had long
designed Ravenna to hold. Their intention to hold this line was
determined not only by this theory, but by this, too, that they were
something more than uncertain of the attitude of the Eastern Empire.
Their strategy meant the abandonment of the richest province south
of the Alps, the richest and the most ancient; but if the military theory
which regarded the Apennines as impassable were right it meant the
certain and immediate salvation of the soul of the West and the
eventual salvation of the whole.
Honorius and his ministers had not long to wait. Having looted the
provinces of Europe within the dominion of the Eastern Emperor,
Alaric “tempted by the power, the beauty and the wealth of Italy ...
secretly aspired to plant the Gothic standard on the walls of Rome,
and to enrich his army with the accumulated spoils of an hundred
triumphs.”
In November, 401, Alaric entered Venetia by the Julian Alps and
passed by Aquileia without taking it, intent on the spoil of the South.
As he came on Honorius retired from Milan to Ravenna; the gates of
Italy were barred. Then came Stilicho over the Cisalpine Plain, met
Alaric, who had crossed the Po, at Pollentia, and defeated him and,
following his retreat, broke him at Asta so that he compelled him to
recross the Alps. In 403 Alaric again entered Venetia. Stilicho met
him at Verona and once more hurled him back. The barred gates of
Italy had scarce been questioned.
It was not Alaric, after all, but another Barbarian, Radagaisus, who
was first to demand an entrance. In 405 he traversed the same
Alpine passes as Alaric had used, passed Aquileia, crossed the Po
and shunning the Via Emilia, which led through the pass Ravenna
barred, adventured over the Apennines which the Roman generals
had conceived as impassable by a Barbarian army. They were right.
When Radagaisus saw the South he was starving. Stilicho found him
at Fiesole and cut him to pieces. But the remnant of his army
escaped as Alaric had done, it was not annihilated; it returned
through Cisalpine Gaul and fell upon Gaul proper. Then in 408
Stilicho was murdered in Ravenna by order of the Emperor.
This last disaster was the cause of what immediately followed.
When in 408 Alaric invaded Venetia he looted and destroyed as he
wished, for there was no one to meet him. He took the great road
southward and found the gate open; passed Ravenna without
opposition, marched to Rome and after three sieges entered and
pillaged it and was on his way southward to enjoy and to loot the
South and Sicily, Placidia, the Emperor’s sister, a captive in his train,
when he died at Cosenza in 410. His brother-in-law Adolphus,
erected as king upon the shields of the Goths—there by the
monstrous grave of his predecessor—concluded a peace with
Honorius similar to that which years before Alaric had made with
Constantinople. He was received into the Imperial service,
consented to cross the Alps, and, what was to become a precedent
for a yet more outrageous demand, received the hand of Placidia,
the Emperor’s sister, in marriage. Thus the retreat of the Barbarian
was secured, the peace of Italy restored and a repose obtained
which endured for some forty-two years.
It is interesting to observe the extraordinary likeness between
Alaric’s attack upon the East and his invasion of the West. Indeed,
the only difference between them is the fact that Constantinople was
never really in danger, whereas Rome was entered and looted. The
intention of both invasions was the same—loot; the result of both
was the same—tribute and service in return for the evacuation of the
immediate provinces by the Barbarian.
The Imperial failure East and West was a failure in morale and in
politics; it was not rightly understood a military failure: Alaric had
always been defeated when he was attacked. It was the failure of the
West to attack him that gave him Rome at last. The Imperial advisers
perhaps thought they had solved the question he had propounded to
them, when, after Alaric’s death, they had obtained the retreat of the
Barbarian across the Alps—a retreat he was as glad to carry out as
they to order, for he was in a sort of trap—and had secured at least
his neutrality by admitting him into the service of the Empire. But the
peace of more than a generation which followed their act was as
illusory as it was contemptible.
The whole Empire had received from Alaric a moral blow from
which it was never really to recover. It is true that much which
happened in the years that immediately followed the retreat of
Adolphus was fortunate. Placidia the spoil and the bride and later the
fugitive widow of Alaric’s successor returned in triumph to Ravenna
to be the unwilling bride of her deliverer Constantius. Largely through
her influence, after the death of Honorius, when she ruled in
Ravenna with the title of Augusta as the guardian of her son, the

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Generalist Practice with Organizations

and Communities Karen K.

Understanding Generalist Practice Empowerment Series

Chapters 8 13 The Practice of Generalist Social Work

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Building Successful Communities of Practice Emily

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1 Introduction to Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities 1

2 Stress and Time Management 43

3 Using Micro Skills with Organizations and Communities 71

4 Group Skills for Organizational and Community Change 98

5 Understanding Organizations 143

6 Decision Making for Organizational Change 203

7 Implementing Organizational Change: Agency Policy, Projects, and Programs 235

8 Understanding Neighborhoods and Communities 289

9 Macro Practice in Communities 340

10 Evaluating Macro Practice 378

11 Advocacy and Social Action with Populations at Risk 412

13 Using Supervision 501

14 Developing and Managing Agency Resources 517

Preface xvii Broker 22

CHAPTER 2 Stress and Time Management 43 Facial Expressions 77

LO 2-3 Stress-Management Strategies to Improve LO 3-2 Utilize Nonverbal Communication and

Chapter Summary 69 LO 3-4 Personal Reflection and Professional

CHAPTER 4 Group Skills for Organizational Amendments 122

Introduction 99 LO 4-5 Conflict Management 124

LO 5-3 Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Common Problems Encountered in Organizations 197

Step 1: Problem Identification—Identify Problems CHAPTER 7 Implementing Organizational

Communicating with Decision Makers 265 Spatial Communities 295

Looking Ahead 285 LO 8-5 Utilize Community Resource Systems with

LO 8-8 The Ability of Communities and Neighborhoods Chapter Summary 375

Introduction 341 LO 10-1 Program Evaluation Research Informs

Chapter Summary 408 LO 11-8 Legislative Advocacy and Political Activity

Chapter Summary 450 LO 12-5 Ethical Reasoning Strategies to Make

LO 12-7 Cultural Differences Influence Ethical

LO 14-3 Technology for Managing Resources, Service

summary chart of the icons’ locations in all chapters

This book is part of the Cengage Learning Empow- Chapter 1

Chapter 8 is also available for download. Finally, as with every

Liz Fisher – Shippensburg University

● how would i describe generalist practice if asked by my new supervisor?

professional values and ethics, and a wide range of

right. As a consequence of this breadth of responsibil-

Individuals Families Groups Organizations &

Step 3 Planning Planning Planning Planning

Step 4 Implementation Implementation Implementation Implementation

Step 5 Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation

Step 6 Termination Termination Termination Termination

Step 7 Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up

F i g u r e 1 . 2 Steps in the Planned Change Process—Initiating Macro Change

HIGHLIGHT 1.1 Dimensions in the Definition of Generalist Practice