Handbook of Brewing Third Edition

Graham G. Stewart
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H A NDBOOK
OF BR EWING
THIRD EDITION
H A NDBOOK
OF BR EWING
THIRD EDITION

Edited by
Graham G. Stewart
Inge Russell
Anne Anstruther
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Contents
Foreword............................................................................................................................................ix
Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Editors............................................................................................................................................. xiii
Contributors...................................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1
History of Industrial Brewing.............................................................................................................1
Raymond G. Anderson

Chapter 2
Beer Styles: Their Origins and Classification................................................................................... 35
Charlie Papazian

Chapter 3
An Overview of Brewing.................................................................................................................. 53
Brian Eaton

Chapter 4
Water................................................................................................................................................. 67
David G. Taylor

Chapter 5
Barley and Malt............................................................................................................................... 107
Geoff H. Palmer

Chapter 6
Adjuncts.......................................................................................................................................... 129
Graham G. Stewart

Chapter 7
Hops................................................................................................................................................ 145
Trevor R. Roberts and Russell Falconer

Chapter 8
Yeast................................................................................................................................................ 225
Inge Russell

Chapter 9
Lean Manufacturing Including High Gravity Brewing.................................................................. 275
Graham G. Stewart

v
vi Contents

Chapter 10
Processing Aids in Brewing............................................................................................................ 287
David S. Ryder

Chapter 11
Brewhouse Technology................................................................................................................... 329
Michaela Miedl-Appelbee

Chapter 12
Brewing Process Control................................................................................................................ 383
Zane C. Barnes

Chapter 13
Cleaning in Place (CIP).................................................................................................................. 415
Zane C. Barnes

Chapter 14
Fermentation................................................................................................................................... 433
Graham G. Stewart

Chapter 15
Aging, Dilution, and Filtration....................................................................................................... 453
David G. Taylor

Chapter 16
Packaging: Historical Perspectives and Packaging Technology..................................................... 487
Michael Partridge

Chapter 17
Microbiology and Microbiological Control in the Brewery........................................................... 529
Annie E. Hill and Fergus G. Priest

Chapter 18
Design and Sanitation in Pest Control............................................................................................ 547
James W. Larson

Chapter 19
Brewery By-Products...................................................................................................................... 567
Patrick Charlton and Frank Vriesekoop
Contents vii

Chapter 20
Beer’s Nonbiological Instability..................................................................................................... 591
Graham G. Stewart

Chapter 21
Quality............................................................................................................................................603
George Philliskirk

Chapter 22
Craft Brewing: An American Phenomenon—A Trend Situation that Was Never
Expected to Survive........................................................................................................................ 633
T. Pearse Lyons

Chapter 23
Developments in the Marketing of Beer......................................................................................... 641
Julie Kellershohn

Chapter 24
Product Integrity............................................................................................................................. 653
Frank Vriesekoop

Chapter 25
Brewery Health and Safety............................................................................................................. 679
Jim Kuhr, Scott Millbower, Andrew Dagnan, and Jim Stricker

Chapter 26
Sensory Evaluation of Beer............................................................................................................. 699
Deborah Parker

Chapter 27
Brewery Effluents, Emissions, and Sustainability.......................................................................... 723
James W. Larson

Chapter 28
Making Spirits in a Brewery........................................................................................................... 755
Mark Coffman
Index............................................................................................................................................... 767
 Foreword
Writing a Handbook of Brewing is a challenge! It not only serves as a textbook for students but
also as an adviser to the brewmaster and his/her staff. On the one side, it introduces the basics—
such as the biochemistry and microbiology of brewing processes—and on the other side, it deals
with the necessities associated with a brewery, which are steadily increasing due to legislation,
energy priorities, environmental issues, and the pressure to reduce costs.
For this third and extended edition, Graham Stewart, Inge Russell, and Anne Anstruther have
assembled many experts in the brewing field, all well-known and respected names. Indeed, some
have been conducting research for more than 40 years! The treatment of “brewing” itself ranges
from the history of brewing to raw materials to beer styles. “Lean manufacturing,” including “high
gravity brewing,” is written by Graham himself, who is one of its promoters, supported by an over-
view of yeast and fermentation. In addition, craft brewing, product integrity, sensory evaluation, and
health and safety are all considered.
There are also other subjects in this book that are not directly about brewing, such as energy man-
agement, fuel economy, and electric power, as well as relevant aspects of a brewery’s environment.
The handling of by-products, wastes, effluents, and noise abatement—all demand much of a brewmas-
ter’s attention and time these days.
This book teaches and advises us. It focuses on beer production and quality and, at the same time,
the different ancillary activities that are necessary to operate a brewery successfully—currently and
in the future.
I wish the third edition of the Handbook of Brewing every success, as well as all those operating
breweries for production of our beloved beverage—beer!

Ludwig Narziss
Weihenstephan, Munich, Bavaria

ix
 Preface
The first two editions of this handbook (HoB) (published in 1996 and 2006, respectively) pro-
vided extensive coverage of the science and technology of malting and brewing. The first edition
(edited by the late William Hardwick) was a detailed consideration of the science and technology of
brewing. The book was recommended as a standard text for a number of brewing courses and quali-
fications including the BSc and MSc degrees in brewing and distilling at Heriot-Watt University in
Scotland. Although brewing is considered, by some, to be a traditional and conservative manufactur-
ing industry, considerable numbers of scientific and technical developments occurred in the decade
following the publication of the first edition that have influenced both beer products and processes.
Many of these developments have been published in peer-reviewed brewing journals and industry
magazines. If the first edition had a fault, it was that it contained an inadequate and incomplete index!
It should be emphasized that brewing consists of a number of unit processes. Each of these pro-
cesses is considered in this third edition of the HoB. However, a number of them do overlap with one
another (e.g., fermentation and maturation, beer stability and quality, brewhouse technology, and
brewing process control). As a consequence, some repetition between the chapters has occurred,
and every attempt has been made to minimize this.
Developments in the 1990s and early 2000s led to the publication of a second edition of the HoB
(expedited by Fergus Priest and myself). The second edition contained 22 chapters, written by malt-
ing and brewing experts based in North America, Japan, and the United Kingdom. It also reflected
emerging global developments in the craft brewing industry. Consequently, a large number of these
breweries adopted this second edition as their standard reference text. It contained most of the impor-
tant areas relevant to the malting and brewing process, the final product, and an extensive index.
During the intervening 12 years since the publication of the second edition, there has been
unprecedented growth in craft brewing. Currently, approximately 15% of the beer produced in the
United States is brewed in facilities that are regarded as craft breweries. China is now producing
nearly twice the beer volume of the United States (450 mhL/annum compared to 250 mhL/annum).
Also, published brewing research and development data from China, Japan, and Central Europe
have increased exponentially. As a consequence, this third edition of the HoB is warranted. As well
as updating most of the chapters (as appropriate) by either the original authors or new contributors
(chapters on “Packaging: A Historical Perspective” and “Innovation and Novel Products” have been
incorporated into other chapters in this book), the following topics have been added:

• Lean manufacturing, including high gravity brewing

• Cleaning in place
• Craft brewing (an update of the chapter on “Microbrewing”)
• Product integrity
• Environmental aspects and waste disposal
• Developments in the marketing of beer
• Sensory evaluation of beer
• Making spirits in a brewery (reflecting the trend for a craft brewery and a craft distillery to be
located on the same site).

xi
xii Preface

The foreword to this book was written by Professor Ludwig Narziss—certainly one of the most
notable brewing scientists of our time! We are honored and grateful that he has taken the time and
trouble to endorse our efforts.

Graham G. Stewart
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland

Inge Russell
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland

Anne Anstruther
Edinburgh, United Kingdom
 Editors
Graham G. Stewart is an emeritus professor in brewing and distilling at Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, Scotland, since he retired in 2007. From 1994 to 2007, he was professor of brewing and
distilling and director of the International Centre for Brewing and Distilling (ICBD), Heriot-Watt
University. For 25 years prior to this, he was employed by the Labatt Brewing Company in Canada,
holding a number of scientific/technical positions, and from 1986 to 1994 was its technical direc-
tor. He holds a PhD and DSc from Bath University and is a fellow of the Institute of Brewing and
Distilling (IBD). In 2015, he was awarded an honorary DSc from Heriot-Watt University “for pre-
eminence in the field of brewing and distilling and contribution to the development of Heriot-Watt
University education and that field internationally.” He was president of the IBD in 1999 and 2000.
He has more than 300 titles (books, patents, review papers, articles, and peer-reviewed papers) to
his name.

Inge Russell is the past editor-in-chief of the Journal of the Institute of Brewing (a position she held
for 15 years), a visiting professor at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland, and a past adjunct
professor in the Department of Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, Canada.
She has more than 40 years of experience in the brewing and distilling industry. She has served
as president of both the American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC) and the Master Brewers
Association of the Americas (MBAA). She holds PhD and DSc degrees from the University of
Strathclyde in Scotland. In 2015, she was awarded an honorary DSc from Heriot-Watt University “in
recognition of her exceptional contributions to science, technology, and business and pre-eminence
in the field of brewing, fermentation, and distilling.” She is the author of more than 150 publications
and is a cofounder and coeditor of the journal, Critical Reviews in Biotechnology.

Anne Anstruther is deeply interested in the history of Scotland, in particular Edinburgh, and
the evolution of beer and whiskey worldwide. Apart from her many qualifications, she has a BSc
Hons. in computing science from Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK, and BSc Hons. (and
a BEng) in management studies from the Open University. She served as the Edinburgh Field
Officer for the St. Andrews Ambulance Association for a number of years. Before retiring, she
proudly served as an administrator at the International Centre for Brewing and Distilling (ICBD)
at Heriot-Watt University.

xiii
 Contributors
Raymond G. Anderson is a retired brewers’ chemist and an active brewing historian. He has been
involved with breweries in one way or another since 1972 when he left the University of Newcastle
upon Tyne with a PhD in microbiological chemistry and went to work at the Brewing Industry
Research Foundation in Surrey. He was formerly the head of research and development for Allied
Breweries, one of the now defunct “Big Six” UK brewers. He is the author of more than 100 publi-
cations discoursing on science, technology, brewing, and history in various combinations. He is a
fellow of three UK professional societies and president of the Brewery History Society since 2002.

Zane C. Barnes is a fellow of the Institute of Brewing and Distilling (IBD) and a 1973 graduate in
brewing science from Heriot-Watt University. He has extensive brewing experience throughout the
United Kingdom and has also worked for 10 years in Trinidad and Tobago, South Australia, and the
United States. Currently, he is the senior technical brewer at the Molson Coors Brewing Company
(Burton) responsible for delivering general employee engagement with beer and brewing, but spe-
cifically to support the attainment of brewing and packaging qualifications (IBD). He has been a
lecturer in brewing science at Heriot-Watt University and Nottingham University. He is also an IBD
examiner and an industrial fellow of the University of Nottingham.

Patrick Charlton is a farmer’s son, which led him to study animal science at the University of
Nottingham, graduating in 1987. He joined the global agribusiness Alltech in 1991, and for the last
27 years has worked with farmers, feed manufacturers, and other agribusinesses around the world,
living in South Africa and Canada as well as the United Kingdom. During his time in Canada, he
was part of the first group of Alltech employees to join the Heriot-Watt University distance learning
masters in brewing and distilling degree, graduating with distinction in 2006. As well as its animal
nutrition business, today Alltech owns several craft breweries and distilleries allowing Charlton to
enjoy two of his greatest passions, farming and beer, while working for the same company.

Mark Coffman is the master distiller/chief engineer for Alltech. Over the past 30 years, he has
led the design, construction, commissioning, startup, and operation of more than 16 manufactur-
ing facilities around the world. He is presently leading a major expansion of Alltech’s Lexington
Brewing and Distilling Company.

Andrew Dagnan is a safety and environmental professional, with experience in multiple indus-
tries, including brewing. Andrew is a Certified Hazardous Materials Manager (CHMM) with a BS
in environmental health sciences from East Tennessee State University. He has served as the chair
of the Master Brewers Association of the Americas (MBAA) Brewery Safety Committee, help-
ing to promote safe work practices in the brewing industry by providing assistance and technical
resources.

Brian Eaton is from the Isle of Man and is currently self-employed in his company “BE Inspired,”
providing technical consultancy and training to the brewing and distilling industries. An honors
chemical engineering graduate, he took an MSc in malting and brewing science under Professor
James Hough. He worked for Allied Breweries for 30 years in a variety of roles in engineering, pro-
duction, and packaging before taking the post of head brewer at the Alloa Lager Brewery, Scotland,
in 1985. In 1998, he moved to Joshua Tetley’s Brewery, Leeds, as head brewer and chief engineer
before joining the International Centre for Brewing and Distilling (ICBD), Heriot-Watt University,
in January 2001 as the course director for the brewing and distilling undergraduate and postgraduate

xv
xvi Contributors

courses until July 2009. He is a committee member and treasurer of the Institute of Brewing and
Distilling’s Scottish section.

Russell Falconer graduated from Leeds University, UK, in 1984 with a degree in biotechnology.
He was recruited by Grand Metropolitan Brewing at the Stag Brewery, London, and brewed there
for 25 years. During this time, ownership changed from Fosters, Courage, S&N, Anheuser-Busch,
and finally to AB InBev. In 2010, he joined Steiner Hops Ltd, the UK subsidiary of the Hopsteiner
Group, and is currently its managing director. In 1992, he became a master brewer and was elected
a fellow of the Institute of Brewing and Distilling (IBD).

Annie E. Hill is associate professor and program director for the MSc/postgraduate diploma in
brewing and distilling by distance learning at the International Centre for Brewing and Distilling
(ICBD) at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. Annie’s research interests include microbial spoilage
of alcoholic beverages and detection of spoilage organisms in breweries/distilleries—in particular,
investigation of anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria. Her recent activities have focused on distill-
ing, including product design and process improvement. Formation of the Scottish Craft Distillers
Association and subsequent funding from Interface Food and Drink have enabled research on novel
Scottish botanicals and fermentation and distillation of Scottish fruits.

Julie Kellershohn holds an MBA from the Harvard Business School in the United States. She has
extensive professional and academic experience in the area of marketing and marketing research.
She worked for more than 15 years for a number of multinational companies in the area of pharma-
ceuticals, food, and beverages. She is currently an assistant professor, teaching marketing research,
marketing strategy, and consumer behavior at Ryerson University in Toronto.

Jim Kuhr is brewmaster and director of operations for the Matt Brewing Company in Utica, NY,
and has been in the industry since 1984. Jim graduated from Saginaw Valley State University with
a bachelor’s degree in business, specializing in production and inventory control. He founded the
Brewery Safety Committee for the Master Brewers Association of the Americas (MBAA) and has
served on its executive committee and as the MBAA president in 2015–2016. One of Jim’s prime
responsibilities at Matt Brewing is to manage the safety program and safety culture.

James W. Larson is senior process engineer at Alltech, Inc. He has worked as a chemical engineer
in breweries, distilleries, and corn-ethanol plants throughout the United States and has been respon-
sible for the installation of fermentation equipment and other process systems in Brazil, Serbia,
Belgium, Mexico, and Canada, as well as the United States. Before joining Alltech, he worked
in both engineering and production functions in the brewing industry and taught at a prominent
US brewing school. He holds an MSc in chemical engineering and an MSc in brewing and distill-
ing from the Heriot-Watt University in Scotland, and is an instructor at the Alltech Brewing and
Distilling Academy.

T. Pearse Lyons is a “scientist, salesman, marketer, and entrepreneur” all rolled into one and is
widely regarded in the agribusiness sector as an innovator and industry leader. He is the founder,
CEO, and president of Alltech, a top-ten animal health biotechnology company. Alltech employs
more than 4700 people and conducts business in 128 countries with annual sales in excess of
US $2 billion. He is also the owner of Alltech’s Lexington Brewing and Distilling Company, which
includes a line of beers and spirits that are exported globally, as well as the Pearse Lyons Distillery,
which is opening in the summer of 2017 in Dublin. His doctoral degree is from the British School of
Malting and Brewing (University of Birmingham, England), and in recognition for his contributions
to science and industry he has been awarded a number of honorary doctorates, including one from
Contributors xvii

Heriot-Watt University in Scotland. He has authored more than 20 books and numerous research
papers in scientific journals on yeast and fermentation.

Michaela Miedl-Appelbee, originally from Austria, holds a Master’s degree in brewing and bev-
erage technology from the Technical University of Munich/Weihenstephan and a PhD in brew-
ing from Heriot-Watt University, Scotland. She was awarded the IBD “Young Brewer of the Year
Award” in 2008 and the “IBD Cambridge Prize” in 2010 for outstanding academic achievements.
After internships and academic exchange programs at UC Davis (California), Griffith University,
and CUB (Australia), she started her industry career at Molson Coors as innovation manager and
then Europe export supply chain lead before moving to Switzerland for SABMiller Europe to lead
the regional technical innovation agenda. In January 2017, she joined AB InBev as global director
in product technology development.

Scott Millbower is a certified safety professional with 31 years of experience in occupational safety
and health, a hearing conservationist, an Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
outreach trainer in general industry/construction courses and has a specialty in ergonomics. He
is self-employed, assisting companies in developing, improving, and sustaining health and safety
programs. He has been inspected by OSHA, the New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation, and the US EPA. He is a founding member of the Mohawk Valley Safety Professional’s
Consortium (MVSPC), which twice signed an alliance with OSHA, and sits on the board of the
Mohawk Valley Environmental Information Exchange (MVEIE).

Sir Geoff H. Palmer is an emeritus professor in brewing and distilling at Heriot-Watt University.
He migrated to London from Jamaica in 1955. He gained an honors degree in botany from Leicester
University in 1964, a PhD from Edinburgh University in 1967, and a doctor of science degree
from the Heriot-Watt University in 1983. He worked at the Brewing Research Foundation from
1968 to 1977 and at Heriot-Watt University from 1977 until his retirement in 2005. His research
work on barley, malt, and sorghum produced the abrasion process, scanning electron microscopic
descriptions and chemical analyses of endosperm structure, the asymmetric pattern of endosperm
modification, concepts regarding average analysis and factors that limit endosperm modification
(endosperm compaction), and factors that promote endosperm modification (enzyme distribution
and action). He has received various honorary doctorate degrees, was an early recipient of the
American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC) Distinguished Research Award, and is one of the
original fellows of the Institute of Brewing.

Charlie Papazian is the founder and past-president of the American Homebrewers Association
(1978) and Brewers Association (USA). He speaks and writes about the beer and brewing industry at
numerous conferences, events, and in many publications throughout the world. Charlie has five best-
selling books and his Complete Joy of Homebrewing has sold more than 1.3 million copies world-
wide. He is also known for founding and continuing his work with the World Beer Cup, the Great
American Beer Festival, Craft Brewers Conference, BrewExpo America, Brewers Publications,
CraftBeer.com, and the magazines Zymurgy and The New Brewer.

Deborah Parker manages the sensory laboratory of Marketing Sciences Unlimited, which spe-
cializes in the profiling and reformulation of consumer goods and foods. As a sensory scientist
for more than 15 years, she uses her knowledge to generate and deliver high-quality value-added
sensory information. She has an honors degree in biochemistry, a doctorate in brewing science from
Heriot-Watt University, and a postgraduate certificate in sensory science, and is an Institute of Food
Science and Technology accredited trainer. She has extensive experience and has worked with many
companies globally. She is one of the few women who are accredited as a Beer Academy sommelier.
xviii Contributors

She and her sensory team have been featured on several BBC television news and consumer interest
programs, including Test House, Watch Dog, and Food Unwrapped.

Michael Partridge graduated from Heriot-Watt University in 1978 and became a diploma mem-
ber of the Institute of Brewing and Distilling (IBD) in 1984. In 1995, he became a member of the
IBD examinations committee acting as examiner and moderator of the Diploma Master Brewer 3
Packaging qualification. His career in the brewing and spirits industries spans more than 35 years
during which he has developed a wide knowledge of all types of packaging and operational pro-
cesses necessary to efficiently maintain product quality and safety.

George Philliskirk is a former director and CEO of the Beer Academy, an educational trust dedi-
cated to helping people understand and appreciate beer. After completing a PhD on yeast research
at Birmingham University’s Brewing School in the mid-1970s, he has spent almost all his working
life in the brewing industry. Before joining the Beer Academy in 2004, he was head of Carlsberg’s
UK Technical Department. He is a fellow of the Institute of Brewing (IBD), a past chairman of
the board of examiners of the IBD, and an external examiner for the brewing degrees at Heriot-
Watt University. He has lectured for the IBD, the Beer Academy, and the Scandinavian Brewing
School. He is a member of the British Guild of Beer writers and the advisory board of the Oxford
Companion to Beer. In 2015, he was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award by the Society
of Independent Brewers (SIBA) for “outstanding contribution to the UK brewing industry.”

Fergus G. Priest is a professor emeritus of microbiology at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh,

where he was head of life sciences (2001–2007) and a member of the International Centre for
Brewing and Distilling (ICBD). He was chief editor of FEMS Microbiology Letters (1997–2002)
and publications manager for the Federation of European Microbiological Societies (2005–2011).
His research focused on the taxonomy and physiology of bacteria in beverage fermentations. He
was awarded the Bergey Medal in 2008 in “recognition of distinguished achievements in bacterial
taxonomy.”

Trevor Roberts is a 1969 graduate of Nottingham University. He obtained an MSc in brewing

science from Birmingham University in 1973 and the diploma of the Institute of Brewing and
Distilling (IBD) the following year. For the first 20 years of his career, he worked for a number of
UK breweries in a variety of senior posts, finally as a head brewer and director of a large regional
brewery. In 1993, he joined the UK subsidiary of one of the world’s largest, international hop grow-
ing, processing, and trading groups, S.S. Steiner, Inc. He became managing director of Steiner Hops
Ltd, based in the United Kingdom, retiring in 2013. He is a fellow of the IBD.

David S. Ryder has recently retired from MillerCoors LLC where he was vice-president of brewing,
research, innovation, and quality. A native of England, he obtained his undergraduate degree in biolog-
ical sciences from the University of London and subsequently received his PhD in biochemistry from
the University of Cape Town in Cape Town, South Africa, and the University of Brussels, Belgium. He
began his brewing career in England at Associated British Maltsters. He then joined the South African
Breweries Beer Division in South Africa, Artois Breweries, S.A. in Belgium, and J. E. Siebel Sons’ Co.
Inc. in Chicago, Illinois, before joining Miller Brewing Company (now MillerCoors) in Milwaukee in
1992, where he remained until his retirement in December 2015. He is a past-president of the Institute
of Brewing and Distilling (IBD), past-chairman of their international section and a fellow of the IBD.
He is past-president of the American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC) and is also a member of
the Master Brewers Association of the Americas (MBAA). He is a member of the Brewing Science
Group of the European Brewery Convention (EBC), where he was past-chairman of a subgroup for
studying immobilized cells and emerging fermentation systems. He is current chair of the Scientific
Contributors xix

Advisory Board of the Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center and is an adjunct professor at the
University of Wisconsin in Madison, in the Department of Food Science.

James Stricker is the safety manager of the Odell Brewing Company, Ft. Collins, CO, and a member
of the Master Brewers Association of the Americas (MBAA) Safety Committee. Jim has worked
with brewery-specific safety for the past eight years. He is OSHA 30-hour and 10-hour certified and
holds certificates in specific safety programs including hazard communication, personal protective
equipment, hearing conservation, and many others. He is also a certified powered industrial trucks/
forklift trainer and a first aid/cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)/automated external defibrillator
(AED) instructor via the American Heart Association.

David G. Taylor has many years of experience in production, quality assurance, and product devel-
opment in UK brewing and has practical experience in the area of “production under license” for
a number of international brewing companies. He is well known on the international brewing con-
ference and symposium scene and has published and lectured worldwide on a variety of brewing
technology topics. He was elected a fellow of the Institute of Brewing and Distilling (IBD) in 1995
and was the institute’s deputy president from 2002 to 2004. He was chairman of the institute’s board
of examiners from 2004 to 2011. He has been a frequent contributor to the IBD’s training program
and, although now retired, still maintains an active interest in the industry’s research and develop-
ment activities and, especially, in education and training initiatives.

Frank Vriesekoop is a senior lecturer in food biotechnology at Harper Adams University in the
United Kingdom. He specializes in brewing and associated technologies. He began his career as
a baker and subsequently concentrated on a range of biotechnologies in the food industry. After
obtaining his PhD in yeast physiology from the University of Melbourne, he joined the food and
brewing group of the (now) Federation University in Australia. In the past, he was employed at
the International Centre for Brewing and Distilling (ICBD) at Heriot-Watt University, and he has
been involved in malting, brewing, and distilling education in a number of countries. His current
brewing-related research and interests focus on topics that can provide improvements and clarity in
production processes and training opportunities.
 CHAPTER 1

History of Industrial Brewing

Raymond G. Anderson

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Brewing in an Agrarian World..................................................................................................2
1.3 The Eighteenth Century............................................................................................................3
1.3.1 Porter: The First Industrial Beer...................................................................................3
1.3.2 Mechanization and Measurement.................................................................................. 5
1.4 The Nineteenth Century............................................................................................................5
1.4.1 Porter versus Ale...........................................................................................................6
1.4.2 The Rush to Bottom Fermentation................................................................................ 7
1.4.3 Science and Practice......................................................................................................9
1.5 The Twentieth Century............................................................................................................ 11
1.5.1 Beer and Society.......................................................................................................... 12
1.5.1.1 Temperance and Prohibition......................................................................... 12
1.5.1.2 Consumer Choice?........................................................................................ 14
1.5.2 Fewer and Bigger: The Path to Globalization.............................................................. 17
1.5.3 Science Applied and Technology Transformed...........................................................20
1.6 The Twenty-First Century....................................................................................................... 23
1.6.1 Global Craft................................................................................................................. 23
1.6.2 Politics, Pubs, and Publications................................................................................... 27
References......................................................................................................................................... 29

1.1 INTRODUCTION

For most of its history, brewing was a domestic or small-scale commercial activity supplying
an essential element of the diet to a primarily agrarian population. Over the course of the twentieth
century, it became an industry dominated by a few large companies striving for global supremacy in
the supply of branded recreational alcoholic beverages.1 In the last couple of decades, this hegemony
has been dented by the rapid proliferation of brewers operating at the other end of the scale.2 This
chapter outlines the complex changes in the organization, economic importance, scale, scientific
understanding, and technology of brewing, and attitudes about the social function and nature of
beer that these changes have engendered across the world.

1
2 Handbook of Brewing

1.2 BREWING IN AN AGRARIAN WORLD

Brewing is generally considered to have originated as a by-product of the development of agri-

culture, although minority opinion holds that the cultivation of cereals originated as a consequence
of man’s desire for alcohol rather than vice versa.3 Whatever brewing’s exact origins, surviving
historical artifacts allow us to trace it back to the Mesopotamians around 6,000 or 7,000 years ago.
The Ancient Egyptians were brewers, and beer, brewed from the indigenous cereal sorghum, is still
integral to the politics of African tribal life. The historical development of brewing and the brewing
industry is, however, linked with northern Europe, where cold conditions inhibited the development
of viticulture.4 The Romans commented in derogatory terms on the drinking of barley-based bever-
ages by the Germans and the Britons.
From the tenth century, the use of hops in brewing spread from Germany across Europe to replace,
or at least supplement, the plethora of plants, herbs, and spices popular at that time. The introduction
of hops was met with resistance, but the pleasing flavor and aroma they provided and perhaps, more
importantly, their action in protecting the beer from being spoiled by the then unknown microbes,
eventually led to hops’ wide-scale adoption. Brewers of unhopped beer depended upon high alcohol
to preserve their beers, but this was relatively inefficient, and such beers generally had poor keeping
qualities. Although brewing with hops was a more complicated operation, requiring extra equip-
ment, it did allow the brewer to produce a weaker beer that was still resistant to spoilage and thus to
make a greater volume of product from the same quantity of raw material. Hops were introduced to
Britain in the fifteenth century and reached North America in the early seventeenth century.
For a time, the terms ale and beer were applied to distinct beverages made by separate commu-
nities of brewers. Ale described the drink made without hops, whereas the term beer was reserved
for the hopped beverage. By the sixteenth century, ale brewers had also come to use some hops in
their brews, but at a lower level than was usual for beer, and an element of distinction remained. Ale
was recognized as a heavy, sweet, noticeably alcoholic drink characteristic of rural areas. Beer was
bitter, often lighter in flavor, and less alcoholic—but frequently darker brown in color than ale, and
was popular in towns.4 Unhopped ale virtually disappeared from Europe during the seventeenth
century, but there remained a vast variety of different beers available. Each region offered its own
favorite brews influenced by availability and quality of raw materials and climate. The dominant
cereal in use was barley, the easiest to malt, although it could be supplemented or even replaced
by other cereals, particularly oats and wheat. In some regions, notably in parts of Germany and
Belgium, wheat beers became a specialty. Taxes on beer became a growing feature along with a
degree of consumer protection over serving measures and prices enforced by local authorities to
regulate sales in taverns. In 1516, the Reinheitsgebot, literally “commandment for purity” was intro-
duced in Bavaria. This early consumer or trade protection measure (outside Germany, views differ)5
decreed that only malt, hops, and water were to be used in brewing. Yeast was later added to the
list when its necessity (if not its identity) became clear, and wheat was allowed for specialty beers.
Beer was integral to the culture of the agrarian population of northern and central Europe in the
medieval and early modern period. The weaker brews were accepted as an essential part of everyone’s
diet and the stronger beers as a necessary source of solace in all too brief periods of leisure in a harsh
world. There is no reliable information on the level of consumption except for the frequent assertions
that it was “massive” and “immense.”4 Also, alcoholic strength cannot be estimated with any accuracy
without any data apart from general recipes. It was often the practice to carry out multiple extraction
of the same grist in order to yield beers of different strengths. “Strong beer/ale” was fermented using
wort drawn from the first mash, with weaker beers derived from the second and third mashes. These
latter brews (table or small beer) were everyday drinks consumed by all classes and ages at meals in
preference to unreliable water and were an important source of nutrients in a frequently drab diet. The
strong brews were particularly favored to celebrate church festivals and family events. Only the elite
History of Industrial Brewing 3

ever saw wines or spirits. Brewing was restricted to the period roughly between October and March;
attempts at summer brewing often led to spoilage as a result of contamination.
The scale of brewing ranged from a few hectoliters (hL) annually in the average home to hun-
dreds, or occasionally, thousands of hectoliters in the largest monasteries and country houses.
Domestic brewing still accounted for well over half of the beer produced at the end of the seven-
teenth century. Commercial brewing was generally confined to taverns and small breweries. The
latter produced a wide selection of beers of different strengths, light to dark brown in color, pre-
dominantly for local consumption. The biggest of these breweries could run to tens of thousands
of hectoliters, but true industrialization of brewing did not begin until increased urbanization and
concentrated population growth provided a ready market for beer produced on a massive scale.

1.3 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

In general, brewing changed little during the eighteenth century, with a mix of domestic and
small-scale commercial production still the norm. Trade in beer remained predominantly local
everywhere, whether by the tens of thousands of European brewers or the less than 150 brewer-
ies that existed in the fledgling United States by 1800. What little regional or national trade that
took place was distributed by canal. International trade was exceptional and confined to the most
enterprising merchant brewers who could defray the cost of moving a bulky low-value product with
reciprocal deals in other goods. Benjamin Wilson of Burton upon Trent, who traded extensively in
the Baltic in the second half of the eighteenth century, is a prime example, but even here, quantities
were small at around a few thousand hectoliters per annum at best.6
The growth in population of Europe’s cities was to prompt step changes in the scale of operation of
breweries. London, capital of the first industrialized nation and the world’s biggest and fastest grow-
ing city, provided the earliest example of this phenomenon.7 Even at the beginning of the eighteenth
century, beer production in London was dominated by “common brewers” who distributed beer to
a number of public houses, many either owned or otherwise tied to them. Output from this source
exceeded that of “brewing victualers,” who brewed beer only for sale in their own taverns, by a factor
of more than 100 to 1. In the country, as a whole, the output ratio at the time was 1 to 1. By 1750, the
average output of London’s top five common brewers was an impressive 80,000 hL, and by 1799, it
was 240,000 hL.8 The breweries of Thrale/Barclay Perkins, Whitbread, Truman, and Calvert were
wonders of the age! The product of these mammoth breweries, which far outstripped in size any others
elsewhere, was a vinous, bitter-tasting, inexpensive brown beer commonly known as porter.

1.3.1 Porter: The First Industrial Beer

The origins of porter, and indeed its very name, have long been unclear and controversial.9 The
most likely etymology is that the name derives from a contraction of “porter’s ale,” a nickname for
a local brown beer popular among London’s laboring classes, and may be found in print as early as
1710 in a poem by Johnathan Swift.10

But what to me does all that love avail,

If, while I doze at home o’er porter’s ale,
Each night with wine and wenches you regale?

Claimed first-hand evidence as to its origin comes down to little more than a pseudonymous letter
published in the London Chronicle in 1760 from “Obadiah Poundage,” who said he was an 86-year-old
brewer’s clerk with 70 years of experience in a London brewery.11 Embellishments on the story have it
4 Handbook of Brewing

that porter was “invented” in 1722 at Ralph Harwood’s Bell Brewhouse in Shoreditch in East London
to provide a more convenient form of “three threads.” This drink was a mix of three beers, most usu-
ally given as: fresh brown ale (mild), matured pale ale (two-penny), and matured brown ale (stale).12
One explanation of why Harwood’s beer had the contemporary name “entire butt,” or just “entire,” is
because it was served as a single product from one cask rather than by the then practice of filling a glass
from three separate casks containing different beers—a task that publicans found irksome.
The reality of porter’s origin is almost certainly more complex than the mere result of a move to
lighten the potman’s workload. A “reconstruction from the fragments of contemporary testimony” by
Oliver MacDonough makes a case for the origins of porter lying in the reaction of London brewers
to the increased cost of malt and the relative cheapness of hops as the eighteenth century dawned.13
H. S. Corran builds on this and links the emergence of porter with the earlier tradition of brewing
strong “October” beers.14 The science historian James Sumner questions whether porter was a dis-
crete invention at all or rather a “retrospective construct that telescopes a century or more of techni-
cal change.”15 Sumner’s scenario is that London brown beer brewers, in seeking a beer that became
“spontaneously transparent,” adopted longer aging, which necessarily required higher hop rates (to
keep the beer sound) and more storage space. This in turn led to an unprecedented change in produc-
tion scales and a rise in giant porter breweries. The size of these spectacular new breweries became
part of the mythology that built up around porter’s “enshrining of large-scale production as a ‘secret
ingredient’ in its own right,” allowing porter and its highly capitalized brewers to become dominant.
Alan Pryor stresses the leading role played by Humphrey Parsons, owner of the Red Lion Brewery,
Wapping, in the development of porter brewing in the 1720s. Parsons’ crucial innovation was to
increase the storage capacity in his brewery by the installation of an aging cask of the unprecedented
size of 160 barrels.16 Parsons’ master stroke as seen by Pryor is not so much in the adoption of such a
large vessel but in the marketing of his beer as having been drawn entirely from this great butt, thus
obviating any suspicion of mixing/adulteration when such practices were common by the brewery
and by the publican. The drinker could therefore expect consistency and quality from Parsons’ beer.
The name he gave to this improved version of porter was “Parsons intire butt.” “Intire” increasingly
became “entire” and the terms porter and entire butt beer soon became ­interchangeable terms; the
former was used by the drinker and the latter by the brewer for the same beer.
These recent publications by Sumner15 and Pryor16 do much to clarify the technical and commercial
success of porter, but they do not fully explain why porter was such an immensely successful product
that appealed so much to the drinking public. To understand this, one needs to consider how this change
in the strategies of beer production in the early eighteenth century interacted with the biochemistry and
microbiology of the brewing process and beer flavor. It is clear that the crucial technical change that
turned ordinary London brown beer into porter was storage for many months in giant wooden vats
before consumption. It is now recognized that storage in this way would promote secondary fermenta-
tion by strains of the alcohol-tolerant yeast genus Brettanomyces. This yeast is capable of metabolism
on the remnants of complex sugars left behind by the primary yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Among
other flavor compounds, Brettanomyces produces very high levels of fatty acids and their ethyl esters.17,18
It was this extreme ester level—perhaps as much as ten times the flavor threshold—rather than just the
level of alcohol that gave the narcotic effect characteristic of stock English ales right up to the end of
the nineteenth century.19 The fresh brown beers produced in London were thin by comparison—­hence,
the popularity of “three threads,” which incorporated matured beers in the mix. In a similar manner to
strong ales, some brown beers were also matured. Nevertheless, the lower alcohol content of the latter
encouraged the metabolism of other organisms in addition to Brettanomyces, and these beers developed
a distinctly tart acidity in addition to an estery fullness. A third type of matured beer arose accidentally
when, as described earlier, London brewers experimented with longer aging and higher hop rates in their
beers and ended up with a mellow, fuller-tasting version of porter. The breakthrough was the discovery
that a beer—even one made with cheap brown malt and significantly weaker than a strong ale—when
brewed using a high enough level of hops, became much less tart during storage than was usual for
History of Industrial Brewing 5

matured brown beer. Porter now developed the vinous, heavy, narcotic aroma and flavor associated with
expensive strong ales. We can deduce that this is what happened because we now know that the high
hop rate would have kept the lactic acid bacteria at bay through the antibacterial properties of hop bit-
ter acids20 but would have had no effect on yeasts such as Brettanomyces. Hence, Obadiah Poundage’s
observation11 that porter “… well brewed, kept its proper time, became racy and mellow, that is, neither
new nor stale …” The Oxford English Dictionary defines “racy” in this context as “having a characteris-
tic (usually desirable) quality, especially in a high degree” (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/
racy). In more modern brewers’ parlance, porter “drank above its gravity” because of its ester content.
The combination of relative cheapness and desirable flavor made porter irresistible to the urban laboring
classes—a taste eagerly exploited by what were to become the behemoths of the brewing industry.
Even porter’s dark brown color, typical of London-brewed beers, was to its advantage as it dis-
guised any defects in clarity. This robustness and cheapness made it suitable for mass production and
amenable to distribution far and wide. As sales took off, the need for long storage, often for a year or
more, prompted the use of large vessels. Five thousand hectoliter capacity and greater storage vats
eventually became commonplace in the larger establishments,21 and porter brewers could undercut
on price their ale-brewing competitors, none of whom had the economies of scale or ability to use
cheap materials in their more delicate products. Porter’s retail price was 25% less than that of rival
pale ales.13 Sumner is right that porter was not “invented” in the sense that it stemmed from a “flash
of inspiration” or even by targeted technical development. It was still an entirely new beer that, to an
extent, mimicked the attributes of mixed beers but also delivered an enhanced mellowness. It came in
a convenient single serving, was easy to make on a large scale, and sold at a competitive price. Thus
everybody was happy—the publican, the brewer, and the drinker. No wonder porter was a success!

1.3.2 Mechanization and Measurement

Mass-produced porter arrived on the scene prior to mechanization of brewing; man and horsepower
achieved large-scale output a generation before mechanization eased the burden. When Whitbreads
became the second London brewery to install a steam engine in 1785, they were already producing
300,000 hL of beer per annum. Nonetheless, when it became available, the larger brewers were quick
to make use of efficient steam power, purchasing the new improved engines of Boulton & Watt. It has
been estimated that at least 26 steam engines were installed in breweries by the end of the eighteenth
century, with use spreading to relatively small regional breweries thereafter.22
The first record of in-process quantitative measurement in brewing operations is the use of the
thermometer by the London ale brewer Michael Combrune in the 1750s. Combrune experimented
with drying temperatures required to produce malts of different colors and recorded observations on
mashing and fermentation temperatures. A big step forward came in 1784 when John Richardson, a
Hull brewer, introduced his saccharometer for the measurement of wort strength. For the first time,
the relative value and efficiency of using extract-yielding materials could be quantitatively assessed
with consequent economic benefit to the brewer.23 By 1800, many of the larger brewers had adopted
the instruments that were promoted in treatises on brewing science and practice. From the writings of
Richardson and his contemporaries,24–26 which recorded original and sometimes present gravities, it
is possible to roughly calculate the alcoholic strength of beers at the turn of the eighteeenth century.
The data show wide variations but tend toward the following approximate bands for percent alcohol
by volume: Strong beer: 7% to 9%, porter: 6% to 7%, ale 5% to 7%, and small/table beer 2% to 3.5%.

1.4 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Industrialization, population growth, urbanization, and increased consumption are the linked
themes of nineteenth-century brewing. In the leading European beer drinking countries, the UK,
6 Handbook of Brewing

Germany, and Belgium, there was a two- to fourfold increase in output between 1830 and 1900.4 In
1800, the United States had a total commercial output of less than that of Whitbread’s brewery in
London; but by 1900, it was the world’s third largest producer of beer. The development of railway
networks beginning in the 1830s transformed distribution, prompting the larger-scale producers
to make their regional beers available nationally to a growing population. The new breed of urban
workers may have only exchanged the near serfdom of the countryside for the drudgery and grime of
towns and cities but, with the novelty of relative prosperity in the blossoming Industrial Revolution,
they drank heroic quantities of beer in the growing numbers of retail outlets! Levels of per capita
beer consumption increased by up to 50% in some European countries. This rise in consumption
was accompanied by a rise in commercial brewing and the decline of domestic brewing—indeed,
some have questioned the extent of the overall rise in consumption for this very reason. Statistics
on commercial production are liable to be more accurate than are those on domestic production.4
There was a vast range in the size of breweries, with outputs from a few thousand to millions
of hectoliters per annum. Breweries became highly capitalized businesses and major employers of
labor. As the economic importance of brewing increased, so did government interest in the indus-
try, particularly as a generator of revenue. Brewery proprietors became more prominent socially
and politically and welcomed the attention, stressing the importance of their industry to farming
and the exchequer. In Britain, the industry’s long-established links with agriculture gave brewers
a head start over other industrialists on the social ladder, and their growing wealth and widely
heralded philanthropy boosted their position.27 Adulteration of beer, both innocuous and harmful,
which had been rife at the beginning of the century, petered out as breweries grew bigger and their
owners aspired to join the gentry. With prosperity and social standing, the temptation to debase
their products—as the brewing victualer (purveyor) and small producer of earlier generations had
done—was easily resisted, although publicans continued to show less restraint.
Between the 1870s and the 1890s, the majority of leading European brewing concerns became
public companies. This rush to incorporation had little immediate influence; but over time, a bureau-
cracy of salaried managers gradually replaced the original partners and took over the running of the
companies.28 As so often in brewing history, Bavaria differed from the norm. Only 1% of breweries
had become public companies by the end of the century there; but even in Bavaria, these were the
biggest companies and they comprised 17% of total beer production.

1.4.1 Porter versus Ale

As a first approximation, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the British beer market
was characterized by the dominance of porter in London and the bigger cities and numerous strong,
regionally variant ales in the rest of the country. In 1830, the 12 leading London brewers produced
around 10% of England’s beer; through the influence of the great metropolitan brewers, Britain
stood preeminent as a brewing nation. “We are the power loom-brewers,” Charles Barclay, one of
the partners of the country’s largest brewers, Barclay Perkins, boasted.29 However, 1830 was to be
the peak of porter’s popularity. Over the next 50 years, its position was usurped by the rise of mild
and pale ale.30 Why this change came about is impossible to say with any degree of certainty. One
influence was the Beerhouse Act of 1830, which led to a great expansion in the number of outlets for
beer and encouraged competition. Another important factor may have been changes in porter itself.
The ability to measure accurately the extract yield of malt with a saccharometer led to the discovery
that porter brewed with pale malt and a small amount of very dark malt was actually cheaper to
produce than porter brewed with traditional brown malt. By the 1820s, roasted barley was freely
available and this also came to be used. Porter became ever darker, ultimately black. The consumer
could hardly have failed to notice.
Victorian mild was well-hopped, but noticeably sweet—a strong dark brown beer that was
drunk young and unaged. It grew in popularity with the laboring classes, first in London and then
History of Industrial Brewing 7

in the big industrial areas of the Midlands and Northwest England, at the expense of matured
porter. With the linking of Burton upon Trent to the railway system in 1839, the London brew-
ers also began to seriously lose out to the readily available quality pale ales brewed in that town.
Although relatively expensive, these beers appealed to the aspirations of the growing band of lower
middle class clerks and shopkeepers. Pale malt, dried over coke rather than wood or charcoal, had
been available since the late seventeenth century, and pale ale was a favored premium-quality beer.
The London brewer George Hodgson and his son Mark built up a respectable trade in the export
of this type of beer for consumption by the British in India and the Burton brewers followed the
Hodgson’s lead in the 1820s. The hard Burton water proved particularly suitable for this type of
beer. Consequently, Burton-brewed India pale ale (IPA) soon captured the export market and, from
the 1840s, built a considerable home trade. The major Burton brewers—Bass, Ratcliff & Gretton,
and Samuel Allsopp & Sons—led the field. Each decade their output trebled and, by the mid-1870s,
Bass was briefly the biggest brewer in the world, with an output of nearly 1.5 mhL, with Allsopp &
Sons not far behind. At the turn of the century, Burton’s 21 breweries (the peak number was 31 in
1888)31 were brewing around 10% of the beer produced in the United Kingdom.
Burton’s star faded toward the end of the century as its products became more difficult to sell.
Rival brewers increasingly bought up or provided loans to pubs and so tied them to selling that
brewery’s own products to the exclusion of those of competitors. The market for Burton beers was
also eroded by a shift in public taste away from matured, complex, stock winter-brewed beers like
IPA to more easily produced lighter beers. Following advances in technology and technique, from
the 1870s onward, these “running ales” could be brewed year-round, and they required minimal
maturation. Burton brewers could, of course, brew good examples of these beers but so could many
others. By the early 1900s, classic, double-fermented IPA had virtually disappeared. In Scotland,
large brewing firms, notably the Edinburgh brewers William McEwan and William Younger, had
developed their own version of pale ale that, like the Burton brewers, they sold primarily through
the wholesale market as Scottish licensing laws did not permit brewers to acquire pubs directly.
Because of this, Scotland itself remained largely untouched by the surge in tied houses that distorted
the English market (where 75% of outlets were tied to a brewer by 1900). However, the Scottish
brewers were heavily involved in exporting to England and suffered similarly to their Burton
rivals.32 Bass continued to prosper through wise management even in adversity and was producing
2.2 mhL of beer by 1900; but the title of “world’s largest brewer” had fallen to Guinness, the Dublin
brewer, by the 1880s.
Arthur Guinness had started as an ale brewer in 1759; but in response to the success of imported
London-produced porter in the Irish market, his company had switched entirely to porter by 1799,
swiftly expanding its business through the new canal system.33 The Irish had come to porter later
than the British but remained loyal to it for much longer. In common with other brewers, two
strengths of porter were brewed by Guinness, and by 1840, the stronger version—known as stout
porter and then just stout—accounted for 80% of production. Guinness was the biggest brewer in
Ireland by 1833 and underwent massive expansion after the 1860s, brewing 3.8 mhL in 1900. By
then, with an established export trade to Great Britain and the empire, one-third of Guinness’s out-
put went overseas. Total production represented 8.5% of all United Kingdom-produced beer; nearly
twice as much as was brewed by all the Scottish brewers put together. This success was achieved
without having to enter the increasingly expensive property market as Guinness, uniquely among
major brewers in the British Isles, remained entirely as a wholesaler, not a retailer, of beer.

1.4.2 The Rush to Bottom Fermentation

Attracted by the scale and prosperity of the British brewing industry, brewers from other coun-
tries came to Britain in the early 1800s to learn the latest practices. The most historically significant
of these visits was that made by Gabriel Sedlmayr, Jr., and Anton Dreher, who traveled around
8 Handbook of Brewing

England and Scotland in 1833, picking up whatever information they could from breweries.34
On their return home, these men were quick to make the most of their experiences and instituted
reformed practices in their breweries, including the use of the saccharometer. Sedlmayr at the
Spaten brewery in Munich and Dreher at his eponymous brewery in Vienna and later in Michelob
(Bohemia), Trieste, and Budapest would build up important brewing empires and become instru-
mental in the spread of bottom fermentation techniques across the continent.
Although little known outside the state, bottom-fermented beers had been brewed in Bavaria
since at least the 1400s. Their defining characteristics were the utilization of yeasts that sank to the
bottom of the vessel toward the end of fermentation and the use of low fermentation (4°C to 10°C)
and maturation (−2°C to 4°C) temperatures. The rest of the world used yeasts that floated up to
the surface of the fermenting wort and were accommodated to higher fermentation (15°C to 25°C)
and maturation (13°C) temperatures.35 The adoption of the description “lager” (from the German
verb lagern, meaning to store) for bottom-fermented beer in anglophone countries has encouraged
much misdirected comment. It is often stated, or at least tacitly accepted, that storage was a unique
aspect of lager brewing. In reality, until the spread of artificial refrigeration in the 1870s made reli-
able summer brewing possible, it was necessary to store beers fermented in the cooler months for
consumption in the warmer months, whether they were top-fermented “ales” or bottom fermented
“lagers.” That England and Bavaria adopted different techniques for preserving beer during storage
was something generated by climate and geography. Conveniently, for the Bavarian brewer monks,
the foothills of the Alps provided cool caves for the storage of beer. When it was found that storage
under these conditions led to the production of stable, bright, and sparkling products, commercial
brewers mimicked the procedure, using ice taken from frozen lakes and rivers to cool the cellars of
their breweries. In England, no such geographical advantage was available near brewing centers,
and heavy hopping and high alcohol were used as the preservatives rather than cold storage. London
porter and Munich lager were the result of these differences. Both were stored or vatted beers; por-
ter was regularly stored for a year, lager rarely for more than six months.
Bavarian lager was brewed with malt dried at relatively high temperatures, leading to rather
dark-colored beers. The malt was also less well modified than the malt used in the production of
top-fermented beers and thus required more intensive mashing to yield acceptable levels of extract.
A “decoction” mashing system, involving extraction of the malt at three or so different temperatures
by withdrawing and then heating a portion of the mash and adding it back to the bulk to give a step
rise in temperature, came to replace the single temperature “infusion” system used for ales. Later,
“programmed upward infusion” mashing would achieve the same process more conveniently by
gradually increasing the temperature of the bulk using steam-heated coils in the mash vessel.
Political changes in Germany, culminating in eventual unification, were instrumental in foster-
ing the opening of trade among the German states. Bavarian brewing practices became more widely
known and some North German, Austrian, and Czech brewers adopted bottom fermentation in the
late 1830s.36 The first example of a straw-colored lager produced using lightly dried, low color malt
seems to have been brewed with the soft water of Pilsen by a Bavarian-born brewer named Josef
Groll in October 1842. Both light-colored, pilsner-style lager and dark lager based on the Bavarian
Münchner swept the world over the next 50 years, with the pilsner variety proving the most popular
by the end of the century. Jacob Christian Jacobsen brewed the first Danish lager in 1847 using
yeast he brought to Copenhagen from Munich. It was a dark lager. The pilsner style did not reach
Denmark until it was brewed by Tuborg in the 1880s. Gerard A. Heineken switched from ale to lager
brewing in Amsterdam in the 1870s after seeing the demand for Anton Dreher’s Vienna-brewed
product at an international exhibition.28
The first lager brewed in the United States is credited to John Wagner in Philadelphia in
around 1840. Wagner used yeast from his native Bavaria. However, it was Frederick Lauer, who
established a small commercial brewery in Pennsylvania in 1844 and was later called “the father
of the American brewing industry,” who was to be an influential brewing figure.37 The wave of
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and character to take the direction, for instance, of important college
departments. Men of power and skill are in demand everywhere, and
not enough can be found for responsible positions. One half the fault
is insufficient education.

There is another phase of power that must not be neglected, the

power to enjoy, to be rich in emotional life. Knowledge, properly
pursued, is a source of rich and refined intellectual emotions. There
is joy in discovery, joy in the freedom and grasp of thought.
Æsthetic power, based upon fine discrimination, finds a perpetual
joy in sky and sea, and mountain and forest, in music and poetry, in
sentiment and song. Our Teutonic ancestors were better seers than
we. The morning sun and the midnight darkness were perpetually to
them a new birth. The leaves whispered to them divine messages;
the storms and the seasons, the fruitful earth, were full of wonder
and sacred mysteries. They were poets. This matter-of-fact age will
yet return to the primitive regard for nature, a regard enlightened and
refined by science. Men will yet find in the most commonplace fact of
nature mystery, poetry, ground for reverence, and faith in a God.
The power of enjoyment alone does not give a fruitful life. It is in
the moment of action that we gain the habit that makes power for
action. As a philosopher recently expressed it: Do not allow your
finer emotions to evaporate without finding expression in some
useful act, if it is nothing but speaking kindly to your grandmother, or
giving up your seat in a horse car.
There has been a weak and harmful philosophy in vogue for years
that would place the natural and the useful in the line of the
agreeable. Even extreme evolution fails signally to show that the
agreeable is always teleological, that is, always directed toward
useful ends. The latest teaching of physiological psychology takes us
back to the stern philosophy of the self-denying Puritan, and shows
that we must conquer our habitual inclinations, and encounter some
disagreeable duty every day to prepare for the emergencies that
demand men of stern stuff. George Eliot proclaims the same thought
with philosophical insight, that we are not to wait for great
opportunities for glory, but by daily, drudging performance of little
duties are to get ready for the arrival of the great opportunities. We
must prepare for our eagle flights by many feeble attempts of our
untried pinions.
If one but work, no matter in what line of higher scholastic pursuit,
he will in a few years waken to a consciousness of power that makes
him one of the leaders. There is every encouragement to the student
to persevere, in the certain assurance that sooner or later he will
reach attainments beyond his present clear conception.
Our inheritance is a glorious one. The character of the Anglo-
Saxons is seen throughout their history. Amid the clash of weapons
they fought with a fierce energy and a strange delight. They rode the
mighty billows and sang heroic songs with the wild joy of the sea
fowl. Later we find them contending earnestly for their beliefs. Then
they grew into the Puritan sternness of character, abounding in the
sense of duty. Their character has made them the leaders and
conquerors of the world. It finds expression in the progress and
influence of America. This energy has gradually become more and
more refined and humanized, and, in its highest and best form, it is
the heritage of every young man; and by the pride of ancestry, by the
character inherited, by the opportunity of his age, he is called upon
to wield strongly the weapon of Thor and hammer out his destiny
with strong heart and earnest purpose.
 MORAL TRAINING.

We shall not discuss the philosophical systems which underlie

ethical theories, nor the theories themselves which consider the
nature of the moral sense and the supreme aim of life, but shall treat
practical ethics as a part of didactics, and as a part of that unspoken
influence which should be the constant ally of instruction. It is not the
purpose to present anything new, but rather to give confidence in
methods that are well known and are successfully employed by
skilful and devoted teachers.

The formation of right habits is the first step toward good

character. Aristotle gives this fact special emphasis. Here are some
detached sentences from his ethics: “Moral virtue is the outcome of
habit, and, accordingly, its name is derived by a slight deflection from
habit.... It is by playing the harp that both good and bad harpists are
produced, and the case of builders and all artisans is similar, as it is
by building well that they will be good builders, and by building badly
that they will be bad builders.... Accordingly, the difference between
one training of the habits and another, from early days, is not a light
matter, but is serious or all-important.” Aristotle here expresses a
truth that has become one of the tritest. All mental dispositions are
strengthened by repetition. We learn to observe by observing, to
remember by exercising memory, to create by training the
imagination, to reason by acts of inference. Passions grow by
indulgence and diminish by restraint; the finer emotions gain strength
by use. Courage, endurance, firmness are established by frequently
facing dangers and difficulties. By practice, disagreeable acts may
become a pleasure.
It is by practice that the mind gets possession of the body, that the
separate movements of the child become correlated, and the most
complex acts are performed with ease and accuracy. Physiological
psychology has confirmed and strengthened the doctrine of habit.
The functions of the brain and mental actions are correlated. A nerve
tract once established in the brain, and action along that line recurs
with increasing spontaneity. New lines of communication are formed
with difficulty. Each physical act controlled by lower nerve centres
leaves a tendency in those centres to repeat the act.
The inference is obvious and important. Whatever we wish the
adult man to be, we must help him to become by early practice.
Childhood is the period when tendencies are most easily
established. The mind is teachable and receives impressions readily;
around those cluster kindred impressions, and the formation of
character is already begun. The brain and other nerve centres are
plastic, and readily act in any manner not inconsistent with their
natural functions. As they begin they tend to act thereafter.
Dr. Harris called attention a few years ago to the ethical import of
the ordinary requirements and prohibitions of the schoolroom.
Promptness, obedience, silence, respect, right positions in sitting
and standing, regard for the rights of others, were named as helping
to form habits that would make the child self-controlled and fit him to
live in society.
Whatever you would wish the child to do and become, that let him
practise. We learn to do, not by knowing, but by knowing and then
doing. Ethical teaching, tales of heroic deeds, soul-stirring fiction that
awakens sympathetic emotions may accomplish but little, unless in
the child’s early life regard for the right, little acts of heroism, and
deeds of sympathy are employed; unless the ideas and feeling find
expression in action, and so become a part of the child’s power and
tendency. George Eliot would have us make ready for great deeds
by constant performance of little duties at hand.
Right habit is the only sure foundation for character. Sudden
resolutions to change the tenor of life, sudden conversion from an
evil life to one of ideal goodness are usually failures, because the old
tendencies will hold on grimly until the new impulse, however great,
has gradually evaporated. To prepare for the highest moral life and a
persevering religious life, early habits of the right kind are the only
secure foundation.
The teacher may have confidence in the value of requiring of
pupils practice in self-restraint, practice in encountering difficulties
that demand a little of courage, a little even of heroism—and each
day furnishes opportunities. Pleasure may not always attend their
efforts, but pleasure will come soon enough as a reward, in
consciousness of strength and of noble development. Often we do
wrong because it is pleasant, and avoid the right because it is
painful. By habit we come to find pleasure in right action, and then
the action is a true virtue as held by the Greek philosophers. Aristotle
remarks: “Hence the importance of having had a certain training from
very early days, as Plato says, such a training as produces pleasure
and pain at the right objects; for this is the true education.”

The personality of the teacher is a potent factor in moral

education. Perfection is not expected of the teacher; none ever
attained it except the Great Prototype. All that we can say of the best
man is that he averages high. The teacher who does not possess to
a somewhat marked degree some quality eminently worthy of
imitation will hardly be of the highest value in his profession. I
remember with gratitude two men, each of whom impressed me with
a noble quality that made an important contribution at the time to my
thought, feeling, action, and growth. The ideal of one was action—
energetic, persevering action—and he was a notable example of his
ideal. His precept without his example would have been almost
valueless. The other was a noble advocate of ideal thought, and his
mind was always filled with the highest conceptions; moreover, in
many large ways he exemplified his precept. His acquaintance was
worth more than that of a thousand others who are satisfied with a
commonplace view of life.
Minds that are not speculative, are not ingenious and creative, will
hardly make their own ideals, or even be taught by abstractions.
They can, however, readily comprehend the living embodiment of
virtue, and there is still enough of our ancestral monkey
imitativeness remaining to give high value to example.
And it is important that the influence of the teacher shall not be
merely a personal magnetism that influences only when it is present,
but a quality that shall command respect in memory and help to
establish principles of conduct. The influence should be one that will
be regarded without the sanction of the personal relation. He who is
wholly ruled either by fear or by love gains no power of self-control,
and will be at a loss when thrown upon his own responsibility in the
world of conflict and temptations. Character must be formed by habit
and guided by principle.

The world’s moral heroes are few. Since they can not be our daily
companions, we turn to biography and history, that their personality
and deeds may be painted in our imagination. Concrete teaching is
adapted to children, and select tales of great and noble men, vivid
descriptions of deeds worthy of emulation may early impress their
minds with unfading pictures that will stand as archetypes for their
future character and conduct. Hence the value of mythology, of Bible
stories, and Plutarch.
It is unnecessary to add that such literature should be at the
command of every teacher, and there is enough adapted to every
grade of work. Throughout the period of formal historic study
important use should be made of the ethical character of men and
events. The pupil thus fills his mind with examples from which he
may draw valuable inferences, and with which he may illustrate
principles of action. The ethical sense is developed through relations
of the individual to society, and the broader the scope of vision, the
more just will be the estimate of human action.
Ideal literature, the better class of fiction and poetry, which not only
reaches the intellect, but touches the feeling and brings the motive
powers in harmony with ideal characters, deeds, and aspirations,
may have the highest value in forming the ethical life of the pupil.
Here is presented the very essence of the best ideas and feelings of
humanity—thoughts that burn, emotions of divine quality, desires
that go beyond our best realizations, acts that are heroic—all painted
in vivid colors. By reading we enter into the life of greater souls, we
share their aspirations, we make their treasure our own. A large
share of the moralization of the world is done by this process of
applying poetry to life.
There is, however, one important caution. There is a difference
between sentiment and sentimentality. The latter weakens the mind
and will; it is to be avoided as slow poison that will finally undermine
a strong constitution. There must be a certain vigor in ideal
sentiment that will not vanish in mawkish feeling, but will give tone
for noble action. It is a question whether sentiment that sheds tears,
and never, in consequence, does an additional praiseworthy act, has
worth. You know the literature that leaves you with a feeling of stupid
satiety, and you know that which gives you the feeling of strength in
your limbs, and clearness in your intellect, and earnestness in your
purpose, and determination in your will.
Use ideal literature from the earliest school days of the child;
choose it with a wisdom that comes from a careful analysis of the
subject and a knowledge of the adaptation of a particular selection to
the end proposed. And when you reach the formal study of literature,
find in it something more than dates, events, grammar, and rhetoric;
find in it beauty, truth, goodness, and insight that will expand the
mind and improve character.

There is much truth in the criticism that condemns precept without

example; the two go together, the one is a complement of the other.
We act in response to ideas, and a rule of action clearly understood
and adopted will often be applied in a hundred specific instances that
fall under it. A teacher of tact and skill can gain the interest of
children to know the meaning and understand the application of
many rich generalizations from human experiences that have passed
into proverbs. The natural result of conduct which we condemn may
be pointed out, with often a noticeable increase of regard for duty
and prudence. We may not expect consistency of character,
firmness of purpose, rigid observance of honesty, truthfulness,
honor, and sympathy until the course of life is directed by principles
that have taken firm hold of the mind.
When moral instruction in school passes into what the boys call
preaching, the zealous teacher often dulls the point of any possible
interest in the subject, and thereby defeats his purpose. Sometimes
we, in our feeling of responsibility, trust too little to the better instincts
of childhood, the influence of good surroundings, and the leavening
power of all good work in the regular course of instruction.
For the purpose of moral instruction in the schools we should take
the broad view of the Greek ethics. As summed up by Professor
Green the Good Will aims (1) to know what is true and create what is
beautiful; (2) to endure pain and fear; (3) to resist the allurements of
false pleasure; (4) to take for one’s self and to give to others, not
what one is inclined to, but what is due. This is larger than the
conventional moral code. It makes virtues not only of justice and
temperance, but of courage and wisdom. By implication it condemns
cowardice and lazy ignorance. It urges one to strive for the
realization of all his best possibilities, to enlarge his powers, his
usefulness, and aim at the gradual perfection of his being through
the worthy use of all his energies. It does not dwell morbidly on petty
distinctions of casuistry, but generously expands the soul to receive
wisdom, the wisdom that regards all good.
We are creatures of numerous native impulses, all useful in their
proper exercise. Each impulse is susceptible of growth until it
becomes predominant. The lower animals follow their instincts. Man
is rational, has the power to discriminate, to estimate right and
wrong, to educate and be educated. He is called upon to subordinate
some impulses and to cultivate others. The child is full of power of
action, and it must be exercised in some direction. The work of the
teacher is to invite the native impulses that reach out toward right
and useful things, by offering the proper objects for their exercise.
When these tendencies of the child’s being are encouraged, his
growth will be ethical.
 What is the relation of the doctrine of duty to the practical subject
in hand? This is a question that rests upon the broad foundation of
philosophy and religion, and we cannot discuss the grounds of belief.
We may believe that the sense of duty is indispensable to moral
character. True, much has been done in the name of duty that has
been harmful and repellent. Many things have been thought to be
duty that would rule healthful spontaneity and cheerfulness and
needful recreation out of life, and place the child under a solemn
restraint that rests on his spirit like an incubus and drives him to
rebellion and sin. We do not mean duty in this caricature of the
reality. But this is a world in which the highest good is to be obtained
by courage to overcome evil and difficulty. The great Fichte said: “I
have found out now that man’s will is free, and that not happiness,
but worthiness is the end of our being.” And Professor Royce in the
same vein says: “The spiritual life isn’t a gentle or an easy thing....
Spirituality consists in being heroic enough to accept the tragedy of
existence, and to glory in the strength wherewith it is given to the
true lords of life to conquer this tragedy, and to make their world,
after all, divine.” In the name of evolution and physiological
psychology much good has been done in driving to the realm of
darkness, whence it emanated, the spirit of harshness and cruelty in
education and in discipline; at the same time much harm has been
done by superficial interpreters by the attempt to make all education
and training a pleasure. The highest good cannot be gained without
struggle. Character cannot be formed without struggle. You and I
would give nothing for acquisitions that have cost us nothing. While
the child’s will is to be invited in the right direction by every worthy
motive that tends to make the path pleasant, the child at the same
time should know by daily experience that some things must be
because they are right, because they are part of his duty; that they
may be at first disagreeable and require stern effort. Only then will
he be prepared to resist temptation, and to actively pursue a course
that will lead toward the perfection of his being and toward a life of
usefulness. Along the paths of pleasure are the wrecks of
innumerable lives, and this view is one of the greatest practical
importance in the every-day work of the schoolroom.

All proper education is ethical education. How the teacher

encourages the acquisition of truth! With what care he corrects error
in experiment and inference! With what zeal he leads the pupil to
further knowledge! With what feeling he points out beauty in natural
forms and in literary art! With what hope he encourages him to
overcome difficulties! With what solicitude he regards his ways and
his choice of company! What use he makes of every opportunity to
emphasize a lesson of justice in this little society of children, which is
in many ways a type of the larger society into which the child is to
enter! If teachers are learned and skilful, and of strong character, if
they awaken interest in studies and not disgust, if they have insight
into the moral order of the world as revealed in all departments of
learning, the whole curriculum of study, from the kindergarten to the
university, will be a disclosure of ethical conceptions, a practice of
right activity, an encouragement of right aim. If the better tendencies
of the child’s nature are repelled instead of invited, in so far will
instruction lack the ethical element. And herein lies the great
responsibility of the teacher for his own education, methods, and
personal influence.
What are the schools doing for moral training? We believe they
are doing much that is satisfactory and encouraging. The public
schools have at their command the various ethical forces. They form
right habits by every-day requirements of the schoolroom; they
provide the personal influence of teachers whose good character is
the first passport to their position; they employ the lessons of history
and literature, and in distinct ways impart principles of right conduct;
they inspire courage to overcome difficulties; they direct the better
impulses of children toward discovery in the great world of truth, and,
by the very exercise of power required in the process of education,
prepare them for life.
 CAN VIRTUE BE TAUGHT?

On a certain occasion Socrates assumed the rôle of listener, while

Protagoras discoursed upon the theme “Can Virtue Be Taught?”
Protagoras shows that there are some essential qualities which,
regardless of specific calling, should be common to all men, such as
justice, temperance, and holiness—in a word, manly virtue. He holds
it absurd and contrary to experience to assume that virtue cannot be
taught. He says that, in fact, “Education and admonition commence
in the first years of childhood, and last to the very end of life.” Mother
and nurse, and father and tutor ceaselessly set forth to the child
what is just or unjust, honorable or dishonorable, holy or unholy; the
teachers look to his manners, and later put in his hands the works of
the great poets, full of moral examples and teachings; the instructor
of the lyre imparts harmony and rhythm; the master of gymnastics
trains the body to be minister to the virtuous mind; and when the
pupil has completed his work with the instructors, the state compels
him to learn the laws, and live after the pattern which they furnish.
“Cease to wonder, Socrates, whether virtue can be taught.”
We can but accept the principles of Protagoras, that the essential
qualities of a rational and moral being are to be considered at each
stage of growth and in all relations of life; that all education is to be
the ally of virtue. We can but accept, too, the fact that guidance,
instruction, and authority help to bring the child to self-realization,
and help to determine modes of conduct. The remaining question
relates to the ways and means adapted to a given stage of
education. When the pupil enters the high school he is already a
trained being. His training, however, has been more or less
mechanical. He is now at an age when his capacity, his studies, and
his social relations admit him to a broader field—a field in which he
makes essays at independent action; when his physical
development brings new problems and dangers; when contact with
the world begins to acquaint him with the vicious maxims of selfish
men; when there is a tendency to break away from the moral codes,
without the wisdom of experience to guide him in his growing
freedom. It is a critical period—one that tests in new ways his mental
and moral balance. If the pupil is not wrecked here, he has many
chances in his favor, although the college or business life or society
may later sorely tempt him. That the teachings and influences of the
period of secondary education have much to do with making
character is recognized by the colleges. Some schools become
known for the vigor of their intellectual and ethical training, and the
successful preparation of their pupils to meet the demands and
temptations of college life. The subject of ethics in the high school
thus becomes a proper one for inquiry.
Shall we employ the formal study of ethics? Hardly. The scientific
or theoretical treatment of the subject belongs to the period of
reflection, of subjective insight, and should follow psychology, if not
philosophy. Such study hardly accomplishes much practically until
experience and reflection have given one an interest in the deepest
problems of life. It belongs to a period when the commonplaces are
fraught with meaning, when a rational conviction has the force which
Socrates gave to insight into wisdom—when to understand virtue is
to conform the life to it. But, nevertheless, the whole period of high-
school work should be a contribution to the end of moral character.
Let us get rid, at the outset, of the idea that a moral life is a
mechanical obedience to rules and conventionalities, a cut-and-dried
affair, a matter that lies in but one province of our nature, a
formalism, and learn that the whole being, its purposes and
activities, the heroic impulses and the commonplace duties lie within
its circle. Everything a man is and does, learns and becomes,
constitutes his moral character.
Ethics is the science of conduct—conduct on both its subjective
and its objective side. It considers the relation of the self to all
consequences of an act as foreseen and chosen by the self, and to
the same consequences as outwardly expressed. Practically it
teaches control of impulse with reference to results as expressing
and revealing the character—results both immediate and remote.
Some acts show a one-sided inclination, uncontrolled by regard for
the claims of other and better impulses; only a part of the individual
is asserted, not the whole self in perfect balance. For example, the
pupil plays truant, acting with sole regard for the impulse to seek
ease and sensuous pleasure. He neglects other more important
impulses, all of which might have been satisfied by attending
faithfully to his school duties: the impulse of ambition, to gain power
and become a useful and successful citizen; the desire for culture,
with all its superior values; the impulse of wonder, leading ever to the
acquisition of knowledge; the impulse of admiration, to seek and
appreciate the beautiful; the filial and social affections, which regard
the feelings and wishes of the home and the sentiments of
companions; the impulse to gratitude, as shown toward parents and
teachers; the sentiment of reverence, as shown toward law and
order and those who stand as their representatives. And all these
neglected demands rise up and condemn him; he is divided from
himself and his fair judgment, is not his complete self. On the other
hand, the pupil spends the day in devotion to work, he maintains the
integrity and balance of his nature, gives each impulse due
consideration and makes a symmetrical and moral advance in his
development. In restraining the impulse to play truant, he does
justice to all the claims of his being; the resulting values as estimated
in subjective experiences are the highest possible—the act is good.
The problem, then, is to bring the pupil to a fuller understanding of
the character of his impulses to action, and the relative value of
each. In many ways the neglected elements of his nature may be
brought into consciousness and emphasized. Everything that creates
conceptions of ideal conduct, all concrete illustrations in the social
life of the school, all conscious exercise of power in right ways,
contribute toward his self-realization. The high-school pupil has not
had a large personal experience; hence the need, in the ways
proposed, of teaching virtue. In the first place, the situation is
advantageous. It is conceded by every school of ethical thinkers that
one finds his moral awakening in contact with society. Society is the
mirror in which one sees a reflection of himself, and comes to realize
himself and his character. The school of the people, which is in an
important sense an epitome of that larger world which he is to enter,
furnishes an admirable field for development. Moreover, it is a
community where the restraint, the guidance, the ideals come of
right from properly constituted authority. The whole problem of
objective relations and corresponding subjective values may find
illustration and experiment in the daily life of the school. The
constructive imagination may be employed to infer from experiences
in school to larger experiences of kindred quality in the field of life.
By judging real or supposed cases of conduct the pupil makes at
least a theoretical choice. By learning and interpreting characters
and events in history his view is broadened.
The whole school curriculum should contribute to moral
development. Whatever of intellect, emotion, and will is exercised in
a rational field expands the soul normally. The pursuit of studies with
the right spirit, and with regard for the activities and relations
incidental thereto, is moral growth. Studies awaken rational interest,
cultivate habits of industry, are devoted to the discovery of truth,
reveal important relations of the individual to society, and present the
purest ideals of the race. There is hardly a more valuable moralizer
than healthy employment itself, employment that engages the whole
man—perception, imagination, thought, emotion, and will—
employment that looks toward ennobling and useful consequences,
employment that has the sanction of every consideration that
regards man’s full development. If the studies of the high-school
course do not make for good, it is because they fail to get hold of the
pupil, to awaken his interest and energies. If the subject matter and
the instruction are adapted to the pupil’s need, if conceptions are
clearly grasped, if healthy interest is aroused and the attention turns
spontaneously to the work, the pupil’s growth will be in every way
beneficent. One who regards the moral development of his pupils will
conscientiously study the method of his teaching, and learn whether
the source of neglect and rebellion lies there.
The personality of the teacher is one of the most important factors
in ethical training. It is ethics teaching by example; it is the living
embodiment of conduct. The ideas that find expression in the life of
the teacher are likely to be imitated. The sympathy of the teacher
with the endeavor of the pupil infuses life into his effort. We do not
refer to a certain kind of personal magnetism; this may be pernicious
in the extreme. It may exist to the extent of partially hypnotizing the
independent life of the pupil, robbing him for a time of part of his
individuality. The ideal instructor should be earnest and noble,
impressing one with the goodness, dignity, and meaning of life. An
easy-going regard for duties, a half-way attachment to labor are sure
to impress themselves on the minds of pupils; as readily will honor,
sincerity, and pure ideals be reflected in their endeavors. You will
ask: What are some of the specific ways in which a teacher may
direct his efforts? We often look far for the means of accomplishment
when they are already at hand. The means of moral influence are
not the exclusive possession of learning or genius; they may be used
by every teacher, and we should have faith in what the schools are
already doing to make good character. The successful use of
methods depends upon the teacher’s judgment and tact. One may
do harm by conscientious but ill-directed effort. With Solomon we
must remember that there is a time for everything. Amongst other
impulses, natural or acquired, the pupil has impulses to regard
honor, honesty, truthfulness, gentlemanliness, good thoughts,
respect, gratitude, sympathy, industry, usefulness. In a fit of rage,
with desire to harm the object of his vindictiveness, he may disregard
nearly every one of the above qualities. The impulse of anger acts
blindly, heedless of external consequences and of the subjective
values that attach to the execution of every desire. All cases of bad
conduct, varying in degree, show a similar disproportionate estimate
of the value of motives. Our problem is to plant in the consciousness
of the pupil an appreciation of neglected qualities. It may be noted in
passing that there are some cases of physical tendency, amounting
to monomania. Conscious wrong never is able fully to conceal itself,
and when the truth becomes evident to the teacher, as it may, he
should seek the confidence of the home, and through the home the
influence upon the pupil of a trusted physician who possesses both
medical skill and moral force.
In approaching the specific ways of moral education, we may first
make our obeisance to habit. The limitations as to time, place, and
activity, which are incidental to all school life, help to form habits
which turn the growing youth still more from the condition of
uncontrolled liberty into one of well-regulated conduct, civilize him,
and make him a fit member of society. Habits of regard for the rights
of others further lay the foundation of altruism. Habit has its value. It
establishes tendencies of conduct, although in a more or less
mechanical way, which make easier the adherence to virtue in the
advanced period of reflective insight. Too, these same duties
mechanically performed may later be known in their full significance,
and become moral acts.
The judicious use of maxims, also, has a value. Maxims are the
first formal expression of the experience of the race as to the things
to do or avoid. Since we act from ideas, maxims may serve
practically for many concrete cases. This is especially true if the full
meaning of a maxim has been presented. Next to maxims, and
greater in importance, are the events and characters of history and
biography. Embodied virtues and vices, real events that show the
movements and reveal the motives of a people, appeal strongly to
the interest. Yet, being remote in time and place, they allow the
freest discussion and may be made permanent types for the
instruction and improvement of mankind. The value lies in the fact
that qualities thus known hasten the self-realization of the same
qualities. The life of a Socrates, an Aristides, of a Cato, a
Savonarola, a Luther, a Cromwell, a Lincoln, a Whittier, of all men
and women who exemplify virtue, heroism, self-denial, all struggles
for the right, are the high-water mark for every aspiring nature. And
in the teaching of history and biography it is not necessary at every
turn to deliver a homily; rather lead the pupil into the spirit and
understanding of the subject—some things shine with their own light.
A yet more fertile source of ideal conceptions is the choice
literature of the world. From this rich treasury we draw the poetry
which we apply to life. In literature truth is given life and color,
idealized and made attractive. Qualities are abstracted, refined,
perfected, and glorified. They serve to show us the meaning of those
qualities in us. Literature presents emotions that in their purity and
refinement seem to transcend the material world; heroes and
martyrs idealized and embodying self-sacrifice and devotion;
sentiments that touch the whole range of chords in the heart and
awaken tenderness or heroism. The pupil reads Homer and gains
conceptions of heroic virtues; the “Lays of Ancient Rome,” and gains
ideas of perfect honor and devotion to country; Tennyson, and he
follows the pure conceptions and feels that life has taken on a nobler
coloring; Carlyle’s doctrine of work and duty, and feels his moral
sinews strengthened. Thoughts that aspire, emotions of
transcendent worth, courage, heroism, benevolence, devotion to
country or humanity—all these are at the command of the instructor,
if he has the skill to lead the pupil into the spirit and understanding of
literature. If he has not the skill, let him not touch it.
The study of science itself offers opportunities. Science searches
for truth, judges not hastily, removes all prejudice, employs the
judicial spirit. It should suggest lessons in fairness, justice, and truth
in the field of human conduct. Hasty inference, prejudiced judgment
are responsible for half the sins of this world, and the scientific spirit
should be made to pass from the abstract field over into practical life.
Something can be done by daily assembly of pupils. While men
have various occupations, there are certain interests that belong to
men as men, as human beings. As there are hymns set to noble
music which are sung for centuries without diminution of interest,
because they are adapted to the want of man’s essential nature, so
there are gems of æsthetic and ethical literature which have stood
the test of time and are approved by common consent. The reading
of vigorous, healthful selections can but have an influence sooner or
later upon the listener. The teacher, in a brief address, may express
some thought or experience or ideal or sentiment, that will reach the
inner life. In no way, however, will the good sense and skill of the
teacher be put to severer test than in the selection of these
teachings. They easily become monotonous instead of giving vital
interest.
Professor John Dewey, in an admirable article on the subject of
interest, defines it thus: “Interest is impulse functioning with
reference to an idea of self-expression.” He further says: “The real
object of desire is not pleasure, but self-expression.... The pleasure
felt is simply the reflex of the satisfaction which the self is
anticipating in its own expression.... Pleasure arrives, not as the goal
of an impulse, but as an accompaniment of the putting forth of
activity.” These expressions mean simply that the human being has
native impulses to activity; that these impulses, under rational
control, aim at proper ends; that pleasure is not the end of action but
merely accompanies the putting forth of activity; that interest is the
mental excitement that arises when the self-active mind has an end
in view and the means of its attainment—a feeling that binds the
attention to the end and the means. His doctrine denies hedonism.
We are not to aim at a good, but to act the good. We are not to work
for the pleasure, but to find pleasure in working. This is a doctrine of
vast importance to the educator. External and unworthy rewards for
effort are false motives. The work itself must furnish interest,
because suited to the activities of the pupil. The great problem of the
teacher is to invite a self-activity that finds its reward in the activity.
False motives should not be held before pupils. There is a view of
life called romanticism, the condemnation of which gives Nordau his
one virtue. The adherents claim for themselves the fill of a constantly
varying round of completely satisfying emotional life. The history of
prominent adherents of this view is a warning to this generation. The
devotees either become rational and satirize their own folly, or
become pessimists, railing at the whole that life has to offer, or
commit suicide, and thus well rid the world of their useless presence.
Carlyle points out that not all the powers of christendom combined
could suffice to make even one shoeblack happy. If he had one half
the universe he would set about the conquest of the other half. And
then follows the grand exhortation to useful labor, the performance of
duty, as the lasting source of satisfaction. If we do not find happiness
therein, we may get along without happiness and, instead thereof,
find blessedness. This is the doctrine of Goethe’s Faust. Faust at
first wishes to enjoy everything and do nothing. He runs the whole
round of pleasure, of experience, and emotional life, and finds
satisfaction in nothing. Finally, in the second book, he finds the
supreme moment in the joy of useful labor for his fellow men. It is to
be noted, however, that as soon as he is fully satisfied he dies, as,
metaphorically, people in that state always do. Pleasure does not
make life worth living, but living the fulness of our nature is living a
life of worth.
 Laying aside all theories, even the theoretical correctness of what
follows, it is necessary to hold practically to the transcendental will.
This is a large word, but it means simply going over beyond the mere
solicitation of present pleasure, and holding with wisdom and
courage to the claims of all the impulses of our being—in a word,
living a life of integrity. The transcendental will can suffer and
persevere and refuse pleasure, and endure and work out good and
useful results. It is important to give pupils a little touch of the heroic,
else they will be the sport of every wind that blows and least of all be
able to withstand the tempest or the wintry blast.
There is a well-worn figure of speech, essentially Platonic in its
character, which, once well in the mind of a young man or woman,
will surely influence the life for good. As the healthy tree grows and
expands in symmetry, beauty, and strength, and blossoms and yields
useful fruit, instead of being dwarfed or growing in distorted and ugly
forms, so the normal soul should expand and develop in vigor and
beauty of character, and blossom and yield a life of usefulness. A
stunted soul, one that has gone all awry, is a spectacle over which
men and gods may weep. In some way the nobility of life, the
grandeur of upright character must be impressed upon the mind of
youth.
And moral growth must be growth in freedom. Rules and maxims,
petty prohibitions, and restraints alone will not make morality, but
rather bare mechanism and habit. Moral freedom means that, by an
insight that comes of right development, one views the full bearing of
any problem of conduct, and chooses with a wisdom that is his own.
Morality is not mechanism, but insight. Doctrine does not constitute
morality. Pharisaism is immorality and will drive any one to rebellion
and sin. Mechanical rule has no vitalizing power. A moral life should
be self-active, vigorous, joyous, and free. So far as spontaneous
conduct can be made to take the place of rule and restraint will you
secure a growth that will expand, when, well-rooted by your fostering
care, you finally leave it to struggle with the elements.
Following in substance the thought of a prominent educator,—not
so much pedagogical preaching as skilful stimulating, not so much
perfect ideals as present activities, not so much compulsion as
inviting self-activity are to-day the needs of the schools. Through
guidance of present interest the child may later attain to the greater
interests of life in their full comprehension.