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HANDBOOK OF
DISCRETE AND
COMBINATORIAL
MATHEMATICS
SECOND EDITION
DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
AND
ITS APPLICATIONS
Series Editors
Miklos Bona
Patrice Ossona de Mendez
Douglas West
R. B. J. T. Allenby and Alan Slomson, How to Count: An Introduction to Combinatorics,
Third Edition
Craig P. Bauer, Secret History: The Story of Cryptology
Jürgen Bierbrauer, Introduction to Coding Theory, Second Edition
Katalin Bimbó, Combinatory Logic: Pure, Applied and Typed
Katalin Bimbó, Proof Theory: Sequent Calculi and Related Formalisms
Donald Bindner and Martin Erickson, A Student’s Guide to the Study, Practice, and Tools of
Modern Mathematics
Francine Blanchet-Sadri, Algorithmic Combinatorics on Partial Words
Miklós Bóna, Combinatorics of Permutations, Second Edition
Miklós Bóna, Handbook of Enumerative Combinatorics
Miklós Bóna, Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics, Second Edition
Jason I. Brown, Discrete Structures and Their Interactions
Richard A. Brualdi and Dragos̆ Cvetković, A Combinatorial Approach to Matrix Theory and Its
Applications
Kun-Mao Chao and Bang Ye Wu, Spanning Trees and Optimization Problems
Charalambos A. Charalambides, Enumerative Combinatorics
Gary Chartrand and Ping Zhang, Chromatic Graph Theory
Henri Cohen, Gerhard Frey, et al., Handbook of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography
Charles J. Colbourn and Jeffrey H. Dinitz, Handbook of Combinatorial Designs, Second Edition
Titles (continued)
Abhijit Das, Computational Number Theory
Matthias Dehmer and Frank Emmert-Streib, Quantitative Graph Theory:
Mathematical Foundations and Applications
Martin Erickson, Pearls of Discrete Mathematics
Martin Erickson and Anthony Vazzana, Introduction to Number Theory
Steven Furino, Ying Miao, and Jianxing Yin, Frames and Resolvable Designs: Uses,
Constructions, and Existence
Mark S. Gockenbach, Finite-Dimensional Linear Algebra
Randy Goldberg and Lance Riek, A Practical Handbook of Speech Coders
Jacob E. Goodman and Joseph O’Rourke, Handbook of Discrete and Computational Geometry,
Third Edition
Jonathan L. Gross, Combinatorial Methods with Computer Applications
Jonathan L. Gross and Jay Yellen, Graph Theory and Its Applications, Second Edition
Jonathan L. Gross, Jay Yellen, and Ping Zhang Handbook of Graph Theory, Second Edition
David S. Gunderson, Handbook of Mathematical Induction: Theory and Applications
Richard Hammack, Wilfried Imrich, and Sandi Klavžar, Handbook of Product Graphs,
Second Edition
Darrel R. Hankerson, Greg A. Harris, and Peter D. Johnson, Introduction to Information Theory
and Data Compression, Second Edition
Darel W. Hardy, Fred Richman, and Carol L. Walker, Applied Algebra: Codes, Ciphers, and
Discrete Algorithms, Second Edition
Daryl D. Harms, Miroslav Kraetzl, Charles J. Colbourn, and John S. Devitt, Network Reliability:
Experiments with a Symbolic Algebra Environment
Silvia Heubach and Toufik Mansour, Combinatorics of Compositions and Words
Leslie Hogben, Handbook of Linear Algebra, Second Edition
Derek F. Holt with Bettina Eick and Eamonn A. O’Brien, Handbook of Computational Group Theory
David M. Jackson and Terry I. Visentin, An Atlas of Smaller Maps in Orientable and
Nonorientable Surfaces
Richard E. Klima, Neil P. Sigmon, and Ernest L. Stitzinger, Applications of Abstract Algebra
with Maple™ and MATLAB®, Second Edition
Richard E. Klima and Neil P. Sigmon, Cryptology: Classical and Modern with Maplets
Patrick Knupp and Kambiz Salari, Verification of Computer Codes in Computational Science
and Engineering
William L. Kocay and Donald L. Kreher, Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization, Second Edition
Donald L. Kreher and Douglas R. Stinson, Combinatorial Algorithms: Generation Enumeration
and Search
Titles (continued)
HANDBOOK OF
DISCRETE AND
COMBINATORIAL
MATHEMATICS
SECOND EDITION
Editor-in-Chief
Kenneth H. Rosen
Associate Editors
Douglas R. Shier
Wayne Goddard
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accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB• software or related products
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use of the MATLAB• software.
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CONTENTS ix
CONTENTS
1. FOUNDATIONS ............................................................ 1
1.1 Propositional and Predicate Logic — Jerrold W. Grossman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2 Set Theory — Jerrold W. Grossman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3 Functions — Jerrold W. Grossman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.4 Relations — John G. Michaels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.5 Proof Techniques — Susanna S. Epp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.6 Axiomatic Program Verification — David Riley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.7 Logic-Based Computer Programming Paradigms — Mukesh Dalal . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3. SEQUENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.1 Special Sequences — Thomas A. Dowling and Douglas R. Shier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.2 Generating Functions — Ralph P. Grimaldi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.3 Recurrence Relations — Ralph P. Grimaldi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
3.4 Finite Differences — Jay Yellen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.5 Finite Sums and Summation — Victor S. Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.6 Asymptotics of Sequences — Edward A. Bender and Juanjo Rué . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.7 Mechanical Summation Procedures — Kenneth H. Rosen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9. TREES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
9.1 Characterizations and Types of Trees — Lisa Carbone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .696
9.2 Spanning Trees — Uri Peled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
9.3 Enumerating Trees — Paul K. Stockmeyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1541
PREFACE xv
PREFACE
The importance of discrete and combinatorial mathematics has increased dramatically
within the last few decades. This second edition has been written to update all content
and to broaden the coverage. We have been gratified by the success of the first edition
of the Handbook. We hope that the many readers who have asked for a second edition
will find it worth the wait.
The purpose of the Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics is to provide
a comprehensive reference volume for computer scientists, engineers, mathematicians,
as well as students, physical and social scientists, and reference librarians, who need
information about discrete and combinatorial mathematics.
This first edition of this book was the first resource that presented such information in
a ready-reference form designed for all those who use aspects of this subject in their
work or studies. This second edition is a major revision of the first edition. It includes
extensive additions and updates, summarized later in this preface. The scope of this
handbook includes the many areas generally considered to be parts of discrete mathe-
matics, focusing on the information considered essential to its application in computer
science, engineering, and other disciplines. Some of the fundamental topic areas covered
in this edition include:
logic and set theory graph theory
enumeration trees
integer sequences network flows
recurrence relations combinatorial designs
generating functions computational geometry
number theory coding theory
abstract algebra cryptography
linear algebra discrete optimization
discrete probability theory automata theory
data mining data structures and algorithms
discrete bioinformatics
Format
The material in the Handbook is presented so that key information can be located and
used quickly and easily. Each chapter includes a glossary that provides succinct defini-
tions of the most important terms from that chapter. Individual topics are covered in
sections and subsections within chapters, each of which is organized into clearly identi-
fiable parts: definitions, facts, and examples. Lists of facts include:
Facts are presented concisely and are listed so that they can be easily found and un-
derstood. Cross-references linking portions of the Handbook are also provided. Readers
who wish to study a topic further can consult the resources listed.
The material in the Handbook has been chosen for inclusion primarily because it is
important and useful. Additional material has been added to ensure comprehensiveness
so that readers encountering new terminology and concepts from discrete mathematics
in their explorations will be able to get help from this book.
Examples are provided to illustrate some of the key definitions, facts, and algorithms.
Some curious and entertaining facts and puzzles that some readers may find intriguing are
also included. Readers will also find an extensive collection of biographies after the main
chapters, highlighting the lives of many important contributors to discrete mathematics.
Each chapter of the book includes a list of references divided into a list of printed resources
and a list of relevant websites.
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, we thank Bob Ross, the CRC editor for this book, for his support
and his encouragement in completing this Handbook. We would also like to thank Bob
Stern, our previous editor, for initiating the project of updating the Handbook and for
supporting us patiently over many years. We would also like to thank Wayne Yuhasz,
our original CRC editor, who commissioned the first edition. Thanks also go to the staff
at CRC who helped with the production.
We would also like to thank the many people who were involved with this project. First,
we would like to thank the team of advisory editors who helped make this reference
xviii PREFACE
relevant, useful, unique, and up-to-date. We want to thank our many contributors for
their wonderful contributions and to several who helped edit individual chapters. With
the passing of time, some of our advisory editors and contributors are no longer with
us. We fondly remember and appreciate these colleagues and friends. (We have used the
symbol ⊛ to designate these individuals.)
Finally, as Chief Editor, I would like to express my gratitude to my two associate editors
for this edition. Without either of them this new edition would not have been possible.
Both were essential in our quest to bring this Handbook up to date and to extend its
scope. Douglas Shier confronted every problem that got in our way and found a workable
solution. He kept the progress on this project going with his commitment and his abilities.
Wayne Goddard used his masterful LATEX skills to overcome all the typesetting challenges
that confronted us as we migrated to a new typesetting environment.
MATLAB R is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information please
contact: The MathWorks, Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA, 01760-2098 USA. Tel: 508-647-
7000, Fax: 508-647-7001, E-mail: info@mathworks.com, Web: www.mathworks.com
ADVISORY EDITORIAL BOARD xix
⊛
Stephen F. Altschul Frank Harary
National Institutes of Health New Mexico State University
CONTRIBUTORS
Ravindra K. Ahuja Joel V. Brawley
University of Florida Clemson University
⊛
Jeffrey H. Dinitz S. Louis Hakimi
University of Vermont University of California at Davis
INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers material usually referred to as the foundations of mathematics, in-
cluding logic, sets, and functions. In addition to covering these foundational areas, this
chapter includes material that shows how these topics are applied to discrete mathe-
matics, computer science, and electrical engineering. For example, this chapter covers
methods of proof, program verification, and fuzzy reasoning.
GLOSSARY
action: a literal or a print command in a production system.
aleph-null: the cardinality ℵ0 of the set N of natural numbers.
AND: the logical operator for conjunction, also written ∧.
antecedent: in a conditional proposition p → q (“if p then q”), the proposition p (“if-
clause”) that precedes the arrow.
antichain: a subset of a poset in which no two elements are comparable.
antisymmetric: the property of a binary relation R that if aRb and bRa, then a = b.
argument form: a sequence of statement forms, each called a premise of the argument,
followed by a statement form called a conclusion of the argument.
assertion (or program assertion): a program comment specifying some conditions
on the values of the computational variables; these conditions are supposed to hold
whenever program flow reaches the location of the assertion.
/ a.
asymmetric: the property of a binary relation R that if aRb, then bR
asymptotic: A function f is asymptotic to a function g, written f (x) ∼ g(x), if f (x) 6=
0 for sufficiently large x and limx→∞ fg(x)
(x) = 1.
Language: German
Mitteilungen
Heft
5 bis 6
Monatsschrift für Heimatschutz, Volkskunde und Denkmalpflege
Band XIII
Inhalt: Weinberghäuser in der Lößnitz und den Meißner
Bergen – Herrensitze der Lößnitz – Die Lößnitz und die
Dresdner Heide – Der Untergang des Weinbaus – Die
Rotalge Hildenbrandia rivularis (Liebm.) Bréb., ein
ausgestorbenes (?) Naturdenkmal Sachsens – Vom
neuen Weinbau
An der Ecke der Nizza- und Sophienstraße treffen wir auf einen
besonders rassigen Bau, (Abb. 5), ohne jede schmückende Zierat ist
er in strenger Gesetzmäßigkeit aufgebaut, das obere Geschoß ist
kräftig zurückgesetzt und mittels breiter Dachschräge mit dem
Unterbau verbunden.
Abb. 5 Haus Ecke Nizza- und Sophienstraße, Oberlößnitz
Wem daran gelegen ist, zunächst die architektonisch reicher
behandelten Bauten aufzusuchen, dem wird man empfehlen, in
allererster Linie das reizende kleine Bennoschlößchen zu
besichtigen (Abb. 6). Es liegt noch weiter ab vom Bergfuß an der
mittleren Bergstraße und ist einer der ältesten Zeugen der hier
behandelten Hausgattung. Da die Weinpresse später angebaut
wurde, ist es nicht ganz sicher, ob das aus der Zeit um 1600
stammende Häuschen schon von seiner Errichtung an als
Weinbergshaus gedient hat, es ist dies aber anzunehmen.
Bewundernswert ist der trotz bescheidener Größe mit
Renaissanceformen ausdrucksvoll gegliederte Gesamtumriß,
nebenbei erwähnt ein Beweis dafür, daß Bauwerke kleineren
Umfangs nicht immer auf reichere Formen verzichten müssen. Im
Innern freilich erinnert wenig mehr an alte Lebensfreude und
Weinlaunigkeit.
Aufnahme von J. Pfeiffer, Oberlößnitz
Abb. 6 Bennoschlößchen, Oberlößnitz
Abb. 7 Haus in der Bennostraße, Oberlößnitz