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 Functional and Impulsive
Differential Equations of Fractional Order
Qualitative Analysis and Applications
Functional and Impulsive
Fermented Meat Products
Differential
HealthEquations
Aspects of
Fractional Order
Qualitative Analysis and Applications

Edited by
Nevijo Zdolec
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Hygiene
Technology and Food Safety Heinzelova 55
10000 Zagreb, Croatia

Ivanka M. Stamova and Gani Tr. Stamov

The University of Texas at San Antonio
Texas, USA
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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This book is dedicated
to Trayan and Alex
Preface

This book is an exposition of the most recent results related to the qualitative
analysis of a variety of fractional-order equations.
The mathematical investigations of derivatives of non-integer order mark
their beginning with the correspondence between Leibniz and L’Hospital in
1695 (see [Leibniz 1695], [Podlubny 1999]). Although fractional calculus has a
more than three centuries long history, the subject of fractional differential
equations has gained considerable popularity and importance during the past
few decades, due mainly to its demonstrated applications to many real-world
phenomena studies in physics, mechanics, chemistry, engineering, finance, etc.
There are several excellent books devoted to equations of fractional order.
The book written by I. Podlubny (see [Podlubny 1999]) played an outstanding
role in the development of the theory of fractional ordinary differential
equations. It is the most cited and used book which is entirely devoted to a
systematic presentation of the basic ideas and methods of fractional calculus in
the theory and applications of such equations. The monograph of Kilbas,
Srivastava and Trujillo (2006) provides uptodate developments on fractional
differential and fractional integro-differential equations involving many
different potentially useful operators of fractional calculus. In addition to these,
the books of Abbas, Benchohra and N’Guérékata (2012), Baleanu, Diethelm,
Scalas and Trujillo (2012), Caponetto, Dongola, Fortuna and Petrás̆ (2010), Das
(2011), Diethelm (2010), Hilfer (2000), Kiryakova (1994), Lakshmikantham,
Leela and Vasundhara Devi (2009), Magin (2006), Miller and Ross (1993) are
good sources for the theory of fractional operators and equations, as well as
their numerous applications.
On the other hand, relatively recently functional differential equations of
fractional order have started to receive an increasing interest [Baleanu, Sadati,
Ghaderi, Ranjbar, Abdeljawad and Jarad 2010], [Banaś and 2011],
[Benchohra, Henderson, Ntouyas and Ouahab 2008], [El-Sayed, Gaaraf and

vii
viii  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

Hamadalla 2010], [Henderson and Ouahab 2009], [Lakshmikantham 2008].

Indeed, fractional operators are a very natural tool to model memory-dependent
phenomena. Also, fractional calculus has been incorporated into impulsive
differential equations [Ahmad and Nieto 2011], [Ahmad and Sivasundaram
2010], [Anguraj and Maheswari 2012], [Cao and Chen 2012], [Chauhan and
Dabas 2011], [Fečkan, Zhou and Wang 2012]. Many interesting results on the
fundamental theory of such equations have been reported. However, due to the
lack of a book on these topics, many researchers remain unaware of this field.
The questions related to the qualitative theory of different classes of
differential equations are the age-old problems of a great importance. The
methods used in the qualitative investigation of their solutions, and their wide
applications have all advanced to the extent that aspects in each of these areas
have demanded individual attention.
The survey published in 2011 by Li and Zhang (see [Li and Zhang 2011]), is
a very good overview on the recent stability results of fractional differential
equations without impulses and delays, and the analytical methods used. It is
seen that, at the time, a few stability results rely on a restrictive modeling of
fractional differential systems: the basic hypothesis deals with
commensurability, i.e. the fractional derivative orders have to be an integer
multiple of minimal fractional order. In the last decades, many researchers have
more interests in the stability of linear systems and some methods have emerged
in succession. For example, there are the frequency domain methods, Linear
Matrix Inequalities methods, and conversion methods [Li and Zhang 2011]. By
contrast, the development of stability of nonlinear fractional differential systems
even without impulsive perturbations was a bit slow.
During the last few years the authors’ research in the area of the qualitative
theory of different classes of functional and impulsive fractional-order
equations have undergone rapid development. A string of extensive results on
the stability, boundedness, asymptotic behavior and almost periodicity for these
classes of equations have been obtained. The primary aim of this book is to
gather under one cover many of these results which will be of prime importance
for researchers on the topic. It fills a void by making available a source book
which describes existing literature on the topic, methods and their development.
The second motivation comes from the applicable point of view, since the
qualitative properties have significant practical applications in the emerging
areas such as optimal control, biology, mechanics, medicine, bio-technologies,
electronics, economics, etc. For the applied scientists it is important to have an
introduction to the qualitative theory of fractional equations, which could help
in their initial steps to adopt the results and methods in their research.
The book consists of four chapters. It presents results for different classes of
fractional equations, including fractional functional differential equations,
fractional impulsive differential equations, fractional impulsive functional
differential equations, which have not been covered by other books. It shows the
 Preface  ix

manifestations of different constructive methods by demonstrating how these

effective techniques can be applied to investigate qualitative properties of the
solutions of fractional systems. Since many applications are also included, the
demonstrated techniques and models can be used in training of students in
mathematical modeling and as an instigation in the study and development of
fractional-order models.
The book is addressed to a wide audience of professionals such as
mathematicians, applied researchers and practitioners.
The authors are extremely grateful and very much indebted to Dr. Sandy
Norman, Chair of the Department of Mathematics at the University of Texas at
San Antonio for ensuring the opportunity for successful work on this book. In
addition, the authors have the pleasure to express their sincere gratitude to all
their co-authors, the work with whom expanded their experience. They are also
thankful to all friends, colleagues and reviewers for their valuable comments
and suggestions during the preparation of the manuscript.

I. M. Stamova and G. Tr. Stamov

Corresponding author: ivanka.stamova@utsa.edu
Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Preliminary Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.1 Fractional Functional Differential Equations . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Fractional Impulsive Differential Equations . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Definitions of Qualitative Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Lyapunov Functions and their Fractional Derivatives . . . . . . 16
1.4 Fractional Comparison Lemmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5 Notes and Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2 Stability and Boundedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.1 Lyapunov Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.2 Theorems on Boundedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 Global Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4 Mittag–Leffler Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5 Practical Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.6 Lipschitz Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.7 Stability of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.8 Stability of Integral Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.9 Notes and Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3 Almost Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

3.1 Almost Periodic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

3.2 Lyapunov Method for Almost Periodic Solutions . . . . . . . . 130

xi
xii  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

3.2.1 Impulsive Fractional Differential Systems . . . . . . . 130

3.2.2 Impulsive Fractional Integro-Differential Systems . . . 137
3.2.3 Impulsive Fractional Functional Differential Systems . 144
3.3 Uncertain Fractional Differential Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.4 Notes and Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

4.1 Fractional Impulsive Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

4.1.1 Stability and Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.1.2 Almost Periodic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.1.3 The Uncertain Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.2 Fractional Impulsive Biological Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.2.1 Hutchinson’s Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.2.2 Lasota–Wazewska Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.2.3 Lotka–Volterra Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.2.4 Kolmogorov-type Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.3 Fractional Impulsive Models in Economics . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.3.1 Price Fluctuations Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.3.2 Solow-type Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.4 Notes and Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Chapter 1

Introduction

The present chapter will deal with an introduction of functional and impulsive
equations of fractional order and the basic theory necessary for their qualitative
investigations.
Section 1.1 will offer the main classes of fractional equations, investigated in
the book. Some results from fractional calculus will be also discussed.
Section 1.2 is devoted to definitions of qualitative properties of fractional
equations that are used throughout the book.
Section 1.3 will deal with different classes of Lyapunov functions. The
definitions of their Caputo and Riemann–Liouville fractional derivatives will be
also given.
Finally, in Section 1.4, fractional scalar and vector comparison results will
be considered in terms of Lyapunov-like functions. Some auxiliary lemmas for
Caputo and Riemann–Liouville fractional derivatives are also presented.

1.1 Preliminary Notes

In this section we shall make a brief description of the main classes of fractional
equations that will be used in the book.
Let ∫ ∞
Γ (z) = e−t t z−1 dt
0
be the Gamma function which converges in the right-half of the complex plane
Re(z) > 0. There are many excellent books (see, for example [Diethelm 2010]
and [Podlubny 1999]) in which the definition and main properties of the Gamma
function are given, and here we will avoid a repetition.
1
2  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

We define the fractional integral of order α on the interval [a,t] by

∫ t
−α 1
a Dt l(t) = (t − s)α −1 l(s)ds,
Γ (α ) a

where 0 < α < 1 and l is an arbitrary integrable function (see [Gelfand and Shilov
1959], [Podlubny 1999]).
For an arbitrary real number p we denote the Riemann–Liouville and Caputo
fractional derivatives of order p, respectively, as

p d ⌈p⌉ [ −(⌈p⌉−p) ]
a Dt l(t) = aD t l(t)
dt ⌈p⌉
and
[ d ⌈p⌉ ]
c p −(⌈p⌉−p)
a Dt l(t) = a D t ⌈p⌉
l(t) ,
dt
where ⌈p⌉ stands for the smallest integer not less than p; and D and c D denote
the Riemann–Liouville and Caputo fractional operators, respectively.
For the case 0 < p < 1, which is investigated in our book, the relation between
the two fractional derivatives is given by
c p p[ ]
a Dt l(t) =a Dt l(t) − l(a) .

A main difference between both fractional derivatives is that the Caputo

derivative of a constant C is zero, i.e.
c p
a Dt C = 0,

while the Riemann–Liouville fractional derivative of a constant C is given by

C
p
a Dt C = (t − a)−p .
Γ (1 − p)
Therefore,
l(a)
c p
a Dt l(t) =a Dtp l(t) − (t − a)−p .
Γ (1 − p)
In particular, if l(a) = 0, then
c p
a Dt l(t) =a Dtp l(t).

1.1.1 Fractional Functional Differential Equations

It is well-known that the delay differential equations of integer order are of great
theoretical interest and form an important class as regards to their applications
(see [Burton 1985], [Hale 1977], [Kolmanovskii and Myshkis 1999],
 Introduction  3

[Kolmanovskii and Nosov 1986] and the references therein). The centrality of
functional differential equations for theory and applications is witnessed by the
current persistency of new contributions in this topic of interest [Bernfeld,
Corduneanu and Ignatyev 2003], [Corduneanu and Ignatyev 2005], [Stamova
and Stamov G 2014a]. Since 1960 many generalizations and extensions of such
equations became a part of the literature ([Stamov 2012], [Stamova 2009]).
It is also known that the functional differential equations of fractional order
have several applications. It has been proved that such type of equations are
valuable tools in the modeling of many phenomena in various fields of
engineering, physics and economics (see [Babakhani, Baleanu and Khanbabaie
2012], [Bhalekar, Daftardar-Gejji, Baleanu and Magin 2011], [El-Sayed, Gaaraf
and Hamadalla 2010], [Henderson and Ouahab 2009], [Stamova 2016],
[Stamova and Stamov G 2013], [Wang, Huang and Shi 2011], [Wang, Yu and
Wen 2014], [Wu, Hei and Chen 2013]). The efficient applications of fractional
functional differential equations requires the finding of criteria for qualitative
properties of their solutions.
Let Rn be the n-dimensional Euclidean space with norm ||.|| and Ω be an
open set in Rn containing the origin, R+ = [0, ∞).
For a given r > 0 we suppose that x ∈ C([t0 − r,t0 + A], Rn ), t0 ∈ R, A > 0.
For any t ∈ [t0 ,t0 + A), we denote by xt an element of C[[−r, 0], Ω ] defined by
xt (θ ) = x(t + θ ), −r ≤ θ ≤ 0.
Consider the system of fractional functional differential equations
α
t0 Dt x(t) = f (t, xt ), (1.1)

where f : R ×C[[−r, 0], Ω ] → Rn and t0 Dtα denotes either Caputo or Riemann–

Liouville fractional derivative of order α , 0 < α < 1. The class of equations (1.1)
provides mathematical models for real-world problems in which the fractional
rate of change depends on the influence of their hereditary effects.
Instead of an initial point value for an ordinary differential equation, for an
initial condition related to (1.1) an initial function is required which is defined
over the range of time delimited by the delay.
Let φ0 ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ]. We shall denote by x(t) = x(t;t0 , φ0 ) the solution of
(1.1) with initial data (t0 , φ0 ) ∈ R ×C[[−r, 0], Ω ].
If the fractional derivative t0 Dtα = tc0 Dtα , then the initial condition is of the
same type as for an integer-order equation:

xt0 = φ0 . (1.2)

We shall assume that f (t, φ ) is smooth enough on R × C[[−r, 0], Ω ] to

guarantee the existence and uniqueness of a solution x(t;t0 , φ0 ) of the initial
value problem (IVP) (1.1), (1.2) on [t0 − r, ∞) for each initial function
φ0 ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ].
4  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

Then, the IVP (1.1), (1.2) is equivalent to the following Volterra fractional
integral with memory (see [Lakshmikantham 2008]):

xt0 = φ0 ,
∫ t
1
x(t) = φ0 (0) + (t − s)α −1 f (s, xs )ds, t0 ≤ t < ∞.
Γ (α ) t0

For some basic concept and theorems on the fundamental theory of such
equations, we refer readers to [Benchohra, Henderson, Ntouyas and Ouahab
2008], [Henderson and Ouahab 2009], [Lakshmikantham 2008], and [Su and
Feng 2012].
It was believed that the case t0 Dtα = t0 Dtα leads to initial conditions without
physical meaning. This was contradicted by Heymans and Podlubny (2005)
who studied several cases and gave physical meaning to the initial conditions of
fractional differential equations with Riemann–Liouville derivatives. See also
[Lazarević and Spasić 2009], [Li and Zhang 2011] and [Ortigueira and Coito
2010]. It is known that for a zero initial function the Riemann–Liouville and
Caputo fractional derivatives coincide.
The system (1.1) is an universal type of fractional functional differential
system. In the particular case, it contains a system of fractional differential
equations when r = 0. Systems of the type (1.1) also include the following
systems of fractional functional differential equations:

 systems of fractional differential-difference equations of the type

α
t0 Dt x(t) = F(t, x(t), x(t − r1 (t)), x(t − r2 (t)), ..., x(t − r p (t))),

where 0 ≤ r j (t) ≤ r, j = 1, 2, ..., p;

 systems of fractional integro-differential equations of the type
∫ 0
α
t0 Dt x(t) = g(t, s, x(t + θ ))d θ ;
−r

 systems of fractional integro-differential equations with infinite delays

∫ t
α
t0 Dt x(t) = k(t, θ ) f (t, x(θ )) d θ ,
−∞

where k : R2 → R+ is continuous.

The system (1.1) is linear, when f (t, xt ) = L(t, xt ) + h(t), where L(t, xt ) is linear
with respect to xt .
Some systems of more general types are also included in the type (1.1)
system.
 Introduction  5

1.1.2 Fractional Impulsive Differential Equations

The states of many evolutionary processes are often subjects to instantaneous
perturbations and experience abrupt changes at certain moments of time. The
duration of the changes is very short and negligible in comparison with the
duration of the process considered, and can be thought of as ”momentarily”
changes or as impulses. Systems with short-term perturbations are often
naturally described by impulsive differential equations (see for example
[Bainov and Simeonov 1989], [Benchohra, Henderson and Ntouyas 2006],
[Lakshmikantham, Bainov and Simeonov 1989], [Mil’man and Myshkis 1960],
[Pandit and Deo 1982], [Samoilenko and Perestyuk 1995]). Such differential
equations have became an active research subject in nonlinear science and have
attracted more attention in many fields. For example, important impulsive
differential equations have been introduced as mathematical models in
population ecology (see [Ahmad and Stamov 2009a], [Ahmad and Stamova
2007a], [Ahmad and Stamova 2012], [Ahmad and Stamova 2013], [Ballinger
and Liu 1997], [Dong, Chen and Sun 2006], [Georgescu and Zhang 2010], [Hu
2013], [Jiang and Lu 2007], [Liu and Rohlf 1998], [Stamov 2008], [Stamov
2009a], [Stamov 2012], [Xue, Wang and Jin 2007], [Yan 2003], [Yan 2010]),
hematopoiesis (see [Kou, Adimy and Ducrot 2009]), pest control (see [Wang,
Chen and Nieto 2010]), drug treatment (see [Liu, Yu and Zhu 2008], [Smith and
Wahl 2004]), the chemostat (see [Sun and Chen 2007]) tumor-normal cell
interaction (see [Dou, Chen and Li 2004]), plankton allelopathy (see [He, Chen
and Li 2010]), vaccination (see [D’Onofrio 2002], [Qiao, Liu and Forys 2013]),
radio engineering (see [Joelianto and Sutarto 2009]), communication security
(see [Khadra, Liu and Shen 2003]), neural networks (see [Arbib 1987], [Stamov
2004], [Stamov 2009d], [Stamov 2012], [Zhao, Xia and Ding 2008]), etc. Also,
in optimal control of economic systems, frequency-modulated signal processing
systems, and some flying object motions, many systems are characterized by
abrupt changes in their states at certain instants (see [Korn 1999], [Stamova and
Stamov 2011], [Stamova and Stamov 2012], [Stamova and Stamov A 2013],
[Stamova, Stamov and Simeonova 2013], [Yang 2001]). This type of impulsive
phenomenon can also be found in the fields of information science, electronics,
automatic control systems, computer networks, artificial intelligence, robotics
and telecommunications. Many sudden and sharp changes occur
instantaneously in these systems, in the form of impulses which cannot be well
described by a pure continuous–time or discrete–time model [Li, Liao, Yang
and Huang 2005].
A great progress in studying impulsive functional differential equations and
their applications has also been made (see [Ahmad and Stamov 2009b], [Ahmad
and Stamova 2007b], [Ahmad and Stamova 2008], [Hui and Chen 2005],
[Li and Fan 2007], [Liu and Ballinger 2002], [Liu, Huang and Chen 2012], [Liu
and Takeuchi 2007], [Liu, Teo and Hu 2005], [Liu and Wang 2007], [Liu and
6  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

Zhao 2012], [Long and Xu 2008], [Luo and Shen 2001], [Stamov 2009b],
[Stamov 2009c], [Stamov 2010a], [Stamov 2010b], [Stamov 2012], [Stamov,
Alzabut, Atanasov and Stamov 2011], [Stamov and Stamov 2013], [Stamov and
Stamova 2001], [Stamov and Stamova 2007], [Stamova 2007], [Stamova 2008],
[Stamova 2009], [Stamova 2010], [Stamova 2011a], [Stamova 2011b],
[Stamova, Emmenegger and Stamov 2010], [Stamova, Ilarionov and Vaneva
2010], [Stamova and Stamov 2011], [Stamova and Stamov 2012], [Stamova and
Stamov A 2013], [Stamova and Stamov T 2014a], [Stamova and Stamov T
2014b], [Stamova, Stamov and Li 2014], [Stamova, Stamov and Simeonova
2013], [Stamova, Stamov and Simeonova 2014], [Teng, Nie and Fang 2011],
[Wang, Yu and Niu 2012], [Widjaja and Bottema 2005], [Xia 2007], [Zhou and
Wan 2009]). Indeed, impulsive mathematical models with delays are found in
almost every domain of applied sciences and they played a very important role
in modern mathematical modelling of processes and phenomena studied in
physics, population dynamics, chemical technology and economics.
Since, the tools of impulsive fractional differential equations are applicable
to various fields of study, the investigation of the theory of such equations has
been started quite recently (see [Ahmad and Nieto 2011], [Ahmad and
Sivasundaram 2010], [Bai 2011], [Benchohra and Slimani 2009], [Cao and
Chen 2012], [Chauhan and Dabas 2011], [Fečkan, Zhou and Wang 2012],
[Kosmatov 2013], [Li, Chen and Li 2013], [Liu 2013], [Mahto, Abbas and
Favini 2013], [Mophou 2010], [Rehman and Eloe 2013], [Stamov and Stamova
2014a], [Stamov and Stamova 2015b], [Stamova 2014a], [Stamova 2015],
[Tariboon, Ntouyas and Agarwal 2015], [Wang, Ahmad and Zhang 2012],
[Wang, Fečkan and Zhou 2011], [Wang and Lin 2014], [Wang, Zhou and
Fečkan 2012], [Zhang, Zhang and Zhang 2014]). Also, in relation to the
mathematical simulation in chaos, fluid dynamics and many physical systems,
the investigation of impulsive fractional functional differential equations began
(see [Anguraj and Maheswari 2012], [Chang and Nieto 2009], [Chen, Chen and
Wang 2009], [Debbouche and Baleanu 2011], [Gao, Yang and Liu 2013], [Guo
and Jiang 2012], [Mahto and Abbas, 2013], [Mahto, Abbas and Favini 2013],
[Stamov 2015], [Stamov and Stamova 2014b], [Stamov and Stamova 2015a],
[Stamova 2014b], [Stamova and Stamov G 2014b], [Wang 2012], [Xie 2014]).
We shall consider the following impulsive systems of fractional order:
I. Impulsive systems of fractional differential equations. Let f : R × Ω → Rn ,
τk : Ω → R, Ik : Ω → Rn , k = ±1, ±2, .... Consider the impulsive fractional-order
differential system
{
c α
t0 Dt x(t) = f (t, x(t)), t ̸= τk (x(t)),
(1.3)
∆ x(t) = Ik (x(t)), t = τk (x(t)), k = ±1, ±2, ...,

where ∆ x(t) = x(t + ) − x(t).

 Introduction  7

The second part of the impulsive system (1.3) is called a jump condition. The
functions Ik , that define the magnitudes of the impulsive perturbations, are the
impulsive functions.
Let t0 ∈ R, x0 ∈ Ω . Denote by x(t) = x(t;t0 , x0 ) the solution of system (1.3)
satisfying the initial condition

x(t0+ ;t0 , x0 ) = x0 . (1.4)

Note that, instead of the initial condition x(t0 ) = x0 , we have imposed the
limiting condition x(t0+ ) = x0 which, in general, is natural for equation (1.3) since
(t0 , x0 ) may be such that t0 = τk (x0 ) for some k. Whenever t0 ̸= τk (x0 ), for all
k, we shall understand the initial condition x(t0+ ) = x0 in the usual sense, i.e.,
x(t0 ) = x0 .
We suppose that the functions f and Ik , τk , k = ±1, ±2, ..., are smooth
enough on R × Ω and Ω , respectively, to guarantee existence, uniqueness and
continuability of the solution x(t) = x(t;t0 , x0 ) of the equation (1.3) on the
interval [t0 , ∞) for all suitable initial data x0 ∈ Ω and t0 ∈ R. We also assume
that the functions (E + Ik ) : Ω → Ω , k = ±1, ±2, ..., where E is the identity
in Ω .
In some qualitative investigations, we shall also consider such solutions of
system (1.3) for which the continuability to the left of t0 is guaranteed. The
solutions x(t;t0 , x0 ) of system (1.3) are, in general, piecewise continuous
functions with points of discontinuity of the first kind at which they are left
continuous, i.e., at the moment tlk when the integral curve of the solution meets
the hypersurfaces { }
σk = (t, x) : t = τk (x), x ∈ Ω
the following relations are satisfied:

x(tl−k ) = x(tlk ) and x(tl+k ) = x(tlk ) + Ik (x(tlk )).

The points tlk , at which the impulses occur, are the moments of impulsive
effect. The impulsive moments for a solution of (1.3) depend on the solution, i.e.
different solutions have different points of discontinuity. In general, k ̸= lk . In
other words, it is possible that the integral curve of the IVP (1.3), (1.4) does not
meet the hypersurface σk at the moment tk . This leads to a number of difficulties
in the investigation of such systems. We shall assume that for each x ∈ Ω and
k = ±1, ±2, ...,
τk (x) < τk+1 (x)
and

τk (x) → ∞ as k → ∞ (τk (x) → −∞ as k → −∞), uniformly on x ∈ Ω ,

and the integral curve of each solution of the system (1.3) meets each of the
hypersurfaces {σk } at most once.
8  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

The above condition means absence of the phenomenon “beating” of the

solutions to the system (1.1), i.e. a phenomenon when a given integral curve
meets more than once or infinitely many times one and the same hypersurface
{σk } (see [Bainov and Dishliev 1997], [Bainov and Simeonov 1989],
[Lakshmikantham, Bainov and Simeonov 1989], [Samoilenko and Perestyuk
1995]). A part of the difficulty in the investigations of systems with variable
impulsive perturbations is related to the possibilities of “merging” of different
integral curves after a given moment, loss of the property of autonomy, etc. For
more results about such systems we refer the reader to [Afonso, Bonotto,
Federson and Gimenes 2012], [Liu and Ballinger 2002], [Stamov 2012],
[Stamova 2009], [Wang and Fu 2007].
Note that, the phenomenon “beating” is not present in the case, when
τk (x) ≡ tk , x ∈ Ω , i.e. when the impulses are realized at fixed moments t = tk ,
k = ±1, ±2, .... Then the system (1.3) reduces to
{
c α
t0 Dt x(t) = f (t, x(t)), t ̸= tk ,
(1.5)
∆ x(t) = Ik (x(t)), t = tk , k = ±1, ±2, ...,

where tk < tk+1 , k = ±1, ±2, ... and lim tk = ±∞.

k→±∞
It is clear that systems of impulsive differential equations with fixed moments
of impulse effect (1.5) can be considered as a particular case of the systems with
variable impulsive perturbations (1.3).
II. Impulsive systems of fractional functional differential equations. Let J ⊆ R.
Define the following class of functions:
PC[J, Ω ] = {σ : J → Ω : σ (t) is a piecewise continuous function with points
of discontinuity t˜ ∈ J at which σ (t˜− ) and σ (t˜+ ) exist and σ (t˜− ) = σ (t˜)}.
In the present book we shall consider impulsive systems of Caputo-type
fractional functional differential equations with fixed moments of impulse
effect. A system of this class is written as follows:
{
c α
t0 Dt x(t) = f (t, xt ), t ̸= tk ,
(1.6)
∆ x(t) = Ik (x(t)), t = tk , k = ±1, ±2, ...,

where f : R × PC[[−r, 0], Ω ] → Rn , Ik : Ω → Rn , tk < tk+1 , k = ±1, ±2, ... and

lim tk = ±∞.
k→±∞
Let φ0 ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ]. Denote by x(t) = x(t;t0 , φ0 ) the solution of system
(1.6) satisfying the initial conditions
{
x(t) = φ0 (t − t0 ), t0 − r ≤ t ≤ t0 ,
(1.7)
x(t0+ ) = φ0 (0),

and by J + (t0 , φ0 ) – the maximal interval of type [t0 , γ ) in which the solution
x(t;t0 , φ0 ) is defined.
 Introduction  9

We also suppose that the functions f and Ik , k = ±1, ±2, ..., are smooth
enough on their domains to guarantee existence, uniqueness and continuability
of the solution x(t) = x(t;t0 , φ0 ) of the IVP (1.6), (1.7) on the interval [t0 − r, ∞)
for each φ0 ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ] and t0 ∈ R.
Without loss of generality we can assume that ... t−1 < t0 < t1 < t2 < ... <
tk < tk+1 < .... Then, the solution x(t) = x(t;t0 , φ0 ) of the initial value problem
(1.6), (1.7) is characterized by the following:
1. For t0 − r ≤ t ≤ t0 the solution x(t) satisfies the initial conditions (1.7).
2. For t0 < t ≤ t1 , x(t) coincides with the solution of the problem
 c α

 t0 Dt x(t) = f (t, xt ), t > t0 ,
xt0 = φ0 (θ ), −r ≤ θ ≤ 0,


x(t0+ ) = φ0 (0).

At the moment t = t1 the mapping point (t, x(t;t0 , φ0 )) of the extended phase
space jumps momentarily from the position (t1 , x(t1 ;t0 , φ0 )) to the position

(t1 , x(t1 ;t0 , φ0 ) + I1 (x(t1 ;t0 , φ0 ))).

3. For t1 < t ≤ t2 the solution x(t) coincides with the solution of

{
c α
t0 Dt y(t) = f (t, yt ), t > t1 ,
yt1 = φ1 , φ1 ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ],

where 
 φ0 (t − t1 ), t ∈ [t0 − r,t0 ] ∩ [t1 − r,t1 ],

φ1 (t − t1 ) = x(t;t0 , φ0 ), t ∈ (t0 ,t1 ) ∩ [t1 − r,t1 ],


x(t;t0 , φ0 ) + I1 (x(t;t0 , φ0 )), t = t1 .

At the moment t = t2 the mapping point (t, x(t)) jumps momentarily, etc.
Thus the solution x(t;t0 , φ0 ) of problem (1.6), (1.7) is a piecewise
continuous function for t > t0 with points of discontinuity of the first kind
t = tk , k = ±1, ±2, ... at which it is continuous from the left, i.e. the following
relations are satisfied
x(tk− ) = x(tk ), tk > t0 , k = ±1, ±2, ...,
x(tk+ ) = x(tk ) + Ik (x(tk )), tk > t0 , k = ±1, ±2, ....

For equations with Riemann-Liouville fractional derivatives suitable initial

data and jump conditions will be used.

Remark 1.1 Efficient existence and uniqueness criteria for impulsive fractional
functional systems are given in [Abbas, Benchohra and N’Guérékata 2012],
[Anguraj and Maheswari 2012], [Chen, Chen and Wang 2009], [Mahto, Abbas
10  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

and Favini 2013], [Wang 2012] and we have not included them here. We shall
suppose that the functions f and Ik in (1.6) satisfy all conditions that guarantee
the existence and uniqueness of the solutions.

1.2 Definitions of Qualitative Properties

This section will offer Lyapunov stability, Mittag–Leffler stability and
boundedness definitions, as well as definitions for almost periodic sequences
and almost periodic functions that are used throughout the book. In several of
the subsequent chapters some extensions of these definitions will be also
introduced.
First, we shall introduce Lyapunov stability definitions for system (1.1). For
φ ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ], we equip the space C[[−r, 0], Ω ] with the norm ||.||r defined by
||φ ||r = max ||φ (θ )||, where ||.|| is any convenient norm in Rn .
−r≤θ ≤0
Let x̄(t) = x̄(t;t0 , ϕ0 ) be a solution of system (1.1) with a suitable initial
function ϕ0 ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ]. We note that a constant solution x̄∗ is an equilibrium
of system (1.1), if and only if
α ∗
t0 Dt x̄ = f (t, x̄∗ ).

When zero x̄(t) ≡ 0 is an equilibrium of (1.1), we shall use the following

stability definition:

Definition 1.1 The zero solution x̄(t) ≡ 0 of system (1.1) is said to be:
(a) stable, if
(∀t0 ∈ R)(∀ε > 0)(∃δ = δ (t0 , ε ) > 0)
(∀φ0 ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ] : ||φ0 ||r < δ )(∀t ≥ t0 ) : ||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| < ε ;
(b) uniformly stable, if the number δ in (a) is independent of t0 ∈ R;
(c) attractive, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∃λ = λ (t0 ) > 0)(∀φ0 ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ] : ||φ0 ||r < λ )

lim ||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| = 0;

t→∞

(d) equi-attractive, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∃λ = λ (t0 ) > 0)(∀ε > 0)(∃T = T (t0 , ε ) > 0)

(∀φ0 ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ] : ||φ0 ||r < λ )(∀t ≥ t0 + T ) : ||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| < ε ;
(e) uniformly attractive, if the numbers λ and T in (d) are independent of
t0 ∈ R;
 Introduction  11

(f) asymptotically stable, if it is stable and attractive;

(g) uniformly asymptotically stable, if it is uniformly stable and uniformly
attractive.
Next, we shall use the Mittag–Leffler function which plays an important role
in the theory of non-integer order differential equations. The standard Mittag–
Leffler function (see [Li, Chen and Podlubny 2010], [Podlubny 1999]) is given
as
∞
zκ
Eα (z) = ∑ ,
κ =0 Γ (ακ + 1)
where α > 0. It is also common to represent the Mittag–Leffler function in two
parameters, α and β , such that
∞
zκ
Eα ,β (z) = ∑ Γ (ακ + β ) ,
κ =0

where α > 0 and β > 0. For β = 1, we have Eα (z) = Eα ,1 (z) and E1,1 (z) = ez .
Moreover, the Laplace transform of Mittag–Leffler function in two parameters is

sα −β
L [t β −1 Eα ,β (−γ t α )] =
1
, (R(s) > |γ | α ),
sα + γ
where t and s are, respectively, the variables in the time domain and Laplace
domain, R(s) denotes the real part of s, γ ∈ R, and L stands for the Laplace
transform.
We shall introduce the following definition of the Mittag–Leffler stability of
the zero solution of (1.1), which extends the definition given in [Li, Chen and
Podlubny 2010].

Definition 1.2 The zero solution x̄(t) ≡ 0 of system (1.1) is said to be Mittag–
Leffler stable, if for t0 ∈ R, φ0 ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ] and ||φ0 ||r < ρ there exist constants
µ > 0 and d > 0 such that
{ }d
||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| ≤ m(φ0 )Eα (−µ (t − t0 )α ) , t ≥ t0 ,

where α ∈ (0, 1), m(0) = 0, m(φ ) ≥ 0, and m(φ ) is Lipschitzian with respect to
φ ∈ C[[−r, 0], Ω ], ||φ ||r < ρ , ρ > 0.
If y(t) is a solution of system (1.1), then y is said to be stable, if the zero
solution x̄(t) ≡ 0 of the system
α
t0 Dt x̄(t) = f (t, x̄t + yt ) − f (t, yt )

is stable. The other Lyapunov stability concepts and the Mittag–Leffler stability
are defined in a similar manner.
12  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

We shall use the next Lyapunov stability definitions for the system (1.3).
Let x̄(t) = x̄(t;t0 , x̄0 ) be a solution of system (1.3) with a suitable initial
value x̄0 ∈ Ω .

Definition 1.3 The solution x̄(t) is said to be:

(a) stable, if
(∀t0 ∈ R)(∀ε > 0)(∃δ = δ (t0 , ε ) > 0)
(∀x0 ∈ Ω : ||x0 − x̄0 )|| < δ )(∀t ≥ t0 ) :
||x(t;t0 , x0 ) − x̄(t)|| < ε ;

(b) uniformly stable, if the number δ in (a) is independent of t0 ∈ R;

(c) attractive, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∃λ = λ (t0 ) > 0)(∀x0 ∈ Ω : ||x0 − x̄0 || < λ )

lim ||x(t;t0 , x0 ) − x̄(t)|| = 0;

t→∞

(d) equi-attractive, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∃λ = λ (t0 ) > 0)(∀ε > 0)(∃T = T (t0 , ε ) > 0)

(∀x0 ∈ Ω : ||x0 − x̄0 || < λ )(∀t ≥ t0 + T ) : ||x(t;t0 , x0 ) − x̄(t)|| < ε ;

(e) uniformly attractive, if the numbers λ and T in (d) are independent of

t0 ∈ R;
(f) asymptotically stable, if it is stable and attractive;
(g) uniformly asymptotically stable, if it is uniformly stable and uniformly
attractive;
(h) exponentially stable, if

(∃λ > 0)(∀a > 0)(∃γ = γ (a) > 0)(∀t0 ∈ R)

(∀x0 ∈ Ω : ||x0 − x̄0 || < a)(∀t ≥ t0 ) :

||x(t;t0 , x0 ) − x̄(t)|| < γ (a)||x0 − x̄0 || exp{−λ (t − t0 )}.

In the case, when x̄(t) ≡ 0 is a solution of system (1.5), we shall use the
following definition.
 Introduction  13

Definition 1.4 The zero solution x̄(t) ≡ 0 of system (1.5) is said to be:
(a) stable, if
(∀t0 ∈ R)(∀ε > 0)(∃δ = δ (t0 , ε ) > 0)
(∀x0 ∈ Ω : ||x0 || < δ )(∀t ≥ t0 ) : ||x(t;t0 , x0 )|| < ε ;

(b) uniformly stable, if the number δ in (a) is independent of t0 ∈ R;

(c) attractive, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∃λ = λ (t0 ) > 0)(∀x0 ∈ Ω : ||x0 || < λ ) :

lim ||x(t;t0 , x0 )|| = 0;

t→∞

(d) equi-attractive, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∃λ = λ (t0 ) > 0)(∀ε > 0)(∃T = T (t0 , ε ) > 0)

(∀x0 ∈ Ω : ||x0 || < λ )(∀t ≥ t0 + T ) : ||x(t;t0 , x0 )|| < ε ;

(e) uniformly attractive, if the numbers λ and T in (d) are independent of

t0 ∈ R;
(f) asymptotically stable, if it is stable and attractive;
(g) uniformly asymptotically stable, if it is uniformly stable and uniformly
attractive.
We shall use the following Mittag–Leffler stability definition of the zero
solution of system (1.5) which is analogous to the definitions given in [Li, Chen
and Podlubny 2010].

Definition 1.5 The zero solution x̄(t) ≡ 0 of system (1.5) is said to be

Mittag–Leffler stable, if given δ > 0 we have ||x0 || < δ implies

||x(t;t0 , x0 )|| ≤ {m(x0 )Eα (−µ (t − t0 )α )}d , t ≥ t0 ,

where α ∈ (0, 1), µ > 0, d > 0, m(0) = 0, m(x) ≥ 0, and m(x) is locally Lipschitz
continuous with respect to x ∈ Ω , ||x|| < δ .
When talking about Lyapunov stability and Mittag–Leffler stability of the
solutions of system (1.6), the norm ||.||r is defined by ||φ ||r = sup ||φ (θ )||.
−r≤θ ≤0
In the case r = ∞ we have ||φ ||r = ||φ ||∞ = sup ||φ (θ )||.
θ ∈(−∞,0]

Let x̄(t) = x̄(t;t0 , ϕ0 ) be a solution of system (1.6) with a suitable initial

function ϕ0 ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ]. When zero is an equilibrium of (1.6), we shall use
the following stability definition.
14  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

Definition 1.6 The zero solution x̄(t) ≡ 0 of system (1.6) is said to be:
(a) stable, if
(∀t0 ∈ R)(∀ε > 0)(∃δ = δ (t0 , ε ) > 0)
(∀φ0 ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ] : ||φ0 ||r < δ )(∀t ≥ t0 ) : ||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| < ε ;

(b) uniformly stable, if the number δ in (a) is independent of t0 ∈ R;

(c) attractive, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∃λ = λ (t0 ) > 0)(∀φ0 ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ] : ||φ0 ||r < λ )

lim ||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| = 0;

t→∞

(d) equi-attractive, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∃λ = λ (t0 ) > 0)(∀ε > 0)(∃T = T (t0 , ε ) > 0)

(∀φ0 ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ] : ||φ0 ||r < λ )(∀t ≥ t0 + T ) : ||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| < ε ;

(e) uniformly attractive, if the numbers λ and T in (d) are independent of

t0 ∈ R;
(f) asymptotically stable, if it is stable and attractive;
(g) uniformly asymptotically stable, if it is uniformly stable and uniformly
attractive.
Definition 1.7 The zero solution x̄(t) ≡ 0 of system (1.6) is said to be Mittag–
Leffler stable, if for t0 ∈ R, φ0 ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ] : ||φ0 ||r < ρ (ρ > 0) there exist
constants µ > 0 and d > 0 such that
{ }d
||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| ≤ m(φ0 )Eα (−µ (t − t0 )α ) , t ≥ t0 ,

where α ∈ (0, 1), m(0) = 0, m(φ ) ≥ 0, and m(φ ) is Lipschitzian with respect to
φ ∈ PC[[−r, 0], Ω ] : ||φ ||r < ρ .
In this book, we shall apply the second method of Lyapunov for investigating
boundedness of the solutions of system (1.1) for Ω ≡ Rn , i.e. we shall consider
the following system
α
t0 Dt x(t) = f (t, xt ), (1.8)
where f : R ×C[[−r, 0], Rn ] → Rn .
Denote by C the space of all continuous functions mapping [−r, 0] into Rn .
Let φ0 ∈ C . Denote again by x(t) = x(t;t0 , φ0 ) the solution of system (1.8),
satisfying a suitable initial condition. Also, for ρ > 0 and Ω ≡ Rn , define
Bρ (C) = {φ ∈ C : ||φ ||r < ρ }.
We shall use the following boundedness definition.
 Introduction  15

Definition 1.8 We say that the solutions of system (1.8) are:

(a) equi-bounded, if

(∀t0 ∈ R)(∀a > 0)(∃b = b(t0 , a) > 0)

(∀φ0 ∈ Ba (C))(∀t ≥ t0 ) : ||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| < b;

(b) uniformly bounded, if the number b in (a) is independent of t0 ∈ R;
(c) quasi-uniformly ultimately bounded, if

(∃b > 0)(∀a > 0)(∃T = T (a) > 0)(∀t0 ∈ R)

(∀φ0 ∈ Ba (C))(∀t ≥ t0 + T ) : ||x(t;t0 , φ0 )|| < b;

(d) uniformly ultimately bounded, if (b) and (c) hold together.
Similar boundedness definitions will be used for systems of types (1.3),
(1.5) and (1.6) in the case when Ω ≡ Rn (see [Stamova 2008], [Stamova 2009],
[Stamova 2014a], [Yakar, and Gücen 2011]. Indeed, boundedness theory
has played a significant role in the existence of periodic solutions of differential
equations, and it has many applications in areas such as neural network,
biological population management, secure communication and chaos control
([Afonso, Bonotto, Federson and Gimenes 2012], [Ballinger and Liu 1997],
[Dong, Chen and Sun 2006], [Hu 2013], [Luo and Shen 2001], [Stamova 2016],
[Teng, Nie and Fang 2011], [Xia 2007], [Yan 2003]).
Now we shall consider the set B ,

{ }
B = {tk }, tk ∈ R, tk < tk+1 , k = ±1, ±2, ..., lim tk = ±∞
k→±∞

of all unbounded increasing sequences of real numbers, and let i(t,t + A) be the
number of the points tk in the interval (t,t + A].
We need some essential notations before to introduce the main definitions of
almost periodic functions and sequences which are used in this book.
For T̄ , P̄ ∈ B , let seq(T̄ ∪ P̄) : B → B be a map such that seq(T̄ ∪ P̄) forms
a strictly increasing sequence. For D ⊂ R, let θε (D) = {t + ε , t ∈ D} and
Fε (D) = ∩{θε (D)} for ε > 0. By Ψ = (ψ (t), T̄ ), we shall denote an element
from the space PC[R, Rn ] × B . For every sequence of real numbers
{sn }, n = 1, 2, ..., θ̄snΨ means the sets {ψ (t + sn ), T̄ − sn } ⊂ PC[R, Rn ] × B
where T̄ − sn = {tk − sn , k = ±1, ±2, ..., n = 1, 2, ...}.

Definition 1.9 ([Samoilenko and Perestyuk 1995]) The set of sequences

{tkl }, tkl = tk+l − tk , k = ±1, ±2, ..., l = ±1, ±2, ... is said to be uniformly almost
16  Functional and Impulsive Differential Equations of Fractional Order

periodic, if for any ε > 0 there exists a relatively dense set in R of ε –almost
periods common for all sequences {tkl }.

Definition 1.10 ([Stamov 2012]) The sequence {Ψn },

Ψn = (ψn (t), T̄n ) ∈ PC[R, Rn ] × B ,

is convergent to Ψ , where Ψ = (ψ (t), T̄ ) and (ψ (t), T̄ ) ∈ PC[R, Rn ] × B , if and

only if for any ε > 0 there exists n0 > 0 such that for n ≥ n0 the following
inequalities
ρ (T̄ , T̄n ) < ε , ∥ψn (t) − ψ (t)∥ < ε
hold uniformly for t ∈ R \ Fε (seq(T̄n ∪ T̄ )), where ρ (., .) is any distance in B .

Definition 1.11 ([Stamov 2012]) The function ψ ∈ PC[R, Rn ] is said to be an

almost periodic piecewise continuous function with points of discontinuity of the
first kind tk , {tk } ∈ B , if for every sequence of real numbers {s′ m } there exists a
subsequence {sn }, sn = s′mn , such that θ̄snΨ is compact in PC[R, Rn ] × B .
Consider the impulsive fractional-order system (1.6). Let {s′m } be an arbitrary
sequence of real numbers. If there exists a subsequence {sn }, sn = s′mn such that
the system (1.6) moves to the system
{
c α
t0 Dt x(t) = f (t, xt ), t ̸= tk ,
s s
(1.9)
∆ x(tks ) = Iks (x(tks )), k = ±1, ±2, ...,

then the set of systems in the form (1.9) we shall denote by H( f , Ik ,tk ).
The system (1.9) is called Hull of the system (1.6). In Chapter 3 we shall also
consider similar Hull systems related to systems (1.1) and (1.5).
Efficient conditions for the existence of the corresponding subsequences
{sn }, sn = s′mn that move systems (1.1), (1.5) and (1.6) to their Hull systems can
be find in [Stamov 2012] and some of the references therein.

1.3 Lyapunov Functions and their Fractional

Derivatives
The most useful and general approach for studying stability, asymptotic
properties, existence of periodic and almost periodic solutions of a nonlinear
system is the Lyapunov direct method (also called the second method of
Lyapunov) [Lyapunov 1950]. This method allows us to determine the
qualitative properties of a system without explicitly integrating it. After the
work of LaSalle (1960) there has been an expansion both in the class of the
studied objects and in the mathematical problems investigated by means of the
method and many refinements have been developed (see [Dannan and Elaydi
Another random document with
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of men. It was as though they were back in the days of the old
Hebrew prophets when the hand of the Lord stretched out and laid
itself upon wicked men for their punishment when the measure of
their time was full.
“He tried to stand above the law in this valley,” Hollister told her. “He
wanted to stop progress—said there shouldn’t be any dam to reclaim
the Flat Tops for settlers. Merrick will rebuild it. The land will be
watered. Your ranch will be good as ever in three months. And he’ll
be buried and forgotten.”
“And poor Don Black?” she whispered. “Poor Don, who never had a
chance in this world, or, if he had one, muddled it so badly?”
He could only hope that Don had gone to a better-ordered world
where circumstances did not dominate good intentions.
Betty’s sense of tragedy lingered just now no longer than a cinema
picture. The life urge in her clamored for expression. No world could
be a sad one with her and Tug in it.
“Shall I go in and tell your father now?” the young man asked.
“Soon.” She made a rustling little motion toward him and found
herself in his arms. “Isn’t it splendid, boy? To-day’s the best ever, and
to-morrow will be better than to-day—oh, heaps better—and after
that all the years forever and ever.”
He looked into the deep lustrous eyes of his straight slim girl. What a
wife she would be! How eager and provocative, this white flame of
youth so simple and so complex! Her happiness now would be in his
hands. The responsibility awed him, filled him with a sense of
solemnity.
“Forever is a long time,” he said, smiling, and quoted a stanza of
magazine verse they had lately read together.
It began, “How far will you go with me, my love?” Close-held in his
arms, Betty answered without a moment of hesitation.
“She smiled at the stile with a sweet disdain;
She scoffed at the bridge and the great oak tree;
And looked me full in the eyes and said:
 ‘I will go to the end of the lane with thee.’”
The door of the inner room opened and Clint stood on the threshold.
“Hello!” he said, surprised.
Betty disengaged herself, blushing. “He’s decided to take me after
all, Dad,” she said demurely.
“Hmp! Has he? Kinda looks that way.” Clint gripped Hollister’s hand
till it hurt. It was the best he could do just now to show the gratitude
he felt for what this man had done.
“That’s not quite the way I put it, sir,” Tug said.
“Doesn’t matter how you put it, boy. It’ll be her say-so from now on.
Don’t I know her? Hasn’t she bossed me scandalous since she was
knee-high to a gosling?”
“Now, Dad, you’re giving me a bad name,” Betty protested, hugging
her father.
“If he ain’t man enough to stand some bossing, he’d better quit right
now before he says, ‘I do.’”
“He likes being bossed, Dad,” Betty announced, and the imps of
deviltry were kicking up their heels in her eyes. “Don’t you, Tug?”
Hollister looked at the girl and smiled. “I’ll say I do,” he admitted.
THE END
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MAN TO MAN
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THE BELLS OF SAN JUAN
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JUDITH OF BLUE LAKE RANCH
Judith Sanford part owner of a cattle ranch realizes she is
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Wayne is suspected of killing his brother after a violent
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THE JOYOUS TROUBLE MAKER
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SIX FEET FOUR
Beatrice Waverly is robbed of $5,000 and suspicion
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WOLF BREED
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CLAIM NUMBER ONE
Dr. Warren Slavens drew claim number one, which entitled
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THE DUKE OF CHIMNEY BUTTE
When Jerry Lambert, “the Duke,” attempts to safeguard
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 John Mackenzie trod the trail from Jasper to the great
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TRAIL’S END
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 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
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