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Hematopathology
THIRD EDITION
A Volume in the Series: Foundations in Diagnostic Pathology
Eric D. Hsi, MD
Professor of Pathology
Chair
Department of Laboratory Medicine
Cleveland Clinic;
Professor of Pathology
Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine
Cleveland, Ohio
Series Editor
John R. Goldblum, MD
Chairman of Pathology
Cleveland Clinic,
Professor of Pathology
Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine
Cleveland, Ohio
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may
become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
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Printed in China
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To my teachers and mentors who inspired me,
our trainees who constantly challenge and question,
and my family who makes it all worthwhile.
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■ C O N T R I B U TO R S
vii
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viii Contributors
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Contributors ix
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■ FOREWORD
As any practicing pathologist knows, it is not possible for this rapidly evolving group of neoplastic and non-neoplastic
any single individual to master all of the skills and knowledge disorders. As always, the list of contributors is impressive and
required to perform all areas of surgical pathology at the includes a who’s who of hematopathologists, all of whom were
highest level. Providing a correct diagnosis is challenging extremely generous in providing their time and expertise to
enough, but the standard of care has now far surpassed simply this book. By design, there is uniformity in the organization
providing an accurate pathologic diagnosis. We are now asked of these chapters, each of which includes practical informa-
to provide an enormous amount of ancillary information, tion and numerous photographs that emphasize the essential
both diagnostic and prognostic, often on minute tissue frag- diagnostic points. Importantly, there is seamless integration
ments, a task that can be daunting even for the most skilled of ancillary diagnostic techniques including immunohisto-
and experienced pathologists. chemistry, cytogenetics, and molecular techniques, which are
Although general surgical pathology textbooks remain essential to the modern practice of hematopathology.
useful resources, they cannot possibly cover many of the The book is organized into four major sections: Non-
detailed aspects that pathologists need to know and include Neoplastic Disorders; Lymphomas; Leukemias, Chronic
in their diagnostic reports. For this reason, Foundations in Myeloproliferative Neoplasms, and Myelodysplasia; and finally
Diagnostic Pathology was initiated. This series of books is Disorders of Histiocytes, Mast Cells, Plasma Cells, Spleen,
designed to cover the major areas of surgical pathology, with and Ancillary Techniques. This edition features 24 chapters
each volume focusing on one major topic. The goal of every written by leaders in the field, and each chapter cuts to the
book in this series, which is now in its third edition, is to heart of what practicing pathologists need to know.
provide the essential information that any pathologist—whether I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to Dr. Eric
general or subspecialized, in training or in practice—would Hsi and all of the authors who have contributed to this
find useful in the evaluation of virtually any type of specimen outstanding third edition of the Foundations in Diagnostic
encountered. Pathology series. I strongly believe this edition improves on
My colleague of many years at Cleveland Clinic, Dr. Eric what was already an exceptional volume in this series, and
Hsi, has edited this outstanding book on hematopathology I am confident you will enjoy this edition of the Foundations
that fulfills the goals and philosophy behind Foundations in in Diagnostic Pathology series.
Diagnostic Pathology. This third edition cuts to the essentials
of what all practicing pathologists want and need to know about John R. Goldblum, MD
xi
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■ P R E FA C E
Since the first edition of this text in 2007, classifications have Importantly, it incorporates information and classifications
evolved to incorporate much more information that has an relevant to the long-awaited 2016 WHO update. As in previous
impact on the diagnosis and therapy of hematologic diseases. editions, I am indebted to the numerous expert contributors
I am honored to have been asked to embark on a third edition who have given of themselves to produce excellent and concise
of this book. New authors have been added and chapters chapters (with a minimal amount of nagging from me …).
updated and revised. I am pleased to have incorporated a They are the true resource and talent for this book, and it
more complete treatment of coagulation that serves to dif- has been an honor to work with this group of outstanding
ferentiate this book as one that now covers the spectrum of pathologists and educators.
non-neoplastic hematopathology, neoplastic hematopathology,
and coagulation. I believe this text will give the reader a solid Eric D. Hsi, MD
foundation for learning and practicing hematopathology.
xiii
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■ CONTE NTS
S E C T I O N 1 Chapter 10
Immunodeficiency-Related Lymphoproliferative
Non-Neoplastic Disorders Disorders, 340
Jonathan W. Said, MD
Chapter 1
Red Blood Cell/Hemoglobin Disorders, 3 Chapter 11
Juehua Gao, MD, PhD, and Sara A. Monaghan, MD Hodgkin Lymphoma, 363
Falko Fend, MD, and Leticia Quintanilla-Martinez, MD
Chapter 2
Hemostasis and Thrombosis, 57
3
Heesun J. Rogers, MD, PhD, Megan O. Nakashima, MD,
and Kandice Kottke-Marchant, MD, PhD S E C T I O N
Chapter 3 Leukemias, Chronic
Non-Neoplastic Morphologic Abnormalities of White
Blood Cells and Macrophages, 106 Myeloproliferative Neoplasms,
Dennis P. O’Malley, MD, Eric D. Hsi, MD,
Lauren Smith, MD, and Yuri Fedoriw, MD
and Myelodysplasia
Chapter 12
Chapter 4 B-Cell Leukemias of Mature Lymphocytes, 397
Reactive Lymph Nodes and Castleman Disease, 118 Eric D. Hsi, MD
Judith A. Ferry, MD
Chapter 5 Chapter 13
Bone Marrow Failure Syndromes, 167 Mature T-Cell and Natural Killer–Cell
James R. Cook, MD, PhD Leukemias, 414
William G. Finn, MD, and William R. Macon, MD
Chapter 6
Benign Causes of Bone Marrow Abnormalities Including Chapter 14
Infections, Storage Diseases, Systemic Disorders, and Acute Myeloid Leukemia, 429
Stromal Changes, 184 Daniel A. Arber, MD
Dennis P. O’Malley, MD, Lauren Smith, MD, and
Yuri Fedoriw, MD Chapter 15
Precursor Lymphoid Neoplasms, 467
John Kim Choi, MD, PhD
S E C T I O N 2 Chapter 16
Lymphomas Acute Undifferentiated Leukemia and Mixed-Phenotype
Acute Leukemias, 481
John Kim Choi, MD, PhD
Chapter 7
Small B-Cell Lymphomas, 213
Rebecca L. King, MD, and Paul J. Kurtin, MD Chapter 17
Myeloproliferative and “Overlap” Myelodysplastic/
Chapter 8 Myeloproliferative Neoplasms, 488
Diffuse Aggressive B-Cell Lymphomas, 271 Beenu Thakral, MD, John Anastasi, MD, and
Graham W. Slack, MD, and Eric D. Hsi, MD Sa A. Wang, MD
Chapter 9 Chapter 18
Peripheral T-Cell Lymphomas, 306 Myelodysplastic Syndromes, 539
William R. Macon, MD Phuong L. Nguyen, MD, and Robert Paul Hasserjian, MD
xv
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xvi Contents
S E C T I O N 4 Chapter 22
Disorders of the Spleen, 664
Robert S. Ohgami, MD, PhD, James M. Ziai, MD, and
Disorders of Histiocytes, Mast Daniel A. Arber, MD
Cells, Plasma Cells, Spleen, Chapter 23
and Ancillary Techniques Flow Cytometric Principles in Hematopathology, 686
Steven J. Kussick, MD, PhD
Chapter 19
Disorders of Histiocytes, 567 Chapter 24
Jennifer Lee Picarsic, MD, and Molecular Hematopathology, 712
Kudakwashe Chikwava, MB, ChB Rong He, MD, Jennifer L. Oliveira, MD,
James D. Hoyer, MD, and David S. Viswanatha, MD
Chapter 20
Mastocytosis, 617
Dong Chen, MD, PhD, and Tracy I. George, MD
Chapter 21
Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell
Neoplasms, 642
Pei Lin, MD
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S E C T I O N
1
Non-Neoplastic
Disorders
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1
Red Blood Cell/Hemoglobin
Disorders*
■ Juehua Gao, MD, PhD ■ Sara A. Monaghan, MD
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CHAPTER 1 Red Blood Cell/Hemoglobin Disorders 5
DNA
(E)
DHF
Dihydrofolate reductase
dTMP Methyl
One-carbon unit
cobalamin Homocysteine
THF
(C)
Methionine
Cobalamin
5,10–Methylene THF
5–Methyl THF
(A)
dUMP
FIG. 1.1
Folate and cobalamin in the synthesis of DNA and methionine. Folates conjugated with multiple glutamic acid residues (folate polyglutamates) are deconjugated
during absorption in the duodenum and jejunum. Folate monoglutamates then undergo conversion to N5-methyl tetrahydrofolate (N5-methyl THF), the main
form of folate transported in plasma and taken up by cells (A). Demethylation of N5-methyl THF (B) yields tetrahydrofolate (THF), which undergoes polyglutamation
needed for cellular retention of folate. This methyltransferase reaction requires cobalamin as an intermediate with transfer of the methyl group to homocysteine
to generate methionine. THF, as an intermediate, accepts a one-carbon unit (C). The folate derivative N5,N10-methylene THF donates the one-carbon unit to
the reaction catalyzed by thymidylate synthase (D). Both thymidylate (dTMP), a required component for DNA synthesis, and dihydrofolate (DHF) are produced.
Dihydrofolate reductase reduces DHF back to THF (E).
to hemodialysis, drugs, and competition for dietary folates peripheral neuropathy and demyelinization of the dorsal and
(intestinal bacterial overgrowth). Malabsorption of folate is lateral columns of the spinal cord (i.e., subacute combined
rare unless there is extensive intestinal disease (e.g., gluten- degeneration), leading to paresthesias, loss of position and
induced enteropathy, tropical sprue). vibration sense, spastic ataxia, and extensor plantar reflexes.
Cognitive impairment may be seen; psychosis is a rare
complication. Neurologic complications of Cbl deficiency
may be only partially reversible, making early recognition
CLINICAL FEATURES
of this disorder essential.
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6 HEMATOPATHOLOGY
fortification
■ Dietary cobalamin deficiency is rare, except among vegans and
Clinical Features
■ Gradual onset of macrocytic anemia
populations with low intake of animal-source foods
■ Evidence of hemolysis (jaundice, elevated lactate dehydrogenase,
FIG. 1.2
Megaloblastic anemia, peripheral blood
findings. This blood smear from a patient
with severe megaloblastic anemia dem
onstrates prominent anisopoikilocytosis,
including large oval cells (oval macro-
cytes), microcytes, and teardrop cells.
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CHAPTER 1 Red Blood Cell/Hemoglobin Disorders 7
FIG. 1.3
Megaloblastic anemia, peripheral blood
findings. Coarse basophilic stippling
(left) and circulating nucleated red cells
(right) are common in megaloblastic
anemia. The red cell precursor is rela-
tively mature, judging by the pink-gray
quality of the cytoplasm. However,
the chromatin is quite open, with an
abnormal stippled appearance, indicat-
ing megaloblastic change.
FIG. 1.4
Megaloblastic anemia, peripheral blood
findings. A hypersegmented neutrophil
in the peripheral blood of a patient with
megaloblastic anemia. Neutrophils are
generally considered hypersegmented
when they contain six or more lobes.
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8 HEMATOPATHOLOGY
■ Prominent anisocytosis
shaped, multiple, budding, or fragmented nuclei are often
■ Poikilocytosis seen (Fig. 1.6), resembling those seen in myelodysplastic
– Macroovalocytes syndromes. Giant metamyelocytes and bands with abnormally
– Teardrop cells open chromatin are also characteristic (Figs. 1.5 and 1.7),
– Fragments whereas larger than normal megakaryocytes with unattached
■ Lack of polychromasia
■ Hypersegmented neutrophils
nuclear lobes or hyperlobated nuclei reflect similar abnormali-
■ Howell-Jolly bodies, nucleated red cells, basophilic stippling ties in megakaryocytic maturation. Because of the pronounced
ineffective hematopoiesis, markedly increased iron stores are
Bone Marrow seen with a Prussian blue iron stain unless there is concurrent
■ Hypercellular marrow with trilineage expansion iron deficiency. Bone marrow core biopsy specimens dem-
■ Left-shifted hematopoietic precursors
onstrate a markedly hypercellular marrow with expanded and
■ Asynchronous nuclear to cytoplasmic maturation
left-shifted trilineage hematopoiesis (Fig. 1.8). In particular,
– Megaloblastic erythroid precursors
– Giant metamyelocytes
islands of immature erythroid precursors with finely stippled
– Larger than normal megakaryocytes with abnormal nuclei chromatin and distinct, irregular, eosinophilic nucleoli are
often prominent (Fig. 1.9).
Differential Diagnosis
■ Other causes of megaloblastic hematopoiesis
■ Drugs
– Reticulocytosis
– Liver disease Serum Cbl is fairly sensitive and specific for clinically overt
– Alcohol Cbl deficiency. Causes of falsely low serum Cbl include
– Hypothyroidism pregnancy, use of oral contraceptives, anticonvulsant admin-
– Drugs
istration, human immunodeficiency virus infection, and folate
deficiency. Mixed Cbl/folate deficiency complicates the
FIG. 1.5
Megaloblastic anemia, bone marrow
aspirate smear findings. This marrow
aspirate smear image from a patient
with severe megaloblastic anemia
demonstrates two late-stage erythroid
precursors (based on an advanced
degree of cytoplasmic hemoglobiniza-
tion) that are abnormally large and
have dispersed, stippled megaloblastic
chromatin (arrows). Also present is a
giant granulocyte at approximately the
metamyelocyte stage with abnormally
dispersed chromatin (immediately to
the left of upper arrowed megaloblast).
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CHAPTER 1 Red Blood Cell/Hemoglobin Disorders 9
FIG. 1.6
Megaloblastic anemia, bone marrow
aspirate smear findings. This image
demonstrates a dysplastic-appearing
orthochromic erythroid precursor with
two nuclei and irregularly distributed
chromatin.
FIG. 1.7
Megaloblastic anemia, bone marrow
aspirate smear findings. This marrow
aspirate from the same patient as in
Fig. 1.6 demonstrates two giant bands
with abnormally dispersed megaloblastic
chromatin. Note that these cells (arrows)
are larger than the early basophilic
normoblast in the field and other granu
locytes in the field.
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10 HEMATOPATHOLOGY
FIG. 1.8
Megaloblastic anemia, bone marrow
biopsy findings. The bone marrow
biopsy in megaloblastic anemia is
hypercellular.
FIG. 1.9
Megaloblastic anemia, bone marrow
biopsy findings. Prominent proliferations
of immature erythroid precursors with
fine chromatin and distinct nucleoli can
be mistaken easily for acute leukemia
or large cell lymphoma in biopsy
sections.
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CHAPTER 1 Red Blood Cell/Hemoglobin Disorders 11
TABLE 1.1
Ancillary Tests Used to Evaluate Possible Megaloblastic Anemia
interpretation of the laboratory workup of megaloblastic methotrexate, zidovudine, hydroxyurea, and azathioprine.
anemia (Table 1.1). Falsely normal levels of Cbl are rare with Megaloblastic morphology due to drugs tends to be confined
clinically overt deficiency but may be observed in association to the erythroid compartment, although this may not be the
with myeloproliferative disorders, liver disease, intestinal case with long-term administration. In general, an accurate
bacterial overgrowth, and congenital TC II deficiency. Detec- drug history and biochemical tests for folate and Cbl deficiency
tion of antibodies to intrinsic factor helps to determine the will distinguish this cause of megaloblastosis.
cause of a Cbl deficiency and to confirm a diagnosis of perni- Megaloblastic anemia may be confused with myelodysplastic
cious anemia. syndromes because of the potential for dyserythropoiesis in
Folate status may be assessed by either serum or red cell megaloblastic anemia or the potential for megaloblastic changes
folate assays. Serum folate may occasionally be misleading in myelodysplastic syndromes. However, when megaloblastic
due to fluctuations related to short-term dietary changes. changes are seen in the erythroid elements of myelodysplastic
Hemolysis (in vivo and in vitro) will cause falsely elevated syndromes, they are generally accompanied by a spectrum of
serum folate, whereas alcohol intake can cause transient low other abnormalities that are not a feature of megaloblastic
levels despite adequate stores. Red cell folate levels better anemia, such as neutrophil hyposegmentation or hypogranular-
reflect body folate stores and are less prone to short-term ity, hypogranular platelets, hypolobated megakaryocytes, or
fluctuation. Importantly, Cbl deficiency can cause reduced increased blasts. Furthermore, giant bands and metamyelocytes
red cell folate levels, but this is usually associated with normal as seen in megaloblastic anemia are usually not a notable
or increased serum levels (see Table 1.1). feature of myelodysplastic syndromes. As a general rule, a
Measurements of serum homocysteine and methylmalonic very high MCV (more than 130 fL) would favor a megaloblastic
acid are also useful in the assessment of megaloblastic anemia. anemia due to Cbl or folate deficiency versus other causes.
Homocysteine accumulates in both Cbl and folate deficiency In addition to other causes of megaloblastosis, nonmega-
because of interruption of the biochemical pathway illustrated loblastic macrocytosis can also enter into the differential
in Fig. 1.1. Unlike folate deficiency, Cbl deficiency is associ- diagnosis of megaloblastic anemia. These diagnoses include
ated with an increase in serum methylmalonic acid because reticulocytosis, liver disease, alcohol abuse, drug effects, and
of interruption of the conversion of methylmalonyl-coenzyme hypothyroidism. Reticulocytosis is easily discerned either
A to succinyl-coenzyme A. A normal methylmalonic acid with a reticulocyte count or with prominent polychromasia
level generally rules out Cbl deficiency; however, both on blood smear examination. Other causes of nonmegaloblastic
metabolites may be mildly elevated with renal insufficiency. macrocytosis do not produce the degree of anisopoikilocytosis,
Elevated serum homocysteine may also be seen with vitamin oval macrocytes, or hypersegmented neutrophils seen in
B6 deficiency, vitamin B2 (riboflavin) deficiency, hypothyroid- megaloblastic anemia. Liver disease, in particular, is character-
ism, some drugs, and genetic mutations affecting metabolism ized by a uniform population of round macrocytic cells and
of homocysteine. target cells.
The major differential diagnoses of megaloblastic anemia Standard therapy for Cbl deficiency, when the cause is not
owing to folate or Cbl deficiency are megaloblastic changes dietary deficiency, has traditionally been intramuscular injec-
related to drug therapy and myelodysplastic syndromes. A tion of vitamin B12; however, oral therapy is effective for
variety of agents that interfere with DNA synthesis can cause some patients. To prevent adverse neurologic consequences
megaloblastic changes in maturing marrow elements, including because of concurrent or overlooked Cbl deficiency, Cbl status
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Now, it may be said that there is no reason for this distinction; but
I claim that there is. And there is no man that can look upon this
crime, horrid as it is, diabolical as it is when committed by the white
man, and not say that such a crime committed by a negro upon a
white woman deserves, in the sense and judgment of the American
people, a different punishment from that inflicted upon the white
man. And yet the very purpose of this section, as I contend, is to
abolish or prevent the execution of laws making a distinction in
regard to the punishment.
But, further, it is said the negro race is weak and feeble; that they
are mere children—“wards of the Government.” In many instances it
might be just and proper to inflict a less punishment upon them for
certain crimes than upon men of intelligence and education, whose
motives may have been worse. It might be better for the community
to control them by milder and gentler means. If the judge sitting
upon the bench of the State court shall, in carrying out the law of the
State, inflict a higher penalty upon the white man than that which
attaches to the freedman, not that I suppose it is ever contemplated
to enforce that, yet it would be equally applicable, and the penalty
would be incurred by the judge in the same manner precisely.
But I proceed to the section I was about to remark upon when the
gentleman interrupted me. The marshals who may be employed to
execute warrants and precepts under this bill, as I have already
remarked, are offered a bribe for the execution of them. It creates
marshals in great numbers, and authorizes commissioners to appoint
almost anybody for that purpose, and it stimulates them by the offer
of a reward not given in the case of the arrest of persons guilty of any
other crime.
It goes further. It authorizes the President, when he is
apprehensive that some crime of that sort may be committed, on
mere suspicion, mere information or statement that it is likely to be
committed, to take any judge from the bench or any marshal from
his office to the place where the crime is apprehended, for the
purpose of more efficiently and speedily carrying out the provisions
of the bill.
The gentleman from Pennsylvania (Mr. Thayer) tells us that it is
very remarkable that it should be claimed that this bill is intended to
create and continue a sort of military despotism over the people
where this law is to be executed. It seems to me nothing is plainer.
Where do we find any laws heretofore passed having no relation to
the negro in which such a provision as this tenth section is to be
found? Generally the marshal seeks by himself to execute this
warrant, and failing, he calls out his POSSE COMITATUS. But this bill
authorizes the use in the first instance of the Army and Navy by the
President for the purpose of executing such writs.
The gentlemen who advocate this bill are great sticklers for
equality, and insist that there shall be no distinction made on
account of race or color.
Why, sir, every provision of this bill carries upon its face the
distinction, and is calculated to perpetuate it forever as long as the
act shall be in force. Where did this measure originate but in the
recognition of the difference between races and colors? Does any one
pretend that this bill is intended to protect white men—to save them
from any wrongs which may be inflicted upon them by the negroes?
Not at all. It is introduced and pressed in the pretended interest of
the black man, and recognizes and virtually declares distinction
between race and color.