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 ANCIENT HISTORY BUILDINGS & L ANDMARKS WE APONS & WAR

What were Soldiers of

velociraptors Ancient Rome
Horse really like?
armour
explained
Flying
a WWII
How was the plane
OVER

250
guillotine
invented?

How did the

gramophone
work?
MILLION
YEARS OF
HISTORY
Da Vinci's flying
machine The biggest
prehistoric
predators

BOOK OF

Everything you need to know about the world we lived in

Inside St Mark's Who were the Trench
Basilica fearsome Celts? warfare
The American
Sherman
army tank

Cuckoo Darwin’s
clocks theories
explained

The
development
How did Native of explosives
Americans fight?

INDUSTRY & INVENTIONS INFLUENTIAL FIGURES PREHISTORIC

 Welcome to
BOOK OF

INCREDIBLE
HISTORY
Have you ever wondered what Ancient Rome invented? What life
would have been like in the time of the dinosaurs? How
dynamite was invented? What it was like to be a Zulu warrior or a
musketeer? With current technological advancements it is easy
to forget the wars, the discoveries, the creatures and the people
that have led us to where we are today. This revised edition
celebrates the past and takes us on a journey back in time
through some of the ages, customs and traditions that shaped the
world we live in, and the lasting legacies and monuments that we
cherish to this day. Covering the ancient world, the iconic
buildings and landmarks scattered around the globe, ground-
breaking weapons and warfare, the inventions that changed the
world, the influential visionaries from the past, and prehistoric
creatures that once roamed Earth, there’s something for
everyone to learn about and enjoy. Every subject is accompanied
by stunning illustrations and marked diagrams so that you can
best understand the topic covered in perfect detail. So, turn the
page and let’s bring history to life!
 BOOK OF

INCREDIBLE
HISTORY
Imagine Publishing Ltd
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How It Works Book of Incredible History Volume 2 Revised Edition © 2015 Imagine Publishing Ltd

ISBN 9781910439951

Part of the

bookazine series
 BOOK OF
INCREDIBLE HISTORY

CONTENTS
Ancient History Buildings, Places Weapons & War
& Landmarks
010 VI Inventions of 072 Inside a Whippet tank
Ancient Rome 038 Saint Mark’s Basilica
074 Life in the trenches
016 The Circus Maximus 040 Sagrada Familia
078 Flying a WWII plane
018 History of ice mummies 042 The Pantheon
082 The Sherman Tank
018 What are the Nazca 044 Seville Cathedral
lines? 084 Brutal battering rams
046 Florence Cathedral
019 Making the Terracotta 085 Secrets of the Zulu
048 Jerusalem under siege Warriors
Army
050 Buckingham Palace 086 Meet the musketeers
020 Ancient Egyptian uncovered
cosmetics 088 Battle of Agincourt
054 Massachusetts State
020 Origins of chocolate House 092 The A7V
021 How sundials tell the 056 The Globe Theatre’s 094 Gunpowder
time story 094 Horse armour
021 Horse shoeing 058 Inside a Japanese explained
022 The art of castle 095 Inside the F-4 Phantom
mummification 059 The Fogong Temple II fighter jet
023 Britain’s tribal Pagoda 096 Jousting explained
territories 060 Brooklyn Bridge 098 How drawbridges
024 Ancient Greek theatres 062 What went wrong at worked
026 Greek tomb Chernobyl? 099 Flint weapons
construction 064 Exploring Macchu 099 Breaking the sound
027 Greek warriors Picchu barrier
028 Aztec warriors 066 How was the Sistine
Chapel’s ceiling
029 Native American
warrior
painted? The Roman
030 Chinese junks
068 Cardiff Castle army
032 The ancient Celts
010
Faster than
sound
099

162
Prehistoric
predators
006
 068
Cardiff Castle
124 The Sony Walkman
Industry &
Invention 124 Hearing aid evolution
125 How did the first
102 Inside a cotton mill electric refrigerators
104 Medieval writing work?
equipment 126 How Leonardo da Vinci
104 The first hearing aids tried to fly

Benjamin 105 Apothecary secrets 127 How the gramophone

worked
Franklin 105 Compass of the oceans
127 The bow drill

130 106 The origins of

helicopters
106 Pocket watches
136 Da Vinci’s flying
machine
explained
107 Meet Madame Influential
Guillotine figures
107 The first telephone
130 Benjamin Franklin
108 The Colossus computer
132 Isambard Kingdom
110 How dry stone walls Brunel
are built
134 Guglielmo Marconi
110 Inside metronomes
136 The Wright brothers
111 What were pneumatic
tube systems used for? 138 Tycho Brahe

112 The Parsons steam 140 Albert Einstein

turbine 142 Max Planck
114 Rack-and-pinion 144 Michael Faraday

148 railways
116 Preserving the Mona
Lisa
146 Alfred Nobel
148 Peter Higgs
Peter 118 The first electric 150 Charles Darwin
Higgs submarine
© TThinkstock; DK Images; Dreamstime; Corbis; Cern; Arhtur_Weasley

118 Who was the Piltdown

Man? Prehistoric
Understanding 119 Electric telegraph
machines explained
154 Age of the dinosaurs
morse code 120 Darkrooms illuminated
162 Prehistoric predators

119 122 How do overhead

projectors work?
122 The first vacuums
166 Biggest ever land
mammal
168 Velociraptors
170 Ankylosaurus
123 How are bronze statues
cast? 172 The giant
Brachiosaurus
123 What are life-
preserving coffins? 174 Sabre-toothed cats

007
 ANCIENT
010 VI Inventions of 022 The art of
Ancient Rome mummification
Explore the six best inventions Unwrap the process of
that the Romans gave to us preserving mummies

016 The Circus Maximus 023 Britain’s tribal

See the largest stadium in the territories

018
history of the Roman world

History of ice
Locate the native tribes of
ancient Britain 030
mummies 024 Ancient Greek Chinese
How did these ancient theatres
corpses freeze in ice? Discover how these massive junks
amphitheatres were built
018 What are the
Nazca lines? 026 Greek tombs Inventions
Where did these Peruvian
ancient drawings come from?
Learn about the unique Greek
tomb structures of Rome
019 Making the
Terracotta Army
027 Greek warriors
The most feared fighters
013
Meet the immortal warriors
built over 2,200 years ago 028 Aztec warriors
Learn how these fierce
020 Ancient Egyptian warriors fought battles
cosmetics 029 Native American
Find out why makeup was so
important in ancient Egypt warrior
Check out the key kit of a
020 Origins of chocolate Native American fighter
The sacred Mayan beginnings
030 Chinese junks
Ancient
021 How sundials tell Dynamic sailing at high speed
the time 032
Celts
How did our ancestors tell the
time of day
The ancient Celts
How the Iron Age
revolutionised the Celts
032
021 Horse shoeing
From the olden days we have
protected their feet – how?

Greek
tombs
026

008
 Mummification
022

© DK images; Thinkstock;
Look and Learn; Nikthestunned
029 019
Native American The Terracotta
warriors Army

024
Roman
theatre
009
 Ancient History
Inventions of Ancient Rome

How the Romans

changed the world you live in
Perhaps the greatest of all the ancient
civilisations, the Roman Empire
represented the age of classical
antiquity and helped create the world we live in
today. The massive engineering projects that
were undertaken and the advances in medicine
and society ensure Roman influence can still be
felt now. For example, concrete and cement
were first popularised in Ancient Rome, as was
a type of central heating known as a hypocaust.
One of the most remarkable traits of all
though, was the ability for the Romans to work
all their schemes and inventions into fully
functioning cities within an extensive empire.
Rome itself was a bustling metropolis that no
other civilisation matched in prosperity and
size for centuries afterward. Nowhere else in
the ancient world had grand shopping centres
like Trajan’s Market, specialised landfill sites
such as Monte Testaccio or extensive sewer
networks like the Cloaca Maxima. They were
also famously proficient at town planning and
building large structures.
Home life was revolutionised under the
Romans. Also, as is well known, the army was
an all-conquering juggernaut that took the old
world by storm. To commemorate their affect on
modern society and technology, we discover
just how innovative and ground-breaking this
civilisation really was.

010
HEAD
HEAD 2
BIG ROMAN CITIES
1. BIG Carthage
The centre of the
defeated Carthaginian
Empire, Rome made
Carthage one of its main
satellites with as many
as 500,000 people.
2. BIGGER Alexandria
The Egyptian city became
prosperous in the
Ptolemaic dynasty and by
the time of Roman
conquest had 500,000
to 750,000 inhabitants.
3. BIGGEST Rome
With an estimated
population of 1 million
and the home of the
emperor, Rome was
the empire’s main
urban metropolis.

DID YOU KNOW? Lugo in Spain is now the only city in Europe to still be surrounded by intact Roman walls

Engineering in Roman home life

The technology inside a Roman house
The citizens of Rome had to be properly housed
to ensure that the vast urban sprawl could
operate as an organised society. Prior to the
Romans, impressive structures were built by
the Egyptians and the Greeks but never on the
scale of the Roman Empire with its extensive
housing projects.
Roman building techniques owed a lot to
Greek and Etruscan influences. Houses were
one or two storeys high and included lots of
different sections. Ideally adapted to the
Mediterranean heat, the typical Roman house
often had no windows (glass was rarely used),
instead fitted with an atrium to act as an
open-air courtyard in the middle of the
building. Life in a house was boosted by a fully
functioning public welfare system that
provided grain to 300,000 of Rome’s families
every year. If you wanted some retail therapy,
Trajan’s Market had over one hundred tabernae
(shops) selling a variety of goods.
Not every citizen was lucky or rich enough to
own a house. Lower classes were put into one of
Rome’s many ‘insulae’ apartment buildings
and there are believed to have been over 40,000
of these in the city. In fact, these apartments
outnumbered family houses by 20 to one!

The Roman residence Building blocks

The Romans used pulleys and
More than just a roof above your head, the levers to shift large building
Roman house was quite complex blocks. Slaves carried out the
hard graft.
Roof tiles
A stonesman would carve thin
tiles from stone. These were
laid on top of wooden beams
and fixed with nails.

Mosaics
Chips of stone were laid into
cement to create beautiful
works of art. This technique
borrowed from Greece.

Clay bricks
Heating Roman bricks were
Larger residences were fired clay. Roman
heated by a hypocaust legions operated mobile
system, an ancient method kilns and bricks were often
of underfloor heating. stamped with the mark of
the legion.

Hypocaust heating system

Running the hypocaust
Slaves kept the system running by keeping the
flame alight. It is still unknown how well the
convection currents worked and whether some
rooms got too hot because of the system.
Convection
currents
Underneath a Roman roads
raised floor, vents Roman roads interlinked cities and towns and
allowed heated air allowed rapid military and administrative
to travel freely and communications. Construction began with a
used convection trench, which was filled with a base of stones
currents to heat the and rocks. These were packed together
tiles above. The tightly, usually with cement, to create a firm
warm air came foundation for armies to march on and
from a wood- chariots to ride across. Large paving stones
burning furnace. were used on the surface. These were placed
and fitted by hand along with channels on the
Disadvantages side of the road that allowed water to run off
The hypocaust was reserved only for into surrounding fields. In the UK, roads such
the wealthiest villas and large as the A1 and A5 owe their origins to the
bathhouses. Also, the burning of wood Roman conquest of Britain.
produced toxic carbon monoxide fumes.

011
 Ancient History
Inventions of Ancient Rome
Hydraulics

Aqueduct engineering Despite having a limited

knowledge of construction
science, the Roman builders

How the Romans built their immense water-management network realised that gravity and water
pressure would play a key part.

Aqueducts weren’t invented by
Romans but were popularised by
them. These structures were the life
stream of a city. 1,300 drinking
fountains and 144 public toilets
were located in Rome and they
were all fed by the complex system
of aqueducts, which brought in
fresh drinking water from rural
areas. The system was
accompanied by an elaborate
network of sewers.
Rome’s main sewer was known
as Cloaca Maxima and carried dirty
water out of the city and into the
River Tiber. The first-ever aqueduct
was the Aqua Appia, built in 312
BCE. It helped relieve the demand
for water in a rapidly growing
Rome. Where possible, the majority
of an aqueduct was built
underground to protect it from
enemies. The iconic raised arches
were only required when the
structures neared a city or needed
to cross a ravine.
The basic yet effective tools used
in construction were the dioptra
(measured angles) and chorobates
(measured horizontal planes).
Groma
These were handled by skilled army An important
engineers who designed a gravity surveying instrument
based system with dropshafts and in Ancient Rome, the
groma was used to
chutes to help the water flow. This measure straight lines
demonstrated excellent structural and right angles.
engineering and water
management expertise and they
were built so well that some are still
operational to this day!
Topography
Each aqueduct had to be tailored
to the shape of the land it
traversed so careful planning was
put into how best to construct it.

1 Building materials
Aqueducts were primarily
constructed out of limestone that was
mined from neighbouring quarries.
These slabs of rock were bound
Scaffolding
together by Roman concrete and While under construction, the
cement, which was made out of aqueduct was propped up by
durable and waterproof volcanic sand wooden scaffolding. This
maintained the structure as
called pozzolana. stone was imported from
nearby quarries.

2 Planning
The building of aqueducts was
often financed by the emperors
themselves, so meticulous planning
was put into the operation. The land
needed to be surveyed by engineers to
make sure it was fit for construction.

3 Construction techniques
The reinforced Roman concrete
arch was an essential part of the
aqueduct as it could hold the pressure
and weight of the water after the
wooden construction supports had
been removed. Pulleys, wedges and
screws were used as lifting apparatus.

4 Design and uses

The water was carried a great
distance from spring to urban area and
was then held in cisterns in the city
and onto a network of pipes to each
individual building. Aqueducts also
aided a town’s sewer system and
protected against fires.

012
RECORD ROME’S LONG-STANDING RECORD
BREAKERS
CROWDED CAPITAL 1MILLION Rome’s population peaked at 1 million people when the empire was at
the height of its powers. This number wasn’t topped in Europe for nearly
2,000 years, until London began to prosper in the Industrial Revolution.

DID YOU KNOW? Rome’s aqueducts provided up to 1,000 litres (264 gallons) of water for every person in the city

Covering Arches
On the overground parts Arches were a popular
of an aqueduct, a roof feature of Roman
called a ‘specus’ was architecture. Strong
sometimes used to and versatile, an
protect the water from aqueduct would have
the elements, keeping it been much less
fresh and clean. effective without them.

Flowing far
Many claim that aqueducts were one of
the best Roman developments. Frequent
throughout the Roman world, their
effective and modern system was lost
after the fall of the empire and never
recovered until much, much later in
human history. A lot of these structures
were actually underground, but they are
most fondly remembered for their
overground segments with their iconic
vaulted arches that were essential in
their construction. As techniques
improved, aqueducts were also used to
supply out-of-town factories and mines
with water. The longest aqueduct in
Rome was the Aqua Marcia at 91
kilometres (57 miles) from source to city,
but even longer systems were built
across the empire.

Roman newspapers
All citizens in Rome were kept up-to-date with two daily newspapers.
The Acta Senatus made sure the public was up to speed with what
was going on in the Senate while the Acta Diurna was a daily
gazette based on Roman news and weather. Both publications were
handwritten so their circulation wasn’t exceedingly high, but the
Acta Diurna lasted two centuries of service. The Senatus wasn’t so
lucky as several emperors forbade its publication and preferred to
keep Senate minutes private. They were also pioneers of the postal
service. The Cursus Publicus was a state-run courier system that
delivered messages throughout the Roman Empire.

013
 Ancient History
Inventions of Ancient Rome

Buildings
The biggest cities were home to the biggest buildings

In its prime Rome was one of the, if not the
most, technologically advanced cities in the
world. Containing huge, expansive buildings,
revolutionary architecture and a housed, fed
and watered population within its walls, the
vast empire’s capital in Rome was well ahead
of its time.
The Colosseum became the cultural centre of
Rome after its construction in 80 CE, but the
capital also contained one of the largest sports
stadiums of all time, the Circus Maximus, as
well as other examples of stunning
engineering, such as the Pantheon, the Arch of
Septimius Severus and the Theatre of Pompey.

All in a name
The Colosseum The name ‘Colosseum’ comes from
the word ‘colossus’ which was the
How the centrepiece of the empire name of giant statues erected in the Dimensions
and its architecture was built city by Emperor Nero. 48m (157ft) high and 189x156m
(620x512ft) in length and width, the
Concrete and cement Colosseum had room for around
Pozzolanic ash-based cement 50,000 bloodthirsty Romans!
made buildings much
sturdier and allowed
several levels to be
built on top of
each other.

Tickets
Not unlike modern
stadia, spectators
were given
numbered tokens as
tickets and wooden
barriers helped
maintain order on
the terraces.

Velarium Construction Arches Underground labyrinth

All the spectators in the The Colosseum’s outer wall was 80 concrete arches meant the Underneath the Colosseum was a
Colosseum were protected from made from 100,000m3 (3.53mn Colosseum had an extremely system of tunnels that elevated
the hot Mediterranean sun by an ft3) of limestone held together by durable design, which has allowed cages into the arena using a
awning called the velarium. 300 tons of iron clamps. it to stand for nearly 2,000 years! slave-run pulley system.

014
5 TOP Organisation
1 80 legionnaires were in a century.
Training
2 Training lasted four months
Pay
3 A legionnaire would earn a
Army oath
4 Each soldier would swear a
Clothing and armour
5 Armour was light but sturdy.

FACTS
Together, six centuries made a
cohort of 480 men. A legion had
ten cohorts and the entire army
contained 30 legions, a total of
ROMAN MILITARY around 150,000 soldiers.
and consisted of marching,
formation and weapons
training. Recruits also
learned to swim, ride a horse
and use a bow and a sling.
basic 225 denarii for a year’s
service. Out of this wage
packet were deductions for
equipment, food and even a
regiment savings bank.
‘sacrementum’ when they
began their service, pledging
their allegiance to the emperor
and vow never to abandon
comrades or desert a battle.
The helmets and armour
could repel projectiles while
the military-issue tunic was
comfortable enough to
wear on long marches.

DID YOU KNOW? Soldiers had to be able to march 32km (20mi) in five hours while carrying around 20.5kg (45lb) of equipment

Military
Ingenious conquerors

On both land and sea, the Roman Empire

dominated warfare for centuries, invading
large portions of Europe and making significant
inroads into Africa and Asia Minor. The Romans
outwitted their opponents using expert battle
tactics and perfectly engineered weapons and
armour. Soldiers were divided into legions that
served different territories and swore an oath of
loyalty to the centurions. One of the main
reasons why the Romans consistently beat their
enemies (and what links them to today’s The war at sea

© Sol90; Thinkstock; Look and Learn; CG Textures

military) is the fact that the army was a
professional conscripted force. A full-time
operation, a soldier was one of the highest-paid
and most-respected occupations in the empire.
Romans on
On the high seas of the Mediterranean, the
Romans enjoyed even more dominance than
on land. Using triremes and galleys propelled
by teams of over 100 men, ships attacked
either by ramming the opposition or boarding
their ships. Owing a lot of their strategies to
reverse-engineering methods learnt from the
Greeks and Carthaginians, maritime
superiority was essential for victory in the
Punic Wars and Egypt campaigns. The senior
arm of the Roman navy was known as the
Classis Misenensis and except for internal
civil wars, achieved total marine dominance
for Rome after the Punic Wars.

the battlefield
What a battle between the Empire and a Formation Centurions
barbarian horde would have looked like Legionnaires would form a A centurion usually commanded a unit
defensive front using their of 80 men and was in charge of their
rectangle scutum shields, training and discipline after rising
Cavalry which was a progression on through the ranks.
Roman cavalry the Greek phalanx formation.
riders supported
the legionnaires Ranged warfare
by attacking an The pilum and verutum
army’s flanks.
Legionnaires were spears used for
The legion was long distance attacks to
They could also
the main unit of unsettle the enemy
chase down any
the army and ranks before a charge.
enemies that
applicants were
tried to escape.
required to be
Roman citizens
between the ages
of 17 and 45.

Auxiliaries
Auxiliaries (non-citizen Discipline Close-quarters combat
soldiers) formed the rest of The strict Roman ranks were extremely Either a gladius or pugio was
the Empire’s militia and could effective against the barbarian hordes, used in tight hand-to-hand
only be granted citizenship who had no effective response to the combat when the two forces
after 25 years’ service. Testudo (tortoise) formation. engaged in a close proximity.

015
 Ancient History
The Circus Maximus
The Circus Maximus
Explore the largest stadium in the history of the Roman world
and find out what spectacular events were held there
As the name suggests, the Circus
Maximus was Rome’s biggest circus,
or racetrack. It was established by
Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, in
the sixth century BCE. The first circus to be
erected in the city, the original building was a
wholly wooden construction. Increased in size
by Julius Caesar, a triple stone arch was later
added to honour Emperor Titus, before the
entire structure was rebuilt in stone and
concrete by Emperor Trajan in 103 CE, after a fire
destroyed its wooden predecessor.
Although various monumental additions
were continually added during the following
A trip to the Roman circus
How was the Circus Maximus laid out to enable vast crowds
to comfortably enjoy sport and other spectator events?
Starting gates
Charioteers entered the
circus from the starting
gates located at the
northern end of the arena.
The statistics…
Circus Maximus
Length: 621m (2,037ft)
Width: 118m (387ft)
Height: Up to 30m (98ft)
Area: 84,000m² (904,200ft2)
Seating capacity: 250,000
016
centuries, the Circus Maximus essentially
remained the same for the next 400 years.
Despite the massive cost of the circus’s
construction and the popularity of chariot
racing, admission was entirely free – anyone
could attend races, including poorer citizens.
Betting was popular with all classes and
under the stands were food stalls, stables and
shops that serviced charioteers and public
alike. Several small temples and shrines were
also incorporated into the complex and
religious festivals were held annually within its
walls. Other forms of entertainment also
featured in the venue’s yearly calendar,
Metae
Made from three conical
stone pillars, these
turning posts marked the
ends of the central
dividing barrier and
protected it from damage
as the chariots cornered.
Spina
Running down the
length of the circus,
chariots raced around
this central brick and
stone barrier.
including musical recitals, athletics
competitions, plays and staged animal hunts.
With the advent of Christianity and the
crumbling Roman Empire, the fortunes of the
Circus Maximus quickly declined. The last
recorded chariot race took place in 549 CE, after
which Rome’s greatest entertainment venue
was abandoned and became a quarry.
In 1587, the two Egyptian obelisks that stood
on the central spine were removed by Pope
Sixtus V to adorn different parts of the city; the
rest of the building disappeared soon after.
Today, the circus’s site is used as a public park
and there is little to indicate its former glory.
Egyptian obelisk
Removed from Heliopolis
in Egypt by Augustus, the
obelisk commemorated
the Roman victory over
Antony and Cleopatra.
Seating
Rising some three
storeys or more in
height, the seating in
the Circus Maximus was
built of stone and brick,
with wooden sections
added at the top.
HEAD
HEAD
ROMAN STADIA
2 1. BIG Stadium of
Philippopolis
Built near Plovdiv, Bulgaria,
in the second century CE,
this stadium is 240m
(787ft) long and could
host 30,000 people.
2. BIGGER Constantinople
Hippodrome
450m (1,476ft) in length,
the Hippodrome built next
to the Great Palace in
Constantinople could seat
100,000 spectators.
3. BIGGEST Circus
Maximus
At 621m (2,037) long and
with a 250,000 capacity
(according to Pliny), this
great Roman circus was
never surpassed.

DID YOU KNOW? The celebration for Italy’s World Cup 2006 victory was held on the site of the Circus Maximus

Colosseum
Known as the Flavian
Amphitheatre, this
was the largest
amphitheatre in the
empire. It too hosted
public spectacles, like
animal hunts and
Roman Forum gladiatorial battles.
The centre of Roman
public life, the
rectangular forum
was surrounded by
statues, temples and Aqua Claudia
government buildings. This aqueduct supplied
water to the districts of
Rome from mountain
sources 72km (45mi) away.

In the neighbourhood…
Located to the south of the city’s
heart, the Circus Maximus was a
functional building as well as a
prestigious monument proclaiming
the glory of Rome. Towering over the
circus on its northern flank was the
great Palatine Palace, built by the
emperors Vespasian, Titus and
Domitian. Bordering both the palace
and the circus at its southern end
Palatine Palace
Also called the Flavian
Palace, this was the
principal seat of the
emperors of Rome.
was the Septizonium, a huge marble
façade, which functioned as an
ornamental fountain. Rising above Circus Maximus
the circus on its southern flank was Like the Colosseum, it
the Aventine Hill, crowded with hosted public events called
temples and private villas, while to ‘ludi’, including horse races,
the west stood smaller buildings and plays and athletics, but its
the River Tiber. This picture details capacity was far greater
the location of the Circus Maximus than the amphitheatre’s.
and other landmarks in its vicinity.

Imperial box
Located on the palace
Drainage canal
Dug between the
side of the circus, the
imperial box allowed
the royal family to
bottom of the seating
and the edge of the
track, the canal helped
watch races in drain the floor and also
comfort and security. protect spectators from
chariot crashes.
Processional
entrance
Civic and religious
processions entered the
circus at its southern
Chariot racing in
Roman times
Chariot racing was probably the Roman world’s
equivalent of football. Inherited from the Ancient
Greeks and Etruscans, the sport was refined by
the Romans and practised throughout the
empire. Dangerous to horses and charioteers
alike, there were frequent accidents and even
deaths during races in the circus.
There could be as many as 24 chariot races in
a circus per day and although there were basic
rules for behaviour while racing, charioteers
often deliberately crashed into opponents or
tried to force them into the central barrier.
An average race in the Circus Maximus would
see up to 12 teams of charioteers lined up
against each other, each chariot drawn by four
horses competing over a distance of 6.4
kilometres (four miles). There were four principal
teams – the Reds, Whites, Greens and Blues –
the latter two of which rose to great prominence.
Fans followed their team’s progress closely,
much like football clubs do today. Fierce rivalry
often resulted in violence between factions and
sometimes even riots.
A highly paid sport, the most famous Roman
charioteer, Gaius Appuleius Diocles, won 1,462
out of his 4,257 races. When he retired at the
age of 42, he had amassed winnings of
35,863,120 sesterces – approximately £9 billion
© SPL; Alamy

end under a triple arch ($15 billion) in today’s money – making him the
erected in honour of highest-paid sports star in history.
Emperor Titus.

017
 Ancient History
Ice mummies / Nazca lines
The tomb of a 2,400-
year-old mummy known
as the Siberian Ice Maiden
Inset: One of three Incan children
excavated on the summit of
Cerro Llullaillaco, Argentina
History of
ice mummies
Preserved in ice for centuries, even
millennia, how did these people freeze?
On an early autumn
afternoon in 1991, Erika
and Helmut Simon were
walking off the beaten track in the
Alps when they encountered a
corpse protruding from the ice of a
retreating glacier. It looked so
fresh that they assumed it was the
body of an unfortunate skier or
climber – but this was Ötzi, an
early-Bronze Age hunter who
roamed the area 5,300 years ago. As
valuable an archaeological find as
he was though, Ötzi is far from a
unique specimen.
Ancient corpses interred in ice
have been found across the globe,
whether they were the victim of
ON THE
MAP
Ice mummy
sites around
the world
1 Mount Ampato, Peru
2 The Alps, Italy
3 Altai Mountains, Russia
4 Qilakitsoq, Greenland
5 Beechey Island, Canada
6 El Plomo Peak, Chile
018
What are the
Nazca lines?
Ancient drawings cover the Peruvian
plains, but where did they come from?
The Peruvian coastal plain in South America is home to a
wonder of archaeology. The ground is scarred by images, or
geoglyphs, known as the Nazca lines, thought to have been
constructed by the people of Nazca between 500 BCE and 500 CE.
The ancient artworks – most easily viewed from the air – were
created by methodically removing dark-coloured gravel from the
surface to reveal lighter material below. The plains’ unique climate
has preserved the lines for thousands of years. Each year, the region
receives just 20 minutes of rainfall on average, and the ground is
mostly stone and gravel, which prevents the striking images from
eroding in the wind.
These intricate patterns The extremely dry
arbitrary violence, an accident or, were created by using very conditions in Peru have
simple tools and methods preserved the drawings
in a more recent and famous case,
a ritual sacrifice. The ice mummy
Juanita was found in 1995 on top of The complexity of the Nazca
lines has led to some wild
Mount Ampato, Peru, having been theories as to their origin
sacrificed to Incan gods at the age
of only 12-14 at some point in the
16th century.
The sub-zero conditions would
have preserved their bodies
indefinitely. But after removing
them from the ice, the museums in
which they’re housed need to keep
their humidity high (around 90 per
cent) and temperature below -6
degrees Celsius (21.2 degrees
Fahrenheit) to make sure that they
do not deteriorate.
Going on a Nazca safari…
5 4
2
3
© Thinkstock; Corbis; Getty; Martin St Amant
Dog Spider Hummingbird
1 This 51m (167ft) An impressive 45m The Nazca
canine is thought to (150ft) in length, hummingbird
be an image of an this Nazca arachnid measures 97m (318ft)
6 ancestor of the was one of the very from beak to tail.
hairless Peruvian fi rst figures to be Carved on a raised
dog. It was kept by studied in the region plateau, it is one of
the Nazca as a pet, by scientists back in the most prominent
used as a watchdog. the Thirties. of the animals.
Making the Terracotta Army
Meet the immortal warriors built to defend the Chinese Emperor Qin Shi
Huang and find out how they were constructed over 2,200 years ago
The Terracotta Army comprises a huge exposure to the air, when originally completed The Terracotta Army is but one feature –
collection of sculptures found within these sculptures would have been brightly albeit the most impressive one to date – of Qin’s
the mausoleum of the first emperor of painted and highly detailed – evidence of larger mausoleum and necropolis, with the
China, Qin Shi Huang. Featuring close to 9,000 which can still be found on a few well- emperor’s tomb and underground palace yet to
figures, objects and weapons, the massive preserved specimens. What does remain be excavated. According to famous Chinese
earthenware cohort was built to accompany unchanged is their original layout, with the historian Sima Qian (circa 145-90 BCE), all
Emperor Qin into the afterlife. thousands of statues arranged in accurate manner of treasures are concealed there, but
The terracotta army was manufactured by military formations, with generals and other the site is considered sacred so there are no
thousands of labourers and craftsmen during important officers identified. immediate plans to disturb the tomb.
Qin’s reign around 220-210 BCE. The material
used to build the sculptures was harvested
from the site of the mausoleum – Mount Li in
Beyond the warriors…
Shaanxi Province. According to detailed Officials Acrobats Musicians Animals
Qin also needed In contrast to the Music was important Emperor Qin Shi
examination of the figures, their heads, arms, protection from the sombre and serious in Ancient China, Huang was clearly a
legs and torsos were modelled and fired trials and tribulations terracotta soldiers, which is represented big fan of animals, as a
separately, only being assembled afterwards, of administration other pits within Qin’s by the abundance of host of sacred
work. Terracotta court mausoleum have musicians and creatures, such as
so many more were probably made but officials and revealed acrobats and instruments. A set of cranes and swans, as
damaged during production. counsellors can dancers, each crafted Bianzhong bronze well as a full-blown
While today the excavated figures therefore be found in animated positions chimes was recently imperial zoo, have
throughout his and with strong unearthed in very been found inside
have reverted to their natural enormous mausoleum. facial expressions. good condition. the mausoleum.
orange-red colour due to

All about Qin

Qin Shi Huang, the legendary first
emperor of China, brought the
Warring States period to a close in
221 BCE. His reign was typified by
military conquest, with campaigns
into modern China’s southern
lands, as well as massive public
projects; examples include the
unification of state walls into the
Great Wall of China and a national
road system. Qin ruled unopposed
until his death in 210 BCE – an
event he reportedly attempted to
avoid by undertaking a search for
a fabled elixir of immortality.
© Thinkstock

How It Works | 019

 Ancient History
Egyptian cosmetics / Origins of chocolate

Ancient Egyptian cosmetics

Makeup was once an important part of everyday life in Egypt – find out why
In Ancient Egypt, the image of
an individual often acted as a Applicator
substitute for the body in the afterlife. The applicator was
Therefore, in funerary paintings, both males used to add rouge Bronze mirror
to the lips. It was The Egyptians used
and females are shown in their best clothes, made of wood, mirrors of polished
wigs and makeup. ebony or ivory. bronze. The handle was
In life, the Egyptians utilised a variety of often carved in the form
pigments to adorn the face. The most of an Egyptian goddess.

predominant of these was kohl, which was

used to line the eyes. Kohl came from two
sources: a green eye paint made of mineral
malachite and a black liner derived from
galena, a form of lead ore. Women used red
ochre to form a light blush for cheeks and lips,
while henna was used to paint the nails and
dye the hair. Cosmetics were also applied for
Wig
practical reasons – the military wore it to Because of lice infestations, Cosmetic spoon
protect their eyes from the intense glare of the Egyptians often shaved their These spoons are Cosmetic jars
African Sun. Moreover, it had a religious head. They wore elaborate highly decorative – the The Egyptians’ special oils
wigs of real human hair, one shown here is and unguents were stored in
resonance – each day, in the holy sanctuary of which were adorned with fashioned in the shape containers made from glass,
the temple, the god was anointed with makeup flowers and braids. of a swimming girl. faience ceramic and stone.
as a symbol of celestial regeneration.

Origins of chocolate
Why it was more than just a tasty snack…
Chocolate is derived from the theobroma (‘food of the gods’)
cacao tree and was consumed by the Mayans as a drink.
Chocolate became a sacred elixir to both the Mayans and
Aztecs; it was used during state executions and religious ceremonies.
Archaeologists have discovered
residues of chocolate in ancient jars
that were found in Honduras and
dated to 1100 BCE. Cocoa trees grew in
abundance throughout the Mayan
territories, and by 600 CE their pods
(pictured) were processed in order to
produce a frothy, bitter drink. The
Mayans blended their chocolate with
spices like chilli pepper and vanilla;
once consumed they were believed to
ward off tiredness. Evidence
suggests that cocoa beans were
also ground to a powder. During
© Look and Learn; Corbis

this process, other ingredients

could be added – in this instance,
the resulting powder was mixed with
cold water to create porridge.

020
 How sundials tell the time
Discover how this ancient contraption worked
The sundial is one of the world’s oldest
scientific instruments. Designed to tell
the time to the nearest hour, the ancient
contraption was first created by the Babylonian
and Egyptian civilisations and works by
measuring the Sun’s movement across the sky.
Telling time
The base of the sundial is
marked with the daylight
hours. The shadow will tell
you the time, depending on
where it falls.
Sundial points north
Sundials need to point north and
sit on a flat surface. The gnomon
– the part that protrudes from
the dial – casts a shadow.
© Look and Learn, Dreamstime
The mechanism’s dial is known as a gnomon or
style and contains numerals representing the
hours of the day, so when a shadow (or shard of
light in some variations) is present on a specific
number, that is the current hour. Sundials vary by
their latitude. The Sun appears to take various
Shadow length
The Sun is highest in the sky
at midday and casts short
shadows. When it is lower in
the sky, shadows are longer.
Horse shoeing
Why do horses wear shoes and how are they fitted?
Ever since horses were first
domesticated thousands of years ago,
horsemen realised the importance of
protecting their animals’ feet. On hard or rocky
terrain, shoes protected a horse’s hooves from
cracking or wearing down faster than they could
grow. In soft, wet terrain – like the farmlands of
northern Europe – shoes stopped their hooves
from becoming porous and unstable, as well as
helping the horse gain a good footing.
To prepare the foot, a farrier – an expert who
shoes horses for a living – gives the horse a basic
paths across the sky in different parts of the world
so a sundial must be tailored for the location it is
in. Also, the time shown can vary by how close it
is to a time-zone boundary. Clearly, they work
better in sunnier areas, so they are more effective
in the Mediterranean than in England!
Sun position
Throughout the day,
the Sun appears to
move across the sky
because Earth is
spinning on its axis.
Model of a Babylonian
time spire in the Clock
Museum in Zacatlán,
Puebla, Mexico
manicure by levelling off the hoof with a rasp
and trimming excess growth. Next, they take a
shoe made steel or aluminium and heat it in a
forge until it glows red-hot. The shoe is quickly
placed against the hoof to makes an
impression, which the farrier uses as a guide for
reshaping the malleable metal with a hammer
and anvil. The shoe is cooled in water and fi xed
to the hoof with nails, which are angled so they
exit the outer wall of the hoof and can be bent
down to form clenches. Finally, the edges are
smoothed down with a rasp.
021
 Ancient History
Mummification explained

The art of mummification

Mummies have been found in many parts of the world, but Egyptian mummies are the
most well-known due to their distinctive appearance and unique embalming process
Ancient Egyptians used to bury their
dead directly in the hot sand, which
dried and preserved them somewhat.
When they began using caskets, the
bodies decayed instead. Around 2600 BCE,
Egyptians began experimenting with a way to
preserve their ancestors. They learned that bodies
decayed from the inside out, starting with their
organs. Embalmers perfected a process by which
the organs were removed and the body dried prior
to burial. This practice, known as mummification,
was used for nearly 3,000 years.
Mummification was an expensive process and
could take up to 70 days to complete. The
embalmers worked in open tents, out in the desert
and away from the general population. After
washing the body, they removed the brain from the
skull. In order to get into the brain cavity,
embalmers put a chisel up the body’s nose and hit it
with a hammer to crack through the bone. Then,
they inserted a long hook to pull out brain matter.
After cutting a slit in the left side of the body,
embalmers removed the abdominal organs. They
were washed, wrapped in linen and packed in jars.
Natron, a naturally occurring salt, was added as a
drying agent. The body was rinsed with wine and
filled with incense and natron, then covered with

© Thinkstock
more natron. A slanted table allowed fluids to drip
from the body as it dried while guards kept away
scavengers. Once the body was dry, embalmers An extreme way
wrapped it in linen strips in several stages and of wrapping up
coated it with resin. The linen helped keep the body warm for winter
together and prevented moisture from entering. A
rigid scaffold was then fitted over the body and a
funeral mask attached to the face. Finally, the “The practice of mummification was
completed mummy was placed into a container
decorated to look like a person, called a suhet. used for nearly 3,000 years”
© 2005 David Monniaux

022
Britain’s tribal Head
to Head
ANCIENT BRITISH
TRIBES

territories MOST
REBELLIOUS

© PHGCOM
Before the Roman
invasion in 55 BC,
Britain was 1. Iceni
Located: Norfolk
characterised by a Facts: One of the most rich and
powerful tribes in Britain, the Iceni
large number of Caledones
revolted against the Romans after
the death of their client-king
Taexali
ancient tribes, each Prasutagus and were lead until
her death by Prasutagus’ wife, the
with its own culture renowned Queen Boudicca.

While the first modern MOST

humans populated the CIVILISED
area we now call Venicones
Britain at the end of the

© John Opie
Ice Age (6,500 BC), very little is
known about the intricacies of their

© Rhys Jones
Epidii
culture and peoples until recorded Damnonii
history begins circa the Roman 2. Catuvellauni
invasion of 55 BC. Indeed, if it were not Located: South-east
for the Roman chroniclers of the time The view of an encircling ditch Facts: One of the most pro-
around Danebury hill fort Roman tribes, the Catuvellauni
such as Tacitus and Ptolemy, who met Votadini quickly adopted Roman lifestyles
the ancient tribes of Britain either in trade
Selgovae and, as a result, were made very
rich and powerful. One of the
or in war, our sketchy picture of these peoples most famous British tribal kings,
would be even more incomplete than it is today. Cunobelinus, heralded from the
However, centuries of historical records, stories and Catuvellauni.
Novantae Brigantes
archaeological finds have at least given us a snapshot MOST
of their lives, leaders and customs. DEFENSIVE
Before the Roman invasion there were over 27 separate
Carvetii
tribes living in Britain. These people had grown from the

© Nigel Mykura
early hunter-gathers who had inhabited the area, and
later the farmers who had developed agriculturally Parisi
focused societies and who had built such sophisticated
structures as Stonehenge. For the last 600 years BC though, 3. Durotriges
influenced much by the arrival of the Celts from the Located: Dorset
continent, expansionist tribal kingdoms headed by Cornovii Facts: A southern tribe, the
dynastic and highly territorial rulers and chieftains arose, Deceangli Durotriges differed from others by
remaining largely in hill forts long
delivering cultures of fierce violence and sophisticated after others had abandoned them.
manufacture, artistry and trade.
While the Romans are often credited with bringing a
Native Corieltauvi
They were huge traders and,
through numerous harbours,

unified currency, as well as structured towns and a host of

amenities and technology, these features – at least in part
Ordovices tribes of Iceni
exchanged many goods with
the Romans.

– were already integrated into areas of British tribal

society. Some tribes such as the Venicones buried their
Britain
Accurate locations of Catuvellauni Maiden Castle, a great
example of an Iron Age,
dead in stone casings, very much akin to a tomb or Demetae each tribe settlement multi-ditch hill fort
coffin. Others, like the Iceni, Catuvellauni and
Atrebates, had already created and distributed Trinovantes
Silures
currency throughout their territories.
Over 200 years, however, from 55 BC until well into
the 2nd Century AD, the ancient tribes of Britain Dubunni Atrebates
were either conquered or indoctrinated into the Roman
empire, a process that largely converted the population’s Belgae
attitudes and cultures to those shared on the continent and Cantiaci
Regni
© Ray Beer

saw a gradual climb in society towards standards of

administration, architecture, sanitary systems and Durotriges
Dumnonii
health care that resonate with today’s society.

023
 Ancient History
Ancient Greek theatres

Ancient Greek
Episkenion
The upper storey of the
skene. Accessed by a
ramp or stairwells, it
provided an additional
acting/singing space.

theatres
Discover how these massive
Thyroma
These structures were
stone pillars into which
vertical grooves were
cut. The grooves
received the painted
background panels and

amphitheatres were built and used held them in place.

With the invention of tragedies in the

late-sixth century BCE, comedies in
Tour of the theatre
Take a guided tour of the theatrical building
the fifth century BCE and the satyr at the heart of Ancient Greek entertainment
play tragicomedies around the first century
BCE, the Ancient Greeks had to build a huge Kerkis
number of impressive theatres to do their plays The koilon was composed
justice. As the centuries went on – and the of a series of wedge-
shaped seating blocks
popularity of the theatre grew and grew – the (kerkides) arranged in a
buildings had to expand and adapt to meet the semicircle. These were
demand. Indeed, many of these semicircular divided by various
walkways and stairs.
amphitheatres could seat well over 10,000
people and were used frequently during
religious festivals such as the Dionysia, a major
celebration centred around the god Dionysus.
While the theatres of the Ancient Greeks
began as simple clearings with a smattering of
wooden benches for the audience to sit on,
before long they had grown into full-blown
sanctuary-like facilities. These included large
banks of stone seats, a vast orchestra and acting
area, a complex backstage network of rooms,
entrances and trapdoors, as well as a wide
selection of ornate and decorative scenic
backdrops. These features, along with the
Ancient Greeks’ love for festivals, led theatres Prohedria
This was the general
to take a central role in cementing and term used for any stone
spreading Greek culture – something the seating within the theatre
Romans would later adopt for themselves. – but is sometimes used
to specifically describe
Theatres were made primarily out of stone, the honorific seats in
often with the amphitheatre’s seats placed into front of the orchestra.
the side of a hill for extra support, while
traditional construction methods for civic
buildings and temples were transferred for the
production of colonnades, scenery and
entranceways. Interestingly, the greatest
technical feat in constructing many of these
Analemmata
theatres were the excellent acoustics, with the Often the theatre’s koilon
shape and angle of the seating arrangement was built into a hillside,
and materials (limestone was a popular choice, which acted as a natural
brace. However, the outer
for instance) serving as acoustic traps. These edges could be left
would filter out low-frequency sounds like exposed and so were
spectator chatter and enhance the high secured by analemmata
– ie retaining walls.
frequencies of the performers’ voices.

024
HEAD
HEAD
ANCIENT GREEK
THEATRES
2 1. BIG Theatre
of Delphi
Located behind the
Temple of Apollo in the
Sanctuary of Delphi, this
theatre has 35 rows of
seats for spectators.
2. BIGGER Odeon of
Herodes Atticus
With a capacity of 5,000,
the Odeon is located on the
Acropolis in Athens, Greece,
and is still used for
performances today.
3. BIGGEST Theatre of
Epidaurus
Built in the fourth century
BCE and able to seat
15,000, this theatre is one
of the largest classical
examples in the world.

DID YOU KNOW? Members of Ancient Greek acting guilds were referred to as ‘technitai’

Pinakes Skene Diazoma

Pinakes were the painted
wooden panels used as
changeable backdrops to
indicate where the action
was taking place. They
were inserted into the
skene’s slotted thyromata.
This background structure
was used by the actors and
theatre workers to change
costumes, assemble props
and operate any mechanical
apparatus. It would often
resemble a Greek temple.
Parodos
Both actors and audience
members could enter
through parodoi into the
theatre proper. Typically,
entrances were located
either side of the skene.
Midway up the koilon a
semicircular walkway,
known as the diazoma,
split the amphitheatre’s
seating area in two.
The role of masks
The wearing of masks in a theatre setting was
not invented by the Ancient Greeks but was a
key part of all their productions. For one thing,
masks were closely connected to Ancient Greek
religion, with many of their gods – who famously
liked to meddle in the affairs of humans –
depicted in each performance. The masks worn
by the actors therefore both allowed them to
transform into a deity visually, as well as
venerate them in a form of ritual performance;
indeed, records indicate many masks were
burned after each show as a sacrifice.
Secondly, masks enabled each actor to be
better seen by the audience, with exaggerated
features such as noses and mouths, as well as
facial expressions, more easily transmitted at a
distance. The hiding of the face also enabled
each actor to play multiple roles – especially
female characters, as women were banned from
acting within the theatre at this time.
One of the most common deity masks worn
was that of Dionysus, who among other
hedonistic roles – such as the god of wine and
revelry – was also the god of the theatre.

Thymele
This was an altar-like
structure used by the
leader of the chorus to
direct the other singers,
much like a conductor. It
was located at the centre
of the orchestra.

Koilon Klimakes
The koilon was the Located at either side
theatre’s seating area, of the kerkides were
though it was sometimes klimakes, narrow stone
used to describe the steps that led from the
theatre as a whole too. bottom of the koilon to
the top. They were the
primary means of
reaching the epitheatron.
© Fingalo; Nikthestunned; Plusgood; Sandra Doyle, The Art Agency

Epitheatron
Any seating above the
diazoma was part of the
epitheatron. Seats here
cost less than those
Proskenion below the diazoma.
The proskenion was the
platform/stage directly
in front of the skene. It
typically included a
colonnade and wide open
acting space located in
front of the prohedria.

025
 Ancient History
Greek tomb construction

Greek tomb Who were the

Mycenaeans?

construction
Learn about the unique structures in which the
elite of these Ancient Greek people were buried
There were two main types of
Mycenaean tomb: chamber tombs and
tholos tombs. The former predates the
latter and consisted of a rhomboidal chamber
cut into rock/earth and finished with a square
stone pyramid on the top. No examples of these
tombs have been found in modern times,
however they are detailed in ledgers of the
ancient Babylonian city of Uruk.
The latter, which became the more common
tomb after 1500 BCE, is of a grander design.
Tholos tombs, which resemble the shape of a
beehive, were conical, false-domed chambers
built out of mud bricks and stone. The bricks
were laid in a circle on top of one another up to
a tapered centre point. The entire dome was
The Mycenaean civilisation occupied much of
modern-day central Greece and flourished
between 1600 and 1100 BCE. Unlike the earlier
Minoan settlers of the area whose society
expanded and prospered through trade, the
Mycenaeans advanced theirs through military
conquest. One of the most notable examples of
the Mycenaean expansion through war is
recorded in Homer’s The Iliad, where the king of
Mycenae, Agamemnon, and the united forces of
These beehive tombs were accessed via a Greece took the city of Ilium (Troy) in north-west
Anatolia (Turkey). Another advance saw the
long approach corridor, or passage, that was Mycenaeans capture the island of Crete.
known as a dromos, which culminated in a
large entranceway, called a stomion. The
stomion consisted of a large rectangular brick
opening commonly flanked by two stone
columns and topped with a single giant stone
mantle. Above the mantle a triangular hole was
often filled with a decorative relief sculpture.
Inside, off the main conical chamber, lay an
antechamber, which was typically rectangular.
This could be used either for burials – other
family members – or more likely grave goods,
such as jewellery and weapons. There’s
evidence that both the antechamber and main
stomion were installed with wooden doors, the

© DK Images; Thinkstock
then covered by an earthen mound (tumulus). latter set slightly back from the main façade.

A tholos tomb unearthed

Discover the major elements that made up the final
resting places of the Mycenaean aristocracy

Tumulus
Upon the dome a small
mound of earth called a
tumulus was placed. This
protected the tomb from
Dromos the elements and hid it
The tholos was from potential raiders.
approached by a dromos,
an avenue leading up to
its entrance. These were
either cut into natural
rock or built from ashlar
masonry (stone bricks).

Antechamber Stomion
Commonly a small At the end of the dromos
antechamber abutted the stood a large stomion, an
main chamber in which the entranceway typically
person’s grave goods and constructed out of cut
even deceased relatives stone and flanked by
may have been placed. ornate stone pillars.

026
HEAD
HEAD
HOMERIC HEROES
2 1. FAMOUS Ajax
A mythological hero and
key player in Homer’s Iliad,
Ajax is a warrior with the
strength of many men.
During the story he kills a
lot of Trojan warriors.
2. MORE FAMOUS Agamemnon
Also in the Iliad, but
suspected by some to be
real, Agamemnon was a
warrior king of Mycenae.
He was commander-in-
chief of the Greek forces.
3. MOST FAMOUS Heracles
A divine hero in Greek
mythology, Heracles was
Earth’s greatest warrior.
During his 12 Labours, he
killed the Nemean lion and
a nine-headed hydra.

DID YOU KNOW? Panoply is the term used to describe a complete set of hoplite armour and weaponry

Greek Hoplite kit

We look at the major armour
and weapons used by
these elite soldiers

warriors
The hoplites of Ancient Greece
Breastplate
Both linen and metal
Helmet
Various styles of helmet
were worn, ranging from
the heavy-duty Corinthian
breastplates were worn,
to the lighter Chalcidian
were some of the most feared with the richer and more
important warriors wearing variety seen here. The
crest colour and design
fighters in the world – find out very ornate bronze
examples. Here, the warrior varied between city-states.

why they were so hard to defeat is wearing a linothorax, a

linen variety popular in
later periods.
Both in Homeric and post-Homeric Greece,
hoplite warriors were considered the most
deadly and efficient soldiers on the planet.
Armed with a variety of highly refined weapons –
such as spears, swords and daggers, protected by
toughened bronze armour and adept at executing
cunning tactics and formations, these Ancient Greek
warriors tore through many an enemy army with
considerable ease.
Arguably, hoplites really came into their own
around the sixth century BCE. Prior to this point
Greek warriors – who were self-armed and trained
civilians – fought for personal, familial or national
honour singularly. They obviously grouped under
city-state banners to wage wars, but when the battle
started, the onus was very much on man-to-man
single combat; indeed, many battles of this period
began with army commanders/heroes facing off
against each other solo. Sword
Hoplites also carried a
After the introduction of advanced military short sword called a
formations such as the phalanx – see ‘Wall of death’ xiphos. This secondary
boxout for more – circa 700 BCE, soldiers began to weapon was only used
when the spear was
fight battles as cohesive military units. damaged or a phalanx
This increased their battle prowess further and, formation broke ranks.
by the time of the massive Persian invasion of 480
BCE, enabled them to win a series of decisive battles
against forces that, going on the numbers, they
should have lost.

Wall of death Spear

The primary weapon of
Shield
Aside from their good training, weapons and The Ancient Greek
any hoplite was a 2.5m warrior’s shield was
armour, a key reason hoplite warriors were so (8ft)-long spear or lance.
feared was their use of formations. Chief among called an aspis and
These were tipped with consisted of a concave
these was the phalanx, a rectangular mass a leaf-shaped blade on
formation composed of heavy infantry that, by circle of bronze-coated
one end and a short wood that measured
engaging the enemy as one, allowed the spike on the other.
warriors to effectively crush any foe in their 1m (3.3ft) across.
path. The phalanx was created by arranging
© Ad Meskens; Ian Jackson

hoplites in lines typically eight to ten men deep, Greave

with the front rank of soldiers interlocking their Metal greaves were
shields together. The long rectangular body of common, with the pieces
soldiers would then slowly advance, spears of armour hammered out
outstretched, skewering any enemies ahead. of iron or bronze sheets.
They stretched from the
top of the foot to the knee.
027
 Ancient History
Aztec warriors
Aztec warriors
Ready yourself for battle as you learn about the
martial side of this Central American civilisation
The Aztecs were a fierce
and powerful group of
warriors, defined by their
religious fervour and class system.
New warriors had to work their
way up from the bottom by
capturing prisoners. This was an
important part of a young warrior’s
introduction into the martial
society, as the Aztecs would
sacrifice prisoners to the god
Huitzilopochtli. Once a warrior had
captured a prisoner, he would
attain the rank of a warrior.
Most Aztecs wore padded cotton
armour called ichcahuipilli, which
remained cool in the intense heat of
Mexico but was also tough enough
to deflect most arrows and darts.
However, the elite fighting forces –
028
called the ‘Eagles’ and ‘Jaguars’ –
dressed as their namesakes. Eagle
warriors donned feathers and an
eagle-head helmet (see annotated
warrior), while Jaguar fighters were
wrapped in the skin of the South
American big cat. The higher up the
social rank you rose, the more
elaborate the costume became.
Their main weapon was the
maquahuitl, a wooden sword with
vicious shards of obsidian
embedded down the sides. This
deadly tool was capable of
beheading a human. The Aztecs
were also proficient users of arrows,
slings and the atlatl, a throwing
device that allowed them to hurl
spears harder and faster than
possible with the arm alone.
Although fearsome warriors,
Aztec armour and weapons could
not compete with Spanish steel
Headgear
An eagle-head helmet was
a sign that a warrior had
entered the elite fighting
force of the Eagles, while
members of the Jaguar
warrior force wore the
head of a slain jaguar.
Long-range weapon
Clothing Aztec warriors also used
The bravest warriors who arrows, slings and spears.
The latter could be thrown
captured four prisoners could
wear eagle helmets and many metres with the atlatl
feathers or jaguar skins, but – basically a stick with a
the base layer was typically mini sling at one end.
made of thick cotton.
Shield
Protection from missiles
came in the form of the
chimalli, a round shield
made of wood, with fibres
twisted into it for strength.
Footwear
Ordinary citizens and
warriors were barefoot.
However, upper-class
citizens and the elite fighting
forces were allowed to wear
cactli. These sandal-like
Maquahuitl shoes had straps wound
© Jean-Michel Girard/The Art Agency; Alamy
The maquahuitl was a brutal around the ankles to hold
wooden sword edged with them in place.
obsidian shards. This was
said to be able to decapitate
men and even horses. They
also used the tepoztopilli, a
2m (6.6ft) pole, which was
lined with sharp stones too.
 Answer:
STRANGE What did tribal chief Sitting In 1885 Sitting Bull became an attraction at Buffalo

BUT TRUE Bull do after he surrendered? Bill’s Wild West show, riding around in traditional
Native American garb and posing for pictures and
signing autographs. Allegedly, he would curse the
BULLISH BEHAVIOUR A Move to Canada B Open a shop C Join a circus audience in his native tongue.

DID YOU KNOW? Despite the stereotype, only a select few Native American tribes practised scalping

Native American warrior

Check out the key kit as carried by a fighter from the Dakota Sioux tribe
Despite being lightly armoured, Native Headgear
American warriors were fierce Unlike many modern
depictions of Native
combatants, well-trained in both American warriors,
hand-to-hand and ranged combat. Armed with they did not enter
a selection of bows, spears, swords, daggers, battle wearing grand Long-range
headpieces. Instead, weapon
axes and even – in the later decades of the 19th a simple selection of The short bow and arrow
century – guns, Westerners coming to claim the bird feathers was was the Native American
Indians’ land were in for a shock. worn in the hair, while long-range weapon of
the face and body choice – something which
Indeed, despite their superior firepower, would be covered they used with aplomb.
armour and resources, British and American with war-paint. Arrowheads were typically
armies often found themselves outmanoeuvred made of iron, while the tail
Shield feathers of birds were
and outfought, with the Native American used as fins.
The only form of protection
warriors’ expert horsemanship skills allowing against incoming missiles,
them to strike quickly and with deadly a small circular wooden
precision, taking out large swathes of the shield covered with animal
skins and/or leather could
invading forces before retreating to the safety be used to deflect arrows.
granted by their knowledge of the territory.
Both the Native Americans’ excellent combat Clothing
skills and innovative use of terrain in battle Native American warriors
were not heavily armoured,
tactics meant that it took the British and then with leather, fur and animal
Americans over 150 years to evict all of the skins providing their only
Native American tribes in North America onto form of protection. This
light armour granted them
the reservations that many of their descendants excellent agility and
inhabit today. And they did so at great cost, with manoeuvrability.
thousands of soldiers being cut down by their
fierce and agile opposition right up until the
turn of the 20th century.
Hand-to-hand
In battle, the Native Americans were weapon
tenacious and fierce warriors Native American warriors
carried a variety of
handheld weaponry,
including axes, daggers,
spears and even swords.
Axes were popular, as they
could be thrown as well as
used in melee combat.

Footwear
Moccasins were the
footwear of choice. Made
from soft leather or
deerskin and adorned
with embroidery and
beading, they offered no
protection but were light
and comfortable.
© Ian Jackson

029
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Citizens of United States, not to be abridged on account of color, race, or previous
condition of servitude, (15th amendment), .. .. 20
Citizens of each State shall be entitled to the privileges and immunities of citizens in
the several States, 4 2 17
Claims, no prejudice to certain, 4 3 17
of the United States, or of the several States, not to be prejudiced by any
construction of the Constitution, 4 3 18
Coasting trade, regulations respecting, 1 9 15
Coin, Congress fix value of foreign, 1 8 15
Commerce, Congress to regulate, 1 8 15
regulations respecting, to be equal and uniform, 1 9 15
Commissions to be granted by the President, 2 3 17
Common law recognized and established, (7th amendment), .. .. 19
Congress vested with power, 1 1 13
may alter the regulations of State legislatures concerning elections of senators and
representatives, except as to place of choosing senators, 1 4 14
shall assemble once every year, 1 4 14
officers of government cannot be members of, 1 6 14
may provide for cases of removal, death, &c., of President and Vice-President, 2 1
16
may determine the time of choosing electors of President and Vice-President, 2 1
16
may invest the appointment of inferior officers in the President alone, in the
courts of law, or the heads of departments, 2 2 16
may establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, 3 1 17
may declare the punishment of treason, 3 3 17
may prescribe the manner of proving the acts and records of each State, 4 1 17
to assent to the formation of new States, 4 3 18
may propose amendments to Constitution or call a convention, 5 1 18
to lay and collect duties, 1 8 15
to borrow money, 1 8 15
to regulate commerce, 1 8 15
to establish uniform laws of bankruptcy and naturalization, 1 8 15
to coin money, to regulate the value of coin, and fix a standard of weights and
measures, 1 8 15
to punish counterfeiting, 1 8 15
to constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court, 1 8 15
to define and punish piracies, felonies on the high seas, and offenses against the
laws of nations, 1 8 15
to establish post offices and post roads, 1 8 15
to authorize patents to authors and inventors, 1 8 15
to declare war, grant letters of marque, and make rules concerning captures, 1 8
15
to raise and support armies, 1 8 15
 to provide and maintain a navy, 1 8 15
to make rules for the government of the army and navy, 1 8 15
to call out the militia in certain cases, 1 8 15
to organize, arm, and discipline militia, 1 8 15
to exercise exclusive legislation over seat of government, 1 8 15
to pass laws necessary to carry the enumerated powers into effect, 1 8 15
to dispose of and make rules concerning the territory or other property of the
United States, 4 3 18
President may convene and adjourn in certain cases, 2 3 17
may enforce prohibition of slavery by appropriate legislation, (amendment), 13 2
20
Congress may, by a two-third’s vote, remove disability of persons who engaged in
rebellion, (14th amendment), 14 8 20
shall have power, by appropriate legislation, to enforce the provisions of Article
XIV, (14th amendment), 14 5 20
shall have power to enforce the provisions of Article XV, (15th amendment), 15 2
20
representation in, how apportioned, (14th amendment), .. 2 20
Constitution, how amended, 5 1 18
laws and treaties declared to be the supreme law, 6 1 18
rendered operative by the ratification of nine States, 7 1 18
Contracts, no law impairing, 1 10 16
Conventions for proposing amendments to the Constitution, 5 1 18
Counterfeiting, Congress to provide for punishment of, 1 8 15
Court, Supreme, its original and appellate jurisdiction, 3 2 17
Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may be ordained by Congress, 1 8 15
Ditto Ditto, 3 1 17
Crimes, persons accused of, fleeing from justice, may be demanded, 4 2 17
how to be tried, 3 2 17
Criminal prosecutions, proceedings in cases of, .. .. 19

Debts against the confederation to be valid, 6 1 18

Debt, public, authorized by law, shall not be questioned, (14th amendment), .. 4 20
incurred in aid of rebellion not to be assumed or paid, (14th amendment), .. 4 20
Disability of persons who engaged in rebellion (14th amendment), .. 3 20
Duties to be laid by Congress, and to be uniform, 1 8 15
further provision respecting, 1 9 15
cannot be laid by the States, 1 10 16
on exports prohibited, 1 9 15
on imports and exports imposed by States shall inure to the treasury of the United
States, 1 10 16
Elections of Senators and representative shall be prescribed by the States, 1 4 14
qualifications and returns of members of Congress to be determined by each
house, 1 5 14
Electors of President and Vice-President, how chosen, and their duties, 2 1 16
altered (see 12th amendment), .. .. 19
to vote the same day throughout the United States, 2 1 16
no senator or representative, or public officer, shall serve as, 2 1 16
Enumeration every ten years, 1 2 13
Executive power vested in the President, (see President), 2 1 16
Exports not to be taxed, 1 9 15
and imports, States prohibited from laying duties on, 1 10 16
Ex post facto law, none shall be passed, 1 9 15
prohibited to States, 1 10 16

Fines, excessive prohibited, .. .. 19

Fugitives from justice to be delivered up, 4 2 17
from service may be reclaimed, 4 2 17

Habeas corpus, writ of, can be suspended in cases of rebellion or invasion, 1 9 15

House of Representatives. (See Representatives.)

Impeachment to be brought by House of Representatives, 1 2 13

tried by the Senate, 1 3 14
Impeachment, judgment on, 1 3 14
all civil officers liable to, 2 4 17
Importation of slaves, not prohibited till 1808, 1 9 15

Judges shall hold their office during good behavior, 3 1 17

their compensation, 3 1 17
Judiciary—tribunals inferior to Supreme Court may be created, 1 8 15
Judicial power vested in a Supreme Court and courts inferior, 3 1 17
powers of the judiciary, 3 2 17
restriction as to suits against a State, .. .. 19
Judicial proceedings of each State are entitled to faith and credit in every State, 4 1
17
Jury trial secured, and shall be held in the State where the crime shall have been
committed, 3 2 17
further regulated, (6th amendment), .. .. 19
 secured in suits at common law where the value of controversy shall exceed
twenty dollars, (7th amendment), .. .. 19

Law, what is declared the supreme, 6 1 18

common, recognized and established, (7th amendment), .. ..
Laws, President to see them faithfully executed, 2 3 17
Legislative powers vested in Congress. (See Congress.)
Loans, authority to make, 1 8 15

Marque and reprisal, letters of, 1 8 15

Militia to be called out, 1 8 15
to be officered by the States, 1 8 15
to be commanded by the President, 2 2 19
their right to keep and bear arms secured, (2d amendment), .. .. 19
Money shall be drawn from the treasury only by appropriation laws, 1 9 15
Congress to coin and regulate value of, 1 8 15
States cannot make, 1 10 16

Naturalization, uniform rules of, 1 8 15

Navy, Congress to provide and govern, 1 8 15
Nobility, titles of, shall not be granted by the United States, 1 9 15
nor by the States, 1 10 12

Oath of the President, 2 1 16

of the public officers, 6 1 18
Office, who prohibited from holding, (14th amendment), .. 3 20
Officers of the House of Representatives shall be chosen by the House, 1 2 13
Officers of the Senate shall be chosen by the Senate, 1 3 14
civil, may be removed by impeachment, 2 4 17
Order of one house requiring the concurrence of the other, 1 7 14

Pardons, President may grant, 2 2 16

Patents to be granted to inventors, 1 8 15
Petition, right of, .. .. 19
Persons held to service or labor, their importation or migration into the United
States may be prohibited after 1808, 1 9 15
 escaping from one State to another shall be delivered up to those entitled to
service, 4 2 17
Piracy, Congress to prescribe punishment for, 1 8 15
Post offices and post roads, establishment of, 1 8 15
Powers not delegated to Congress nor prohibited to the States are reserved, (10th
amendment), .. .. 19
legislative (See Congress.)
executive (See President.)
judicial (See Judicial.)
Presents from foreign powers to public officers prohibited, 1 9 15
Press, freedom of
President of the U. S. vested with the executive power, 2 1 16
shall be chosen for four years, 2 1 16
how elected, 2 1 16
same, (12th amendment), .. .. 19
qualifications for, 2 1 16
who shall act in case of vacancy, 2 1 16
compensation of, 2 1 16
shall take an oath of office, 2 1 16
may be removed by impeachment, 2 4 17
President, commander of army, navy, and militia, 2 2 16
may require the written opinion of the heads of departments, 2 2 16
may reprieve and pardon, 2 2 16
may make treaties with consent of the Senate, 2 2 16
may appoint to office with consent of the Senate, 2 2 16
shall fill up vacancies happening during the recess of the Senate, 2 2 16
shall give information to Congress and recommend measures, 2 3 17
may convene both houses or either house, 2 3 17
may adjourn them in case of disagreement, 2 3 17
shall receive ambassadors and public ministers, 2 3 17
shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, 2 3 17
shall commission all officers, 2 3 17
Privileges and immunities of members of Congress, 1 6 14
of citizens (See Citizens, also Rights.)
Property, Congress to provide for care of public, 4 3 18
shall not be taken for public use without just compensation, (5th amendment), .. ..
Punishments, cruel and unusual, prohibited, .. ..

Quorum for business, what shall be a, 1 5 14

of States in choosing a President by the House of Representatives, 2 1 16
Quartered, no soldier to be quartered on a citizen, .. .. 19
Rebellion, debt incurred in aid of, not to be assumed or paid, (14th amendment), .. 4
20
disability of persons who have engaged in (14th amendment), .. 3 20
Receipts and expenditures, accounts of, to be published, 1 9 15
Records, how to be authenticated, 4 1 17
Religion—no law to be made—free exercise of, .. .. 19
religious test not required, 6 .. 18
Reprieves granted by the President, 2 2
Representatives, House of, composed of members chosen every second year, 1 2 13
qualifications of voters, 1 2 13
qualifications of members, 1 2 13
apportionment of, 1 2 13
vacancies, how supplied, 1 2 13
shall choose their officers, 1 2 13
shall have the power of impeachment, 1 2 13
Representation shall be the judge of the election and qualifications of its members, 1
5 14
what shall be a quorum, 1 5 14
any number may adjourn and compel the attendance of absentees, 1 5 14
may determine the rules of proceeding, 1 5 14
may punish or expel a member, 1 5 14
shall keep a journal and publish the same, 1 5 14
shall not adjourn for more than three days nor to any other place, without the
consent of the Senate, 1 5 14
one-fifth may require the yeas and nays, 1 5 14
shall originate bills for raising revenue, 1 7 14
compensation to be ascertained by law, 1 6 14
privileged from arrest, except in certain cases, 1 6 14
Representatives shall not be questioned for speech or debate in the House, 1 6 14
shall not be appointed to office, 1 6 14
shall not serve as electors of President, 2 1 16
and direct taxes apportioned according to numbers, 1 2 13
how apportioned among the several States, (14th amendment), .. 2 20
who prohibited from being, (14th amendment), .. 3 20
of a State, vacancies in, supplied until a new election by executive authority, 1 2 13
Resolution, order, or vote, requiring the concurrence of both houses, to undergo the
formalities of bills, 1 7 14
Revenue bills to originate in the House of Representatives, 1 7 14
Rights of the citizen declared to be—
privileges of citizens of the several States, 4 2 17
liberty of conscience in matters of religion, .. .. 19
freedom of speech and of the press, .. .. 19
to assemble and petition, .. .. 19
 to keep and bear arms, .. .. 19
to be exempt from the quartering of soldiers, .. .. 19
to be secure from unreasonable searches and seizures, .. .. 19
to be free from answering for a crime, unless on presentment or indictment of a
jury, .. .. 19
not to be twice jeoparded for the same offence, .. .. 19
not to be compelled to be a witness against himself, .. .. 19
not to be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due course of law, .. .. 19
private property not to be taken for public use, .. .. 19
in criminal prosecutions, shall enjoy the right of a speedy trial by jury, with all the
means necessary for his defence, .. .. 19
in civil cases trial to be by jury, and shall only be re-examined according to
common law, .. .. 19
excessive bail shall not be required, excessive fines imposed, no cruel nor unusual
punishment inflicted, .. .. 19
enumeration of certain rights shall not operate against retained rights, .. .. 19
Rules, each house shall determine its own, 1 5 14

Seat of government, exclusive legislation, 1 8 15

Searches and seizures, security against, .. .. 19
Senate, composed of two senators from each State, 1 3 14
how chosen, classed, and terms of service, 1 3 14
Senate, qualifications of senators, 1 3 14
Vice-President to be President of the, 1 3 14
shall choose their officers, 1 3 14
shall be the judge of the elections and qualifications of its members, 1 5 14
what number shall be a quorum, 1 5 14
any number may adjourn, and compel attendance of absentees, 1 5 14
may determine its rules, 1 5 14
may punish or expel a member, 1 5 14
shall keep a journal, and publish the same, except parts requiring secrecy, 1 5 14
shall not adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place, without the
consent of the other house, 1 5 14
one-fifth may require the yeas and nays, 1 5 14
may propose amendments to bills for raising revenue, 1 7 14
shall try impeachments, 1 3 14
effect of their judgment on impeachment, 1 3 14
compensation to be ascertained by law, 1 6 14
privileged from arrest, 1 6 14
not questioned for any speech or debate, 1 6 14
shall not be appointed to office, 1 6 14
Senator, shall not be elector, 2 1 16
who prohibited from being, (14th amendment), .. 3 20
Senators and representatives, elections of, how prescribed, 1 4 14
Slaves, their importation may be prohibited after 1808, 1 9 15
escaping from one State to another may be reclaimed, 4 2 17
claims for the loss or emancipation of, to be held illegal and void, (14th
amendment), .. 4 20
Slavery, except as a punishment for crime, prohibited, amendment, 13 1 20
Congress authorized to enforce the prohibition of, (amendment), 13 2 20
Soldiers not quartered on citizens, .. .. 19
Speaker, how chosen, 1 2 13
Speech, freedom of, .. .. 19
States prohibited from—
entering into treaty, alliance, or confederation, 1 10 16
granting letters of marque, 1 10 16
coining money, 1 10 16
emitting bills of credit, 1 10 16
making anything a tender but gold and silver coin, 1 10 16
prohibited from—
passing bills of attainder, ex post facto laws, or laws impairing contracts, 1 10 16
granting titles of nobility, 1 10 16
laying duties on imports and exports, 1 10 16
laying duties on tonnage, 1 10 16
keeping troops or ships of war in time of peace, 1 10 16
entering into any agreement or contract with another State or foreign power, 1
10 16
engaging in war, 1 10 16
abridging right of United States citizens of, to vote on account of race or color,
(15th amendment), .. 1 20
States, new, may be admitted into the Union, 4 3 18
may be admitted within the jurisdiction of others, or by the junction of two or
more, with the consent of Congress and the legislatures concerned, 4 3 18
State judges bound to consider treaties, the Constitution, and the laws under it, as
supreme, 6 .. 18
State, every, guarantied a republican form of government, protected by United
States, 4 4 18
Supreme Court. (See Court and Judiciary.)
Suits at common law, proceedings in, .. .. 19

Tax, direct, according to representation, 1 2 13

shall be laid only in proportion to census, 1 9 15
Tax on exports prohibited, 1 9 15
Tender, what shall be a legal, 1 10 16
Territory or public property, Congress may make rules concerning, 4 3 18
Test, religious, shall not be required, 6 .. 18
Titles. (See Nobility.)
Title from foreign state prohibited, 1 9 15
Treason, defined, 3 3 17
two witnesses, or confession, necessary for conviction, 3 3 17
punishment of, may be prescribed by Congress, 3 3 17
Treasury, money drawn from, only by appropriation, 1 9 15
Treaties, how made, 2 2 16
the supreme law, 6 .. 18
States cannot make, 1 10 16

Vacancies happening during the recess may be filled temporarily by the President, 2
2 16
in representation in Congress, how filled, 1 2 13
Veto of the President, effect of, and proceedings on, 1 7 14
Vice-President of the U. S. to be President of the Senate, 1 3 14
how elected, 2 1 16
amendment, .. .. 19
shall, in certain cases, discharge the duties of President, 2 1 16
may be removed by impeachment, 2 4 17
Vote of one house requiring the concurrence of the other, 1 7 14
right of citizens to, not to be abridged on account of race or color, (15th
amendment), .. 1 20

War, Congress to declare, 1 8 15

Warrants for searches and seizures, when and how they shall issue (14th
amendment), .. .. 19
Witness, in criminal cases, no one compelled to be against himself (5th
amendment), .. .. 19
Weights and Measures, standard of, 1 8 15

Yeas and nays entered on journal, 1 6 14

 BOOK V.
TABULATED HISTORY OF POLITICS.
Aggregate Issues of Paper Money in War Times, 5004
Ante-war Debts, 5015

Cabinet Officers of the Administrations, 5013

Chronological Politics, 1765–1892, 5025
Civil Officers, 5018
Customs Tariff of Great Britain, 5010

Electoral Votes for President and Vice-President, 5005

Electoral Votes; Number to which each State has been Entitled, 1789–1892, 5016

Gold; Highest and Lowest Prices of, 5024

Interest Laws of all the States and Territories of the United States, 5004

Length of Sessions of Congress, 1779–1881, 5018

National Commerce, per capita, 5023

National Debt, per capita, 5023
National Expenditures, per capita, 5023

Popular and Electoral Votes in Presidential Elections, 1789–1889, 5011

Presidents and Vice-Presidents,, 5010
President and Vice-President, Candidates for, 5016

Rebellion, Expenditures caused by, 5021

Signers of Declaration of Independence, 5015

Speakers of House of Representatives, 5020
States, when admitted, 5019
Supreme Courts, 5017

Territories, when Organized, 5019

Troops furnished by each State, 1861–65, 5020
Troops, number of called into service during the Rebellion, 5017

Value of United States Money in Foreign Gold and Silver Coin, 5003

1. Edwin Williams in Statesman’s Manual.

2. From the Statesman’s Manual, Vol. 1., by Edwin Williams.
3. Note.—See Constitution, Art. 3, Sec. 4, p. 5.
4. In the Ritual the words in parentheses are omitted. In the key to the Ritual, they are written in
figures—the alphabet used being the same as printed below. So throughout.

Key to Unlock Communications.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M
1 7 13 19 25 2 8 14 20 26 3 9 15
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
21 4 10 16 22 5 11 17 23 6 12 18 24

5. Concerning what is said of cities, the key to the Ritual says: “Considered unnecessary to
decipher what is said in regard to cities.”
6. President Buchanan’s Inaugural Address.
7. From Mr. Buchanan’s Administration on the eve of the Rebellion, published by D. Appleton &
Co., 1866.
8. The Provisional Constitution adopted by the Seceded States differs from the Constitution of
the United States in several important particulars. The alterations and additions are as follows:

ALTERATIONS.
1st. The Provisional Constitution differs from the other in this: That the legislative powers of the
Provisional Government are vested in the Congress now assembled, and this body exercises all the
functions that are exercised by either or both branches of the United States Government.
2d. The Provisional President holds his office for one year, unless sooner superseded by the
establishment of a permanent Government.
3d. Each State is erected into a distinct judicial district, the judge having all the powers
heretofore vested in the district and circuit courts; and the several district judges together compose
the supreme bench—a majority of them constituting a quorum.
4th. Whenever the word “Union” occurs in the United States Constitution the word
“Confederacy” is substituted.

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE ADDITIONS.

 1st. The President may veto any separate appropriation without vetoing the whole bill in which it
is contained.
2d. The African slave-trade is prohibited.
3d. Congress is empowered to prohibit the introduction of slaves from any State not a member of
this Confederacy.
4th. All appropriations must be upon the demand of the President or heads of departments.

OMISSIONS.
1st. There is no prohibition on members of Congress holding other offices of honor and
emolument under the Provisional Government.
2d. There is no provision for a neutral spot for the location of a seat of government, or for sites
for forts, arsenals, and dock-yards; consequently there is no reference made to the territorial powers
of the Provisional Government.
3d. The section in the old Constitution in reference to capitation and other direct tax is omitted;
also, the section providing that no tax or duty shall be laid on any exports.
4th. The prohibition on States keeping troops or ships of war in time of peace is omitted.
5th. The Constitution being provisional merely, no provision is made for its ratification.

AMENDMENTS.
1st. The fugitive slave clause of the old Constitution is so amended as to contain the word “slave,”
and to provide for full compensation in cases of abduction or forcible rescue on the part of the State
in which such abduction or rescue may take place.
2d. Congress, by a vote of two-thirds, may at any time alter or amend the Constitution.

TEMPORARY PROVISIONS.
1st. The Provisional Government is required to take immediate steps for the settlement of all
matters between the States forming it and their other late confederates of the United Slates in
relation to the public property and the public debt.
2d. Montgomery is made the temporary seat of government.
3d. This Constitution is to continue one year, unless altered by a two-thirds vote or superseded
by a permanent Government.
9. From Lalor’s Encyclopædia of Political Science, published by Rand & McNally. Chicago, Ill.
10. Official Journal of the Convention, pp. 9 and 10.
11. The text of Webster’s speech in reply to Hayne, now accepted as the greatest constitutional
exposition ever made by any American orator, will be found in our book devoted to Great Speeches
on Great Issues.
12. These were afterwards seized.
13. The attempted removal of these heavy guns from Allegheny Arsenal, late in December, 1860,
created intense excitement. A monster mass meeting assembled at the call of the Mayor of the city,
and citizens of all parties aided in the effort to prevent the shipment. Through the interposition of
Hon. J. K. Moorhead, Hon. R. McKnight, Judge Shaler, Judge Wilkins, Judge Shannon, and others
inquiry was instituted, and a revocation of the order obtained. The Secessionists in Congress bitterly
complained of the “mob law” which thus interfered with the routine of governmental affairs.—
McPherson’s History.
 14. Resigned January 17th, 1861, and succeeded by Hon. Lot M. Morrill.
15. Did not attend.
16. Resigned and succeeded January 2d, 1861, by Hon. Stephen Coburn.
17. From the “History of Abraham Lincoln and the Overthrow of Slavery,” by Hon. Isaac N.
Arnold.
18. 1864, February 15—Repealed the above act, but provided for continuing organizations of
partisan rangers acting as regular cavalry and so to continue; and authorizing the Secretary of War to
provide for uniting all bands of partisan rangers with other organizations and bringing them under
the general discipline of the provisional army.
19. See memorandum at end of list.
20. This incident was related to the writer by Col. A. K. McClure of Philadelphia, who was in
Lancaster at the time.
21. Arnold’s “History of Abraham Lincoln.”
22. On the 23d of July, 1861, the Attorney-General, in answer to a letter from the United States
Marshal of Kansas, inquiring whether he should assist in the execution of the fugitive slave law,
wrote:

Attorney-General’s Office, July 23, 1861.

J. L. McDowell, U. S. Marshal, Kansas:

Your letter, of the 11th of July, received 19th, (under frank of Senator Lane, of Kansas,) asks
advice whether you should give your official services in the execution of the fugitive slave law.
It is the President’s constitutional duty to “take care that the laws be faithfully executed.” That
means all the laws. He has no right to discriminate, no right to execute the laws he likes, and leave
unexecuted those he dislikes. And of course you and I, his subordinates, can have no wider latitude of
discretion than he has. Missouri is a State in the Union. The insurrectionary disorders in Missouri are
but individual crimes, and do not change the legal status of the State, nor change its rights and
obligations as a member of the Union.
A refusal by a ministerial officer to execute any law which properly belongs to his office, is an
official misdemeanor, of which I have no doubt the President would take notice. Very respectfully

EDWARD BATES.

23. Republicans in Roman; Democrats in italics.

24. Democrats in italics.
25. Republicans in roman; Democrats in italics.
26. In 1860 a vote was had in the State of New York on a proposition to permit negro suffrage
without a property qualification. The result of the city was—yeas 1,640. nays 37,471. In the State—
yeas 197,505, nays 337,984. In 1864 a like proposition was defeated—yeas 85,406, nays 224,336.
In 1862, in August, a vote was had in the State of Illinois, on several propositions relating to
negroes and mulattoes, with this result:
 For excluding them from the State 171,893
Against 71,306
100,587
Against granting them suffrage or right to office 21,920
For 35,649
176,271
For the enactment of laws to prohibit them from going to, or voting in, the
State 198,938
Against 44,414
154,524
—From McPherson’s History of the Great Rebellion.

27. December 23, 1862—Jefferson Davis issued a proclamation of outlawry against Major
General B. F. Butler, the last two clauses of which are:
Third. That all negro slaves captured in arms be at once delivered over to the executive
authorities of the respective States to which they belong, to be dealt with according to the laws of said
States.
Fourth. That the like orders be executed in all cases with respect to all commissioned officers of
the United States when found serving in company with said slaves in insurrection against the
authorities of the different States of this Confederacy.
28. McPherson’s History, page 317.
29. This act is in those words:
Be it enacted, &c., That hereafter every person elected or appointed to any office of honor or
profit under the government of the United States, either in the civil, military, or naval departments of
the public service, excepting the President of the United States, shall, before entering upon the duties
of such office, and before being entitled to any of the salary or other emoluments thereof, take and
subscribe the following oath or affirmation: “I, A B, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have never
voluntarily borne arms against the United States since I have been a citizen thereof; that I have
voluntarily given no aid, countenance, counsel, or encouragement to persons engaged in armed
hostility thereto; that I have never sought nor accepted nor attempted to exercise the functions of any
office whatever, under any authority or pretended authority, in hostility to the United States; that I
have not yielded a voluntary support to any pretended government, authority, power, or constitution
within the United States, hostile or inimical thereto; and I do further swear (or affirm) that, to the
best of my knowledge and ability, I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States
against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I
take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion, and that I will well
and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter; so help me God;” which
said oath, so taken and signed, shall be preserved among the files of the Court, House of Congress, or
Department to which the said office may appertain. And any person who shall falsely take the said
oath shall be guilty of perjury, and on conviction, in addition to the penalties now prescribed for that
offense, shall be deprived of his office, and rendered incapable forever after, of holding any office or
place under the United States.
30. Compiled by Hon. Edward McPherson in his Hand-Book of Politics for 1868.
31. Unofficial.
32. From Greeley’s Recollections of a Busy Life, page 413.
33. From the Century of Independence by John Sully, Boston.
 34. The following is a correct table of the ballots in the New York Democratic Convention:
Candidates. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Horatio
Seymour 9
George H.
Pendleton 105 104 119½ 118½ 122 122½ 137½ 156½ 144 147½ 144½
Andrew
Johnson 65 52 34½ 32 24 21 12½ 6 5½ 6 5½
Winfield S.
Hancock 33½ 40½ 45½ 43½ 46 47 42½ 28 34½ 34 33½
Sanford E.
Church 33 33 33 33 33 33 33
Asa Packer 26 26 26 26 27 27 26 26 26½ 27½ 26
Joel Parker 13 15½ 13 13 13 13 7 7 7 7 7
James E.
English 16 12½ 7½ 7½ 7 6 6 6 6
James R.
Doolittle 13 1½ 12 12 15 12 12 12 12 12 12½
Reverdy
Johnson 8½ 8 11 8 9½
Thomas A.
Hendricks 2½ 2 9½ 11½ 19½ 30 39½ 75 80½ 82½ 88
F. P. Blair,
Jr. ½ 10½ 4½ 2 5 ½ ½ ½ ½ ½
Thomas
Ewing ½ 1 1
J. Q. Adams 1
George B.
McClellan
Salmon P.
Chase
Franklin
Pierce
John T.
Hoffman
Stephen J.
Field
Thomas H.
Seymour
Candidates. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
Horatio
Seymour 317
George H.
Pendleton 145½ 134½ 130 129½ 107½ 70½ 56½
Andrew
Johnson 4½ 4½ 5½ 5½ 6 10 5
Winfield S.
Hancock 30 48½ 56 79½ 113½ 137½ 144½ 135½ 142½ 135½
Sanford E.
Church
Asa Packer 26 26 26 22
Joel Parker 7 7 7 7 7 7 3½
James E.
English 6 16 19
James R.
Doolittle 12½ 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Reverdy
Johnson
Thomas A.
Hendricks 89 81 84½ 82½ 70½ 80 87 107½ 121 132
F. P. Blair,
Jr. ½ ½ 13½ 13
Thomas
Ewing
J. Q. Adams
George B.
McClellan 1 ½
Salmon P.
Chase ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ 4
Franklin
Pierce 1
John T.
Hoffman 3 3
Stephen J.
Field 15 9 8
Thomas H.
Seymour 4 2
Necessary to choice 212
 35. General Blair was nominated unanimously on the first ballot.
36. One Democratic elector was defeated, being cut by over 500 voters on a
local issue.
37. Commonly called “Greenbacks,” or “Legal Tender notes.”
38. Commonly called “National Bank notes.”
39. By Rand & McNally, Chicago, Ill., 1882.
40. This was partially done by the Legislature of Pennsylvania in 1881.
41. Act of March 2, 1850.
42. Act of January 19, 1866.
43. Senate doc. 181, 46th Congress.
44. Sec. 2, 258, Rev. Stat. U.S.
45. According to the affidavits of Samuel Howard and others, page 14.
46. See Report of Attorney-General United States, 1880–81.
47. Act of March 6, 1862.
48. Act of February 16, 1872.
49. Secs. 1 and 2, act of February 3, 1852.
50. See act of January 17, 1862.
51. Act of January 7, 1854, sec. 14.
52. Acts of Jan 21, 1853, and of January, 1855, sec. 29.
53. Act of February 18, 1852.
54. Act of February 18, 1852.
55. Act of January 14, 1854.
56. Sec. 106. Act March 6, 1852.
57. Enormous sums are, however, given to soldiers who were wounded during
the war, or who pretend that they were—for jobbery on an unheard of scale is
practised in connection with these pensions. It is estimated that $120,000,000
(24,000,000l.) will have to be paid during the present fiscal year, for arrears of
pension, and the number of claimants is constantly increasing, [The writer
evidently got these “facts” from sensational sources.]—Am. Pol.
58. The undeniable facts of the case were as we have briefly indicated above,
See, for example, a letter to the ‘New York Nation,’ Nov. 3, 1881.
59. Speech In New York, March 7, 1881.
60. ‘New York Tribune,’ Feb. 25, 1870.
 61. Letter in New York papers, Feb. 20, 1875.
62. Mr. George William Curtis, in ‘Harper’s Magazine,’ 1870.
63. Article I. sect. vi. 2.
64. ‘Commentaries,’ I. book iii. sect. 869.
65. [These are mere traditions tinged with the spirit of some of the assaults
made in the “good old days” even against so illustrious a man as Washington.—Am.
Pol.]
66. Mr. Watterson, formerly a distinguished member of Congress, is the
author of the “tariff for revenue only” plank in the Democratic National Platform of
1880, and is now, as he has been for years, the chief editor of the Louisville Courier
Journal.
67. American, 707; scattering 989.
68. In Connecticut, the vote for Sheriff is taken. In New York, the average vote
on four of the five State officers chosen, excluding Secretary of State. In Nebraska,
Democratic and Anti-Monopoly vote combined on Judge.
69. Scattering, 106.
70. In these States the vote on Lieutenant-Governor was taken, as being from
special causes, a fairer test of party strength. In the others the principal State
officer was taken. Where State officers were not elected, the Congressional vote
was taken. In Georgia, Congressmen-at-Large was taken.
71. The vote for Chief Judge.
72. The Regular and Independent Republican vote is combined.
73. Vote of the two Democratic candidates is combined.
74. One vote lacking in each.
75. One vote lacking.
76. One vote lacking.
77. 3 votes lacking.
78. Upon the resolution of Mr. Wythe, which proposed, “That the committee
should ratify the constitution, and that whatsoever amendments might be deemed
necessary should be recommended to the consideration of the congress, which
should first assemble under the constitution, to be acted upon according to the
mode prescribed therein.”
79. In answer to an address of Governor Eustis, denouncing the conduct of the
peace party during the war, the House of Representatives of Massachusetts, in
June, 1823, say, “The change of the political sentiments evinced in the late
elections forms indeed a new era in the history of our commonwealth. It is the
triumph of reason over passion; of patriotism over party spirit. Massachusetts has
returned to her first love, and is no longer a stranger in the Union. We rejoice that
though, during the last war, such measures were adopted in this state as
occasioned double sacrifice of treasure and of life, covered the friends of the nation
with humiliation and mourning, and fixed a stain on the page of our history, a
redeeming spirit has at length arisen to take away our reproach, and restore to us
our good name, our rank among our sister states, and our just influence in the
Union.
“Though we would not renew contentions, or irritate wantonly, we believe that
there are cases when it is necessary we should ‘wound to heal.’ And we consider it
among the first duties of the friends of our national government, on this return of
power, to disavow the unwarrantable course pursued by this state, during the late
war, and to hold up the measures of that period as beacons; that the present and
succeeding generations may shun that career which must inevitably terminate in
the destruction of the individual or party who pursues it; and may learn the
important lesson, that, in all times, the path of duty is the path of safety; and that it
is never dangerous to rally around the standard of our country.”
80. 2d Dodson’s Admiralty Reports, 48. 13th Mass. Reports, 26.
81. It appears at p. 6 of the “Account” that by a vote of the House of
Representatives of Massachusetts, (260 to 290) delegates to this convention were
ordered to be appointed to consult upon the subject “of their public grievances and
concerns,” and upon “the best means of preserving their resources,” and for
procuring a revision of the constitution of the United States, “more effectually to
secure the support and attachment of all the people, by placing all upon the basis
of fair representation.”
The convention assembled at Hartford on the 15th December, 1814. On the
next day it was
Resolved, That the most inviolable secrecy shall be observed by each member
of this convention, including the secretary, as to all propositions, debates, and
proceedings thereof, until this injunction shall be suspended or altered.
On the 24th of December, the committee appointed to prepare and report a
general project of such measures as may be proper for the convention to adopt,
reported among other things,—
“1. That it was expedient to recommend to the legislatures of the states the
adoption of the most effectual and decisive measures to protect the militia of the
states from the usurpations contained in these proceedings.” [The proceedings of
Congress and the executive, in relation to the militia and the war.]
“2. That it was expedient also to prepare a statement, exhibiting the necessity
which the improvidence and inability of the general government have imposed
upon the states of providing for their own defence, and the impossibility of their
discharging this duty, and at the same time fulfilling the requisitions of the general
government, and also to recommend to the legislatures of the several states to
make provision for mutual defence, and to make an earnest application to the
government of the United States, with a view to some arrangement whereby the
state may be enabled to retain a portion of the taxes levied by Congress, for the
purpose of self-defence, and for the reimbursement of expenses already incurred
on account of the United States.
“3. That it is expedient to recommend to the several state legislatures certain
amendments to the constitution, viz.,—
“That the power to declare or make war, by the Congress of the United States,
be restricted.
“That it is expedient to attempt to make provision for restraining Congress in
the exercise of an unlimited power to make new states, and admit them into the
Union.
“That an amendment be proposed respecting slave representation and slave
taxation.”
On the 29th of December, 1814, it was proposed “that the capacity of
naturalized citizens to hold offices of trust, honor, or profit ought to be restrained,”
&c.
The subsequent proceedings are not given at large. But it seems that the report
of the committee was adopted, and also a recommendation of certain measures (of
the character of which we are not informed) to the states for their mutual defence;
and having voted that the injunction of secrecy, in regard to all the debates and
proceedings of the convention, (except so far as relates to the report finally
adopted,) be continued, the convention adjourned sine die, but as was supposed, to
meet again when circumstances should require it.
82. I refer to the authority of Chief Justice Marshall in the case of Jonathan
Robbins. I have not been able to refer to the speech, and speak from memory.
83. In this extended abstracts are given and data references omitted not
applicable to these times.
84. Speech at the Tabernacle, New York, February 10, 1843, in public debate
on this resolution:—
Resolved, That a Protective Tariff is conducive to our National Prosperity.

Affirmative: Joseph Blunt,

Horace Greeley.

Negative: Samuel J. Tilden,

Parke Godwin.

From Greeley’s “Recollections of a Busy Life.”

85. All the series were published in 1860 by Follet, Foster & Co., Columbus,
Ohio.