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Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 106

Suresh Chandra Satapathy · Amit Joshi

Editors

Information and
Communication
Technology for
Intelligent Systems
Proceedings of ICTIS 2018, Volume 1
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies

Volume 106

Series editors
Robert James Howlett, Bournemouth University and KES International,
Shoreham-by-sea, UK
e-mail: rjhowlett@kesinternational.org

Lakhmi C. Jain, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, Centre for

Artificial Intelligence, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Faculty
of Science, Technology and Mathematics, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT,
Australia; KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK
e-mail: jainlakhmi@gmail.com; jainlc2002@yahoo.co.uk
The Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies book series encompasses the
topics of knowledge, intelligence, innovation and sustainability. The aim of the
series is to make available a platform for the publication of books on all aspects of
single and multi-disciplinary research on these themes in order to make the latest
results available in a readily-accessible form. Volumes on interdisciplinary research
combining two or more of these areas is particularly sought.
The series covers systems and paradigms that employ knowledge and intelligence
in a broad sense. Its scope is systems having embedded knowledge and intelligence,
which may be applied to the solution of world problems in industry, the environment
and the community. It also focusses on the knowledge-transfer methodologies and
innovation strategies employed to make this happen effectively. The combination of
intelligent systems tools and a broad range of applications introduces a need for a
synergy of disciplines from science, technology, business and the humanities. The
series will include conference proceedings, edited collections, monographs, hand-
books, reference books, and other relevant types of book in areas of science and
technology where smart systems and technologies can offer innovative solutions.
High quality content is an essential feature for all book proposals accepted for the
series. It is expected that editors of all accepted volumes will ensure that
contributions are subjected to an appropriate level of reviewing process and adhere
to KES quality principles.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8767

Suresh Chandra Satapathy ⋅ Amit Joshi
Editors

Information
and Communication
Technology for Intelligent
Systems
Proceedings of ICTIS 2018, Volume 1

123
Editors
Suresh Chandra Satapathy Amit Joshi
School of Computer Engineering Sabar Institute of Technology
Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology Gujarat Technological University
Bhubaneswar, India Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic)

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies
ISBN 978-981-13-1741-5 ISBN 978-981-13-1742-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1742-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949057

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

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Singapore
Preface

This SIST volume contains the papers presented at the ICTIS 2018: Third Inter-
national Conference on Information and Communication Technology for Intelligent
Systems. The conference was held during April 6–7, 2018, in Ahmedabad, India,
and organized by Global Knowledge Research Foundation, Raksha Shakti
University, and Computer Engineering Division Board—the Institution of Engi-
neers (India)—supported by Gujarat Innovation Society and Gujarat Council of
Science and Technology. It will target state-of-the-art as well as emerging topics
pertaining to ICT and effective strategies for its implementation in engineering and
intelligent applications. The objective of this international conference is to provide
opportunities for the researchers, academicians, industry persons, and students to
interact and exchange ideas, experience, and expertise in the current trend and
strategies for information and communication technologies. Besides this, partici-
pants will also be enlightened about the vast avenues and current and emerging
technological developments in the field of ICT in this era and its applications will
be thoroughly explored and discussed. The conference is anticipated to attract a
large number of high-quality submissions and stimulate the cutting-edge research
discussions among many academic pioneering researchers, scientists, industrial
engineers, students from all around the world and provide a forum to researchers;
propose new technologies, share their experiences, and discuss future solutions for
design infrastructure for ICT; provide a common platform for academic pioneering
researchers, scientists, engineers, and students to share their views and achieve-
ments; enrich technocrats and academicians by presenting their innovative and
constructive ideas; and focus on innovative issues at the international level by
bringing together the experts from different countries. Research submissions in
various advanced technology areas were received, and after a rigorous peer review
process with the help of the program committee members and external reviewers,
72 papers were accepted with an acceptance rate of 0.23. The conference featured
many distinguished personalities like Narottam Sahoo, Advisor and Member Sec-
retary, GUJCOST, DST, Government of Gujarat; Prof. Milan Tuba, Vice-Rector,
Singidunum University, Serbia; Shri Aninda Bose, Senior Publishing Editor,
Springer Nature; Dr. Nilanjan Dey, Techno India College of Engineering, Kolkata,

v
vi Preface

India; Dr. Shyam Akashe, Professor, ITM University, Gwalior; Dr. Parikshit
Mahalle, Professor, Sinhgad Group of Institutions, Pune; Mr. Bharat Patel, Chair-
man, CEDB, the Institution of Engineers (India); Dr. Priyanka Sharma, Raksha
Shakti University, Ahmedabad. Separate invited talks were organized in industrial
and academic tracks in both days. We are indebted to all organizing partners for
their immense support to make this conference possible on such a grand scale.
A total of 14 sessions were organized as a part of ICTIS 2018 including 11 tech-
nical, 1 plenary, 1 keynote, and 1 inaugural sessions. A total of 63 papers were
presented in six technical sessions with high discussion insights. The total number
of accepted submissions was 72 with a focal point on ICT and intelligent systems.
Our sincere thanks to all sponsors, press, print and electronic media for their
excellent coverage of this conference.

Bhubaneswar, India Suresh Chandra Satapathy

Ahmedabad, India Amit Joshi
April 2018
Contents

Novel Peak-to-Average Power Reduction Technique in Combination

with Adaptive Digital Pre-distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
V. Kiran, K. L. Sudha and Vinila Nagaraj
Semantic Segmentation Using Deep Learning for Brain Tumor
MRI via Fully Convolution Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Sanjay Kumar, Ashish Negi and J. N. Singh
An Efficient Cryptographic Mechanism to Defend Collaborative
Attack Against DSR Protocol in Mobile Ad hoc Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 21
E. Suresh Babu, S. Naganjaneyulu, P. V. Srivasa Rao
and G. K. V. Narasimha Reddy
Materialized Queries with Incremental Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Sonali Chakraborty and Jyotika Doshi
Big Data as Catalyst for Urban Service Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Praful Gharpure
Traffic Signal Automation Through IoT by Sensing and Detecting
Traffic Intensity Through IR Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Sameer Parekh, Nilam Dhami, Sandip Patel and Jaimin Undavia
Performance Evaluation of Various Data Mining Algorithms
on Road Traffic Accident Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Sadiq Hussain, L. J. Muhammad, F. S. Ishaq, Atomsa Yakubu
and I. A. Mohammed
Casper: Modification of Bitcoin Using Proof of Stake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Nakul Sheth, Priteshkumar Prajapati, Ayesha Shaikh and Parth Shah
Provable Data Possession Using Identity-Based Encryption . . . . . . . . . . 87
Smit Kadvani, Aditya Patel, Mansi Tilala, Priteshkumar Prajapati
and Parth Shah

vii
viii Contents

Classification of Blood Cancer and Form Associated Gene

Networks Using Gene Expression Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Tejal Upadhyay and Samir Patel
Stock Market Decision-Making Model Based on Spline
Approximation Using Minimax Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
I. Yu. Vygodchikova, V. N. Gusyatnikov and G. Yu. Chernyshova
Developing a Multi-modal Transport System by Linkage
of Local Public Transport with Commuter Trains Using
Software as a Service (SaaS) Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Godson Michael D’silva, Lukose Roy, Anoop Kunjumon
and Azharuddin Khan
Accelerate the Execution of Graph Processing Using GPU . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Shweta Nitin Aher and Sandip M. Walunj
Ischemic Heart Disease Deduction Using Doppler
Effect Spectrogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Ananthi Sheshasaayee and V. Meenakshi
Transmission Expansion Planning for 133 Bus Tamil Nadu
Test System Using Artificial Immune System Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
S. Prakash and Joseph Henry
Survey and Evolution Study Focusing Comparative Analysis
and Future Research Direction in the Field of Recommendation
System Specific to Collaborative Filtering Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Axita Patel, Amit Thakkar, Nirav Bhatt and Purvi Prajapati
Flower Pollination Optimization and RoI for Node Deployment
in Wireless Sensor Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Kapil Keswani and Anand Bhaskar
Exploring Causes of Crane Accidents from Incident Reports
Using Decision Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Krantiraditya Dhalmahapatra, Kritika Singh, Yash Jain and J. Maiti
A Novel Controlled Rectifier to Achieve Maximum Modulation
Using AC-AC Matrix Converter with Improved Modulation . . . . . . . . . 185
K. Bhaskar and Parvathi Vijayan
Service Quality Parameters for Social Media-Based
Government-to-Citizen Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Sukhwinder Singh, Anuj Kumar Gupta and Lovneesh Chanana
Slot-Loaded Multiband Miniaturized Rectangular Microstrip
Antenna for Mobile Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Sajeed S. Mulla and Shraddha S. Deshpande
Contents ix

Prediction of a Movie’s Success Using Data Mining Techniques . . . . . . 219

Shikha Mundra, Arjun Dhingra, Avnip Kapur and Dhwanika Joshi
Brain Tumor Segmentation with Skull Stripping and Modified
Fuzzy C-Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Aniket Bilenia, Daksh Sharma, Himanshu Raj, Rahul Raman
and Mahua Bhattacharya
Extended Security Model over Data Communication in Online
Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
P. Mareswara Rao and K. Rajashekara Rao
Emotional Strategy in the Classroom Based on the Application
of New Technologies: An Initial Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Hector F. A. Gomez, Susana A. T. Arias, T. Edwin Fabricio Lozada,
C. Carlos Eduardo Martínez, Freddy Robalino, David Castillo
and P. Luz M. Aguirre
Using Clustering for Package Cohesion Measurement
in Aspect-Oriented Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Puneet Jai Kaur and Sakshi Kaushal
Fungal Disease Detection in Maize Leaves Using Haar Wavelet
Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Anupama S. Deshapande, Shantala G. Giraddi, K. G. Karibasappa
and Shrinivas D. Desai
Features Extraction and Dataset Preparation for Grading
of Ethiopian Coffee Beans Using Image Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . 287
Karpaga Selvi Subramanian, S. Vairachilai and Tsadkan Gebremichael
An Overview of Internet of Things: Architecture, Protocols and
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Pramod Aswale, Aditi Shukla, Pritam Bharati, Shubham Bharambe
and Shekhar Palve
Assay: Hybrid Approach for Sentiment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
D. V. Nagarjuna Devi, Thatiparti Venkata Rajini Kanth, Kakollu Mounika
and Nambhatla Sowjanya Swathi
Animal/Object Identification Using Deep Learning
on Raspberry Pi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Param Popat, Prasham Sheth and Swati Jain
Efficient Energy Harvesting Using Thermoelectric Module . . . . . . . . . . 329
Pallavi Korde and Vijaya Kamble
Refining Healthcare Monitoring System Using Wireless Sensor
Networks Based on Key Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Uttara Gogate and Jagdish Bakal
x Contents

OLabs of Digital India, Its Adaptation for Schools in Côte d’Ivoire,

West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Hal Ahassanne Demba, Prema Nedungadi and Raghu Raman
Energy Harvesting Based on Magnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
A. A. Gaikwad and S. B. Kulkarni
Design of Asset Tracking System Using Speech Recognition . . . . . . . . . 371
Ankita Pendse, Arun Parakh and H. K. Verma
Cybercrime: To Detect Suspected User’s Chat Using Text Mining . . . . 381
Khan Sameera and Pinki Vishwakarma
Techniques to Extract Topical Experts in Twitter: A Survey . . . . . . . . . 391
Kuljeet Kaur and Divya Bansal
Comparison of BOD5 Removal in Water Hyacinth and Duckweed
by Genetic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Ramkumar Mahalakshmi, Chandrasekaran Sivapragasam
and Sankararajan Vanitha
Mathematical Modeling of Gradually Varied Flow with Genetic
Programming: A Lab-Scale Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Chandrasekaran Sivapragasam, Poomalai Saravanan,
Kaliappan Ganeshmoorthy, Atchutha Muhil, Sundharamoorthy Dilip
and Sundarasrinivasan Saivishnu
A Hybrid Intrusion Detection System for Hierarchical
Filtration of Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Pragma Kar, Soumya Banerjee, Kartick Chandra Mondal,
Gautam Mahapatra and Samiran Chattopadhyay
A Novel Method for Image Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Ravi Saharan and Sadanand Yadav
PPCS-MMDML: Integrated Privacy-Based Approach
for Big Data Heterogeneous Image Set Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
D. Franklin Vinod and V. Vasudevan
Polynomial Time Subgraph Isomorphism Algorithm for Large
and Different Kinds of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Rachna Somkunwar and Vinod M. Vaze
Study of Different Document Representation Models for Finding
Phrase-Based Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Preeti Kathiria and Harshal Arolkar
Predicting Consumer’s Complaint Behavior in Telecom Service:
An Empirical Study of India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Amandeep Singh and P. Vigneswara Ilavarasan
Contents xi

Computational Intelligence in Embedded System Design:

A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Jonti Talukdar, Bhavana Mehta and Sachin Gajjar
Knowledge-Based Approach for Word Sense Disambiguation
Using Genetic Algorithm for Gujarati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Zankhana B. Vaishnav and Priti S. Sajja
Compressive Sensing Approach to Satellite Hyperspectral Image
Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
K. S. Gunasheela and H. S. Prasantha
Development of Low-Cost Embedded Vision System with a Case
Study on 1D Barcode Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Vaishali Mishra, Harsh K. Kapadia, Tanish H. Zaveri
and Bhanu Prasad Pinnamaneni
Path Planning of Mobile Robot Using PSO Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
S. Pattanayak, S. Agarwal, B. B. Choudhury and S. C. Sahoo
An Application of Maximum Probabilistic-Based Rough
Set on ID3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Utpal Pal and Sharmistha Bhattacharya (Halder)
A Novel Algorithm for Video Super-Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Rohita Jagdale and Sanjeevani Shah
Counting the Number of People in Crowd as a Part of Automatic
Crowd Monitoring: A Combined Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Yashna Bharti, Ravi Saharan and Ashutosh Saxena
Improving Image Quality for Detection of Illegally Parked Vehicle
in No Parking Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Rikita Nagar and Hiteishi Diwanji
Analysis of Image Inconsistency Based on Discrete Cosine Transform
(DCT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Vivek Mahale, Mouad M. H. Ali, Pravin L. Yannawar and Ashok Gaikwad
Implementation of Word Sense Disambiguation on Hadoop
Using Map-Reduce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Anuja Nair, Kaushik Kyada and Neel Zadafiya
Low-Power ACSU Design for Trellis Coded Modulation (TCM)
Decoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
N. N. Thune and S. L. Haridas
Enhancing Security of Android-Based Smart Devices: Preventive
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Nisha Shah and Nilesh Modi
xii Contents

Survey of Techniques Used for Tolerance of Flooding Attacks

in DTN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Maitri Shah and Pimal Khanpara
An In-Depth Survey of Techniques Employed in Construction
of Emotional Lexicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Pallavi V. Kulkarni, Meghana B. Nagori and Vivek P. Kshirsagar
DWT-Based Blind Video Watermarking Using Image
Scrambling Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
C. N. Sujatha and P. Sathyanarayana
Fractals: A Novel Method in the Miniaturization of a Patch
Antenna with Bandwidth Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Geeta Kalkhambkar, Rajashri Khanai and Pradeep Chindhi
Adaptive Live Task Migration in Cloud Environment for Significant
Disaster Prevention and Cost Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Namra Bhadreshkumar Shah, Tirth Chetankumar Thakkar,
Shrey Manish Raval and Harshal Trivedi
Lip Tracking Using Deformable Models and Geometric
Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Sumita Nainan and Vaishali Kulkarni
Highly Secure DWT Steganography Scheme for Encrypted Data
Hiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Vijay Kumar Sharma, Pratistha Mathur and Devesh Kumar Srivastava
A Novel Approach to the ROI Extraction in Palmprint
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Swati R. Zambre and Abhilasha Mishra
A Novel Video Genre Classification Algorithm by Keyframe
Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Jina Varghese and K. N. Ramachandran Nair
Reduction of Hardware Complexity of Digital Circuits
by Threshold Logic Gates Using RTDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Muhammad Khalid, Shubhankar Majumdar
and Mohammad Jawaid Siddiqui
Analysis of High-Power Bidirectional Multilevel Converters
for High-Speed WAP-7D Locomotives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
J. Suganthi Vinodhini and R. Samuel Rajesh Babu
Contents xiii

A Study on Different Types of Base Isolation System over

Fixed Based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
M. Tamim Tanwer, Tanveer Ahmed Kazi and Mayank Desai
Suppression of Speckle Noise in Ultrasound Images Using Bilateral
Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Ananya Gupta, Vikrant Bhateja, Avantika Srivastava and Aditi Gupta
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
About the Editors

Suresh Chandra Satapathy is currently working as Professor, School of Com-

puter Engineering, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India. He
obtained his Ph.D. in computer science and engineering from Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University (JNTU), Hyderabad, India, and M.Tech. in CSE from
NIT Rourkela, Odisha, India. He has 27 years of teaching experience. His research
interests are data mining, machine intelligence, and swarm intelligence. He has
acted as program chair of many international conferences and edited six volumes of
proceedings from Springer LNCS and AISC series. He is currently guiding eight
scholars for Ph.D. He is also a senior member of IEEE.

Amit Joshi is a young entrepreneur and researcher who holds an M.Tech. in

computer science and engineering and is currently pursuing research in the areas of
cloud computing and cryptography. He has 6 years of academic and industrial
experience at the prestigious organizations in Udaipur and Ahmedabad. Currently,
he is working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Information Technology,
Sabar Institute of Technology, Gujarat, India. He is an active member of ACM,
CSI, AMIE, IACSIT Singapore, IDES, ACEEE, NPA, and many other professional
societies. He also holds the post of Honorary Secretary of the CSI’s Udaipur
Chapter and Secretary of the ACM’s Udaipur Chapter. He has presented and
published more than 30 papers in national and international journals/conferences of
IEEE and ACM. He has edited three books on advances in open-source mobile
technologies, ICT for integrated rural development, and ICT for competitive
strategies. He has also organized more than 15 national and international confer-
ences and workshops, including the international conference ICTCS 2014 at
Udaipur through ACM’s ICPS. In recognition of his contributions, he received the
Appreciation Award from the Institution of Engineers, Kolkata, India, in 2014 and
an award from the SIG-WNs Computer Society of India in 2012.

xv
Novel Peak-to-Average Power Reduction
Technique in Combination
with Adaptive Digital Pre-distortion

V. Kiran, K. L. Sudha and Vinila Nagaraj

Abstract Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is considered to

be a most viable option to convey information at high data rates in wireless com-
munication. OFDM is multi-carrier communication technique which uses orthogo-
nal subcarriers and has high bandwidth spectral efficiency and robustness to
high-frequency selective fading channels. In spite of several advantages, OFDM has
the major drawback of Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR), which may lead to
power inefficiency in RF transmission section, high in-band, and out-of-band radi-
ation, inter-carrier interference, and degradation in Bit Error Rate (BER) perfor-
mance. Hence, it is extremely preferred to have minimum PAPR. This paper
proposes a novel technique of reducing peak-to-average power, improving the bit
error rate performance, and saving bandwidth by the combination of novel PAPR
reduction technique and adaptive DPD. The proposed method gives a better PAPR
reduction as well as better BER performance compared to other methods.

Keywords OFDM ⋅ PAPR ⋅ DPD ⋅ BER ⋅ CCDF

1 Introduction

Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a viable option to convey

information at high bit rate in mobile and wireless communication. OFDM has
many advantages like robust transmission under frequency selective fading channel,
resilience to interference (ISI), narrowband effect, efficient usage of available
bandwidth, and simpler channel equalization. OFDM signal can be generated using
IFFT signal processing which is equivalent to the summation of many multicarrier
signals [1]. Summation of multicarrier signals leads to fluctuation in envelope.

V. Kiran (✉) ⋅ V. Nagaraj

Department ECE, RVCE, Bangalore 59, India
e-mail: Kv_bee@Yahoo.co.in
K. L. Sudha
Department ECE, DSCE, Bangalore 78, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1

S. C. Satapathy and A. Joshi (eds.), Information and Communication Technology
for Intelligent Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 106,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1742-2_1
2 V. Kiran et al.

Fluctuation in envelope is further distorted through nonlinear power amplifiers due

to large amplitude swings and leads the power amplifier to operate in saturation
region [2]. Hence, the nonlinear amplifiers cannot operate with higher efficiency
level.
Many techniques have been proposed for peak-to-average power reduction in
OFDM signals (Fig. 1).
The present 4G exploits single-carrier FDMA where additional DFT is required
before IFFT. This leads to frequency offset and drifts. Every proposed technique is
usually calculated through Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function
(CCDF) which is a probabilistic approach.
Clipping technique shows the lowest PAPR but worst BER performance. Here, it
has been proposed that a nonlinear scaling method with which signal is scaled down
near threshold level of linear amplification of a region. Scaled-down signal can be
scaled up reversely because scaled-down information is shared between both
transmission and receiver, but only for the signal with high PAPR.
OFDM performance in LTE cannot be achieved by PAPR reduction technique
alone. Digital Pre-Distortion (DPD) in conjunction with PAPR reduction technique
can improve the power efficiency, BER performance and cost-effectiveness.

Fig. 1 Classification PAPR reduction techniques [11]

Novel Peak-to-Average Power Reduction Technique in Combination … 3

2 OFDM Signal

OFDM is multi-carrier modulation as defined in Eq. 1. OFDM baseband signal

with n-point IFFT signal processing is equivalent to summation of n multiple
components of sinusoids.

1 N −1 2π
x ð nÞ = ∑ X ðkÞej N kn
N k=0

 ð1Þ
1 N −1 2π 2π
= ∑ X ðkÞ½ðcos knÞ + j sin kn 
N k=0 N N

where n = 0, 1, 2 . . . N − 1 and xðkÞ input data symbol in complex number.

OFDM signal shows variations in signal envelope which causes a distortion
through nonlinear amplifier. The probability of occurrence of high peak signal
depends on the combination of input data sequence.
X = {X [0], X [1], …, X [N − 1]}, which can be analyzed with statistical
approach. Therefore, the PAPR can be defined as the ratio of maximum power to
average power of the signal.

maxjx½nj2
PAPR = n o ð2Þ
E jx½nj2

Because of the high PAPR, signal should be backed off for being amplified with
nonlinear power amplifiers, which gives rise to low SNR. Therefore, the signal with
high PAPR will have low SNR.
CCDF is a performance evaluation metric for PAPR. It gives the probability of
the OFDM signal exceeding the threshold value.
The operation of the nonlinear power amplifier can be classified as linear and
nonlinear region. The nonlinear region shows the performance of power amplifier,
exhibiting the nonlinear characteristics of AM/PM and AM/AM with distortions as
AM-AM and AM-PM are widely accepted as figure of merit for the nonlinear
system. The time domain equation of base band OFDM signal can be expressed as


N −1 t − nT − T2
xOFDM, b ðt Þ = ∑ x½nT Π
n=0 T

 ð3Þ
N −1 t − nT − T ̸ 2
= ∑ ½xRe ½nT  + jxIm ½nT Π
n=0 T
t 
1, − T ̸2 ≤ t ≤ T ̸2
where Π =
T 0, otherwise
4 V. Kiran et al.

Let Vth be the threshold voltage envelope which is corresponding to input power
near the boundary between linear and nonlinear region of nonlinear power ampli-
fier. In nonlinear scaling method, peak envelope which is high above Vth is more
scaled down than peak envelope near above Vth. Then, those envelopes are dis-
tributed near under Vth. Nonlinear scaling shows better PAPR reduction and with
better improvement in BER and SNR.
For high-frequency signals, PAPR reduction method is not sufficient for
improvement of power efficiency. A combination of novel PAPR reduction method
and DPD will improve power efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and maximize the
linearization effectiveness of the power amplifier.

3 Digital Pre-Distortion

To minimize the power amplifier’s in-band and out-of-band distortion, many lin-
earization techniques have been proposed. Techniques include negative feedback,
feed-forward method, pre-distortion, and post-distortion. Currently, Digital pre-
distortion has become most efficient method for linearization of power amplifier due
to stability, easy implementation, and cost-effectiveness. On the other hand, it also
adapts to changes in nonlinear characteristics of power amplifier.
DPD will generate inverse coefficients to cancel AM/AM and AM/PM distor-
tions introduced by the nonlinear power amplifier. The distortions and pre-
distortions are complementary to achieve linear distortion. To find the inverse
coefficient for power amplifier in adaptive algorithm, LMS and RLS algorithms are
used [4].

4 Adaptive Algorithm

The block diagram in Fig. 2 shows an adaptive algorithm which will update
pre-distortion coefficients by computing the distance between input and output.
Many iterations are performed till difference is approximately equal to zero [5].

Fig. 2 Adaptive DPD block diagram

Novel Peak-to-Average Power Reduction Technique in Combination … 5

4.1 Novel PAPR Reduction Technique + ADPD

To achieve power efficiency and improved BER, the algorithm which is a com-
bination of novel PAPR reduction technique with a digital pre-distortion is
employed as shown in Fig. 3. The entire system consists of novel PAPR reduction
technique and ADPD. This novel technique reduces the PAPR to predefined range
and transmits the scaled signal using frequency modulation along with location of
the scaled position without using extra bandwidth. The output of novel PAPR
reduction is fed into DPD for using a digital signal processing. Pre-distorter will
generate inverse coefficients for their input stimulus, i.e., acts as an inverse PA
nonlinearity equalizer.
To satisfy the linearity, the following procedures are followed for simulation and
analysis:
(a) Pre-distortion parameters are initialized.
(b) Getting g(n) which is a reduced PAPR.
(c) Getting the D(n) into PA and output y(n).
(d) Pre-distortion coefficient are calculated using LMS algorithm.
(e) Iteration is continued till error becomes zero.
Above plot shows the importance of modeling nonlinearities using adaptive
indirect learning architecture which are DPD and LMS algorithms (Fig. 4).
From the Fig. 5, it is observed that conjunction of nonlinear scaling method to
reduce the PAPR and adaptive Digital pre-distortion makes PAPR reduced to zero
(Figs. 6, 7, and 8).
Uniform Constellation of a perfect signal is perfectly symmetric about the origin.
When the constellation is not “square” it shows I-Q imbalance, i.e., when the Q-axis
height does not equal the I-axis width. Quadrature error is seen in any “tilt” to the
constellation.
Constellation performance comparison using novel PAPR reduction technique
with DPD method is shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that both the phase rotation and
amplitude diffusion are improved considerably with novel PAPR reduction tech-
nique with DPD (Figs. 10 and 11).

Fig. 3 Novel PAPR reduction technique + ADPD

6 V. Kiran et al.

Fig. 4 PSD performance

Fig. 5 Complementary cumulative distributive function

Two significant distortion effects in PAs that causes spectral regrowth in

transmitted signal and bit error in received signal. For the nonlinear systems,
AM-AM widely accepted as figure of merit.
In pre-distortion, nonlinear power amplifier are stimulated by baseband samples
and AM-AM and AM-PM effects are estimated.
Novel Peak-to-Average Power Reduction Technique in Combination … 7

Fig. 6 BER and SNR

Fig. 7 Original signal constellation diagram

Estimated distortions are eliminated from power amplifier by pre-distorting the

stimulus input with their inverse coefficients, i.e., pre-distorter acts as an inverse PA
nonlinearity equalizer.
8 V. Kiran et al.

Fig. 8 Distorted signal constellation diagram

Fig. 9 Constellation diagram

Novel Peak-to-Average Power Reduction Technique in Combination … 9

Fig. 10 AM-AM performance with novel PAPR reduction technique + DPD

Fig. 11 AM-PM performance with novel PAPR reduction technique + DPD

10 V. Kiran et al.

5 Conclusion

In wireless communication systems, transmitting signals with increased power

efficiency and negating signals with nonlinear distortions are the two major chal-
lenges, to which APPR and DPD are the most favorable solutions, respectively. The
proposed novel PAPR reduction method in conjunction with adaptive DPD not
only compensates the nonlinear distortions arising from power amplifier but also
achieves increase in power efficiency due to improved BER performance. Simu-
lation results show that the proposed method can obtain desirable results by 25 dB
and 4 dB improvement on the linearity performance and power efficiency perfor-
mance, respectively.

References

1. Gregorio, F.H.: Analysis and compensation of nonlinear power amplifier effects in

multi-antenna OFDM systems. Thesis Dissertation (2007)
2. Jones, A.E., Wilkinson, T.A., Barton, S.: Block coding scheme for reduction of peak to mean
envelope power ratio of multicarrier transmission schemes. Electr. Lett. 30(25), 2098–2099
(1994)
3. Ding, L., Zhou, G.T., Morgan, D.R., et al.: A robust digital baseband predistorter constructed
using memory polynomials. IEEE Trans. Commun. 52(1), 159–164 (2004)
4. Proakis, J.G., Manolakis, D.G.: Digital Signal Processing, Principles, Algorithm, and
Applications, 4th edn. ISBN: 978-7-121-04042-9 (2007)
5. Ai, B., Zhong, Z.D., Zhu, G., et al.: A novel scheme for power amplifier pre-distortion based
on indirect leaning architecture. Wirel. Personal Commun. 46(4), 523–530, 639 (2008)
6. Braithwaite, R.N.: Adaptive digital pre-distortion of nonlinear power amplifiers using reduced
order memory correction. In: IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium, Atlanta,
GA, 15–20 June 2008, session WMA-8
7. Braithwaite, R.N.: Crest factor reduction (CFR) of wideband wireless multi-access signals. In:
IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium, Boston, MA, 7–12 June 2009
8. Braithwaite, R.N.: Reducing estimator biases due to equalization errosion adaptive
digitalpre-distortion systems for RF power amplifiers. In: IEEE MTT-S International
Microwave Symposium Digital, pp. 1–3. Montreal, QC, Canada, 17–22 June 2012
9. Braithwaite, R.N.: Measurement and correction of residual nonlinearities in a digitally
predistorted power amplifier. In: Proceedings 75th ARFTG Microwave Measurement
Conference, pp. 14–17. Anaheim, CA, 28 May 2010
10. Braithwaite, R.N.: Digital predistortion of a power amplifier for signals comprising widely
spaced carriers. In: Proceedings 78th ARFTG Microwave Measurement Conference Tempe,
AZ, pp. 1–4, 1–2 Dec 2011
11. Kiran, V., Sudha, K.L., Vinila, N.: Comparison and novel approach of peak to average power
reduction technique in OFDM. In: 2nd International Conference on Networks Information and
Communications (ICNIC-2015), at SVCE Bangalore-157 (2015)
12. Kiran, V.: ACPR reduction for better power efficiency using adaptive DPD. In: 6th IEEE
International Conference on Communication and Signal Processing-ICCSP 16 Organised by
Adhiparasakthi Engineering College Melmaruvathur, Tamilnadu, India—603319 (2016)
13. Kiran, V., Jose, S.: Adjacent partitioning PTS with Turbo coding for PAPR reduction in
OFDM. IEEE International Conference on Advanced Computing & Communication Systems
(ICACCS 2017), Jan 2017
Semantic Segmentation Using Deep
Learning for Brain Tumor MRI
via Fully Convolution Neural Networks

Sanjay Kumar, Ashish Negi and J. N. Singh

Abstract In this paper, premature head lump recognition along with analysis is
dangerous to clinic. Therefore, segmentation of paying attention to growth neigh-
borhood desires near subsists precise, efficient, and robust. Convolution system is
authoritative illustration model with the purpose of capitulate skin tone. Researchers
explain to intricacy complex with taught continuous pixels and top condition and
image in semantic. According to research contribution approaching, the make
completely convolution system with the intention obtain participation of random
dimension and manufacture correspondingly sized production with resourceful
supposition and knowledge. We describe and element the breathing liberty and
entirely convolution system clarify describe function toward special impenetrable
estimate everyday jobs in addition rough copy family member and preceding
reproduction. We are acclimatizing fashionable arrangement network which is keen
on fully convolution networks with relocating their knowledgeable representation
by modification to the segmentation assignment. We describe a bounce structural
chart to facilitate collect semantic requirement starting with a profound uncouth
deposit through exterior in sequence following low, well coating toward construct
precise in addition and thorough segmentation. This is the FCN attain circumstance
of the segmentation and 36% similar development toward 66.6% indicate lying
2015 NYUD with pass through a filter present although deduction take a smaller
amount single fifth and succeeding on behalf of the characteristic picture.
According to researches, they designed a three-dimensional fully convolution
neural network for brain tumor segmentation. During training, researchers opti-
mized our network alongside beating purpose based on gamble achieve results

S. Kumar
Uttarakhand Technical University Dehradun, Sudhowala, India
e-mail: skhakhil@gmail.com
A. Negi
G.B. Pant Engineering College, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
e-mail: ashish.ne@gmail.com
J. N. Singh (✉)
Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India
e-mail: singhjn2000@gmail.com

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 11

S. C. Satapathy and A. Joshi (eds.), Information and Communication Technology
for Intelligent Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 106,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1742-2_2
12 S. Kumar et al.

and researchers also used to assess the superiority of prediction twisted in this
representation. In order to accommodate the massive memory requirements of
three-dimensional convolutions, we cropped the images we fed into our network,
and we used a UNET architecture that allowed us to achieve good results even with
a relatively narrow and shallow neural network. Finally, we used post-processing in
order to smooth out the segmentations produced by our model.

Keywords Image segmentation ⋅

Classification ⋅
MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging) scan ⋅
Fully convolution neural networks

1 Introduction

Brain growth is unrestrained enlargement of hard accumulation shaped through

undesired cell establish inside dissimilar part the mind. It can be divided into
malignant tumor and benign tumor. Malignant tumors contain primary tumors and
metastatic tumors. Glooms are the majority of recurrent brain cancer in elders,
which establishes commencement mind cell plus and penetrates the neighboring
clean. Patients with low-grade gliomas can expect life extension of several years
while patient with high grade can expect at most 2 years. Meanwhile, the number of
patients diagnosed as brain cancer is growing fast year by year, with estimation of
23,000 new cases only in the United States in 2015. The system be pouring move
forward inside gratitude [1]. Former approaches include second-hand convents
intended pro segmentation every pixel is label through the group of it is enclose
principle before section, excluding through shortcoming with the intention of job
[2]. In this research identical toward the back culture onward deduction pixel
intelligent prophecy. FCN (fully convolutional networks) can professionally find
out to create impenetrable prediction for per-pixel everyday jobs comparable
toward semantic. Researcher’s exhibit to FCN (fully convolutional networks)
taught continuous happening segmentation goes further than current absent sup-
plementary equipment.
To our acquaintance, this is the primary employment toward instruct FCN (fully
convolutional networks) back-2
(1) For pixel-wise prophecy
(2) Commencing supervise preparation.
Completely version and accessible system predict impassable output beginning
arbitrary size input. Equal knowledge with conclusion can execute complete picture
instance by impenetrable feed frontward working out and backpropagation.
In-network up sampling layers enable pixel shrewd guess with knowledge inside
net through sample pool. This technique competent together asymptotically with
utterly plus preclude the necessitate pro the complete extra mechanism. This move
toward do not construct employ and dispensation complication counting wonderful
Semantic Segmentation Using Deep Learning for Brain Tumor MRI … 13

Fig. 1 Single axial sliver of MR picture of high score glioma tolerant [4]

pix otherwise after-hoc modification with haphazard field of limited classification.

This representation transfers current achievement in organization to opaque forecast
through categorization net because entirely complication plus modification resting
on following their educated representation [3] (Fig. 1).
Gabor filters, Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HoG), or Wavelets shows bad
performance, especially when boundaries between tumors and healthy tissues are
fuzzy. As a result, designing task-adapted and robust feature.

1.1 Brain Tumors

Through a pervasiveness of a smaller amount than 1 h in the western inhabitants,

intelligence tumor is not extremely ordinary, nevertheless they are in the center the
nearly every deadly cancer. Now this time fresh learning predictable the UK fre-
quency speed planned intended for major tumor of the mind otherwise anxious
organization inside the course of exist approximately 26 for each 200,000 adults
through around single third the tumor creature hateful plus the relax moreover
benevolent and average spiteful. The utterance growth be of latin source plus
earnings bulge [5]. These days it regularly linked by a neoplasm because through
unrestrained compartment propagation. Head cancer preserve exist classier
according toward source before amount of ferociousness. Main brain tumors happen
inside the head whilst metastatic head cancer regularly originates the beginning
additional part of corpse [6].

2 Related Work

In mechanism education fully convolution neural network is a group of bottomless,

provide for frontward false neural networks that have productively be functional to
analyze visual descriptions. FCN (fully convolutional networks) use a difference of
multilayer awareness intended to necessitate negligible preprocessing [7]. Increase
convent output two maps of discovery score future for the four corners and
postal tackle block [4]. Downhill casement discovery Segment semantic segmen-
tation through Pinero along with picture reinstatement through Eigen [4].
14 S. Kumar et al.

FCN (fully convolutional networks) preparation is uncommon except

hand-me-down proficiently in Thompson. To study a back-to-back fraction detector
plus spatial representation used for pretense opinion though perform exposit resting
on otherwise scrutinize this technique.

2.1 Common Approaches in FCNN (Fourier Convolutional

Neural Networks)

• Little model restrict ability plus amenable field scrap shrewd preparation.
• Placement dispensation through super pixel bulge chance meadow regulariza-
tion filter otherwise restricted categorization.
• Contribution variable with production interlace for impenetrable.
• Many type of level pyramid dispensation.
• Saturate tanen non linearity’s.
• Ensembles while the technique do lacking equipment.
Nevertheless researcher does find out piece intelligent preparation plus move and
stitch impenetrable production beginning the viewpoint of the FCN. Researchers
too converse in system awake example of the completely linked forecast through
Eigen Particular container. Similarly become accustomed bottomless classification
mesh to segmentation additional than perform consequently inside irritated sug-
gestion classifier model [8]. These approaches modify CNN (convolutional neural
network) scheme through example bound box plus/otherwise area proposal inten-
ded discovery semantic in addition toward example segmentation. Neither tech-
nique is educated. They reach high-tech segmentation fallout lying in that order so
researchers straight contrast our separate FCN toward their semantic segmentation
consequences inside Section. Researchers combine skin texture corner to corner
layer to portray a linear local to-global symbol with the purpose of melody con-
tinuous. In fashionable job Hariharan et al. Moreover use manifold layer in their
mixture replica for semantic segmentation [8].

2.2 Deep Learning in Brain Tumor MRI Medical Imaging

The foremost prominent learning to relate deep neural network to Brain Tumor
image meting was absent [3], which used a FCN structural design to carry out
pixel-wise categorization of electron microscopy neuron imagery into covering and
no covering pixel. Unpaid to the premature achievement of [7] and others, attention
to apply FCN architectures to brain tumor MRI images have burgeoned in present
time [9]. Brain Tumor MRI image analysis and segmentation troubles present
several unique challenges. First, uncomplaining information in healthiness check
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 12 feet, thus holding water adequate to the development of
about 100,000 horsepower. The mouth of the canal is 600 feet
from the shore line proper, and considerable work was
necessary in its protection and excavation. The bed is now of
clay, and the side walls are of solid masonry 17 feet high, 8
feet at the base, and 3 feet at the top. The northeastern side
of the canal is occupied by a power house, and is pierced by
ten inlets guarded by sentinel gates, each being the separate
entrance to a wheel pit in the power house, where the water is
used and the power is secured. The water as quickly as used is
carried off by a tunnel to the Niagara River again. …

"The wheel pit, over which the power house is situated, is a

long, deep, cavernous slot at one side, under the floor, cut
in the rock, parallel with the canal outside. Here the water
gets a fall of about 140 feet before it smites the turbines.
The arrangement of the dynamos generating the current up in
the power house is such that each of them may be regarded as
the screw at the end of a long shaft, just as we might see it
if we stood an ocean steamer on its nose with its heel in the
air. At the lower end of the dynamo shaft is the turbine in
the wheel pit bottom, just as in the case of the steamer shaft
we find attached to it the big triple or quadruple expansion
marine steam engine. …
{440}
The wheel pit which contains the turbines is 178 feet in
depth, and connects by a lateral tunnel with the main tunnel
running at right angles. This main tunnel is no less than
7,000 feet in length, with an average hydraulic slope of 6
feet in 1,000. It has a maximum height of 21 feet, and a width
of 18 feet 10 inches, its net section being 386 square feet.
The water rushes through it and out of its mouth of stone and
iron at a velocity of 26½ feet per second, or nearly 20 miles
an hour. More than 1,000 men were employed continuously for
more than three years in the construction of this tunnel. …

"The American Company has also pre-empted the great

 utilization of the Canadian share of Niagara's energy. The
plan for this work proposes the erection of two power houses
of a total ultimate capacity of 125,000 horsepower. … With
both the Canadian and American plants fully developed, no less
than 350,000 horsepower will be available."

"Within the last five years," said the "Electrical Review," in

a "historical number" issued at the beginning of 1901, "there
have been built in many parts of the world electrical
installations of great magnitude, transmitting the power of
cataracts for considerable distances. The longest of these, in
California, operates over a distance of 115 miles. Perhaps the
largest of them is that at Niagara, where 105,000 horse power
is developed, and much of it transmitted … to the city of
Buffalo"—20 miles.

The first transmission of power from Niagara Falls to Buffalo

was made at midnight, November 15-16, 1896, when 1,000
horsepower was sent over the wires to the power-house of the
Buffalo Railway Company. The important event was signalled to
the citizens by the firing of cannon, the ringing of bells and
sounding of steam whistles.

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE:
The rotary magnetic field.
Polyphased currents.
Nikola Tesla's inventions.

"At about the same time [1888], Galileo Ferraris, in Italy,

and Nikola Tesla, in the United States, brought out motors
operating by systems of alternating currents displaced from
one another in phase by definite amounts and producing what is
known as the rotating magnetic field. This invention seems
destined to be one of the most important that has been made in
the history of electricity. The result of the introduction of
polyphase systems has been the ability to transmit power
economically for considerable distances, and, as this directly
operated to make possible the utilization of water-power in
remote places and the distribution of power over large areas,
the immediate outcome of the polyphase system was power
transmission; and the outcome of power transmission almost
surely will be the gradual supersession of coal and the
harnessing of the waste forces of Nature to do useful work."

Electrical Review,
January 12, 1901.

The following description of Tesla's invention was given by N.

W. Perry in the "Engineering Magazine": "If the north and
south poles of a small horseshoe magnet be suspended over a
bar of soft iron free to revolve in a horizontal plane, or be
placed over an ordinary compass-needle, the latter will be
attracted at either end by the poles of the magnet and take up
a position parallel to a straight line drawn between the two
poles of the magnet. Now if the latter be revolved through any
angle the soft iron or needle will follow, being dragged
around by the magnet, and if the magnet be caused to revolve
regularly the iron will also revolve, being pulled around by
the full force of the magnet. It was not feasible, however, to
cause the magnet to revolve in this way, and Tesla's invention
consisted in obviating this trouble and, in fact, greatly
simplifying the problem. He conceived the idea that if he took
an iron ring and used two alternating currents, one of which had
its maximum value at the instant that the other had a zero
value—or, in other words, two currents whose periods were such
that one waned as the other increased—he could produce in that
iron ring by winding these circuits in alternate coils
surfaces that without any mechanical movement of the parts
would travel around that ring with a rapidity equal to the
number of changes of direction of the currents employed. He
thus had a ring, the north and south poles of which were
rapidly revolving just as would the poles of the horseshoe
magnet were it tied at its middle to a twisted string and
allowed to revolve. A piece of iron pivoted at its middle
placed concentric with this ring would therefore be dragged
around by the changing poles of the ring. He had thus
discovered what is somewhat awkwardly expressed by the
expression, 'the rotary magnetic field,' and also the use of
what have been termed 'polyphased currents'—the one referring
to the magnetism and the other to the combination of currents
by which this changing magnetism was produced. This discovery
is undoubtedly one of the most important that has ever been
made within the domain of alternating currents."

Engineering Magazine,
volume 7, page 780.

Another of Tesla's inventions or discoveries which excited

greater popular interest was that which produced what were
called "high frequency effects," first publicly shown in
connection with a lecture at Columbia College, in the spring
of 1890. "Mr. Tesla started with the idea of setting matter
into vibration at a rate approximating that of light (some two
and a half millions a second), with the expectation that
under such violent molecular agitation it would emit light. He
has not as yet succeeded in obtaining so high a rate, but a
much lower one produced some very surprising luminous effects.
… The dynamo method for getting very high frequencies was soon
abandoned as inadequate, and the oscillatory discharge of a
Leyden jar or plate condensers was substituted. … Perhaps the
most surprising of the new facts elicited from his
investigations is that the shock due to these very high
voltage and high frequency currents can be supported by a
person without any serious inconvenience. He passes a current
of two hundred thousand volts through his body with perfect
impunity."

F. J. Patten,
New Science Review,
volume 1, page 84.
ELECTRICAL SCIENCE:
Development of the Telephone System.

The annual report of the American Telephone and Telegraph

Company (by which the property and business of the American
Bell Telephone Company were taken over at the close of the
year 1899) for the year ending December 31, 1900, contains the
following brief review of the development and growth of the
telephone system, especially in the United States: "The year
just passed rounds out the quarter century, within which is
compassed the discovery and application of the art of
transmitting speech by telephone.
{441}
A brief review of the development and growth of this new
industry, which has become so important a factor in commercial
and social life, seems appropriate at this time. Twenty-five
years ago the wonderful invention of Professor Bell was made
known to the world. Twenty-three years ago the first telephone
exchange in the world was established in the United States, and
from that beginning has been built up the great system of
exchanges, and the network of connecting lines over which
conversation can be held between points over a thousand miles
apart. Twenty years ago there were 47,880 telephone
subscribers in the United States, and 29,714 miles of wire in
use for telephonic purposes. At the end of last year, there
were 800,880 exchange stations equipped with our instruments,
and 1,961,801 miles of wire were employed for exchange and
toll line service. The United States has, from the beginning,
held the leading place among nations in respect not only of
the extensive development of the business, but in the
employment of modern and improved appliances, tending to
greater efficiency of service.

"In connection with the record of development of telephone

service in this country, some comparison of the systems of
foreign countries is of interest. The latest reports that can
be obtained, part of which are for the year 1899, others to
 the close of 1900, show the countries next in order to the
United States, as respects the development of telephone
service, to be the German Empire, having 229,391 stations;
Great Britain, 171,660; Sweden, 73,500; France, 59,927;
Switzerland, 38,864: Austria, 32,255; Russia, 31,376;
Norway, 29,446.

"As before stated, there were, at the close of last year, more
than 800,000 stations connected with the exchanges of our
licensee companies, which exceeds the aggregate number of
subscribers in all the countries of Continental Europe. In
addition to this, there were over 40,000 private line stations
equipped with our telephones. The number of exchange and toll
line connections in the United States now reaches almost two
thousand millions yearly."

More detailed and precise statistics of the telephone service

in the United States are given in the report as follows:

January 1,
January 1,
1892.
1901.

Exchanges. 788
1,348
Branch offices. 509
1,427
Miles of wire on poles. 180,139
627,897
Miles of wire on buildings. 14,954
16,833
Miles of wire underground. 70,334
705,269
Miles of wire submarine. 1,029
4,203
Total miles of wire. 266,456
1,354,202
Total circuits. 186,462
508,262
Total employees. 8,376
32,837
Total stations. 216,017
800,880

The estimated number of exchange connections daily in the

United States, made up from actual count in most of the
exchanges, is 5,668,986. Or a total per year of about
1,825,000,000. The number of daily calls per station varies in
different exchanges from 1 to 15.9, the average throughout the
United States being 7.1. The average cost to the subscriber
varies according to the size of the exchange and character of
the service, from less than 1 to 9 cents per connection.

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE:
Dr. Pupin's revolutionary improvement
in long-distance Telephony.

The most important advance in telephonic science that has been

made since the invention of the Bell instrument was announced
at about the beginning of the new century, as the result of
studies pursued by Dr. Michael I. Pupin, of Columbia
University, New York. Mathematical and experimental
investigations which Dr. Pupin had been carrying on, for
several years, led him to a determination of the precise
intervals at which, if inductance coils are inserted in a long
conductor, an electric current in traversing it may be made to
travel far without much loss of force. He is said to have
taken a hint from seeing how waves of vibration in a cord are
strengthened by lightly "loading" it at certain exact points,
determined by the wave lengths. It is probably correct to
 describe his invention as being a scientific ascertainment of
the points in a long telephonic circuit at which to load the
electric current in it, and the precise loading to be applied.

In a paper published in the "Western Electrician," describing

his investigations mathematically, Dr. Pupin wrote: "If an
increase in efficiency of wave transmission over a cord thus
loaded is to be obtained, it is evident that the load must be
properly subdivided and the fractional parts of the total load
must be placed at proper distances apart along the cord,
otherwise the detrimental effects due to reflections resulting
from the discontinuities thus introduced will more than
neutralize the beneficial effects derived from the increased
mass. … The insertion of inductance coils at periodically
recurring points along the wave conductor produces the same
effect upon electrical wave transmission as the distribution
of the small loads along the stretched cord … produces upon
mechanical wave transmission along the cord."

The result is said to be that conversation by telephone over a

distance of 3,000 miles is made not only practicable but easy,
and that it is believed to be as practicable through submarine
cables as through overland wires. If it does not make the
telephone a common instrument of communication from continent
to continent, it will, at least, improve oceanic telegraphy
beyond measure. According to newspaper report, Dr. Pupin's
invention has been sold to the Bell Telephone Company for a
very large sum.

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE:
Wireless Telegraphy.

"In 1864 Maxwell observed that electricity and light have the
same velocity, 186,400 miles a second, and he formulated the
theory that electricity propagates itself in waves which
differ from those of light only in being longer. This was
proved to be true by Hertz, in 1888, who showed that where
 alternating currents of very high frequency were set up in an
open circuit, the energy might be conveyed entirely away from
the circuit into the surrounding space as electric waves. … He
demonstrated that electric waves move with the speed of light,
and that they can be reflected and refracted precisely as if
they formed a visible beam. At a certain intensity of strain
the air insulation broke down, and the air became a conductor.
This phenomenon of passing quite suddenly from a
non-conductive to a conductive state is … also to be noted
when air or other gases are exposed to the X ray.

{442}

"Now for the effect of electric waves such as Hertz produced,

when they impinge upon substances reduced to powder or
filings. Conductors, such as the metals, are of inestimable
service to the electrician; of equal value are non-conductors,
such as glass and gutta-percha, as they strictly
fence in an electric stream. A third and remarkable vista
opens to experiment when it deals with substances which, in
their normal state, are non-conductive, but which, agitated by
an electric wave, instantly become conductive in a high
degree. As long ago as 1866 Mr. S. A. Varley noticed that
black lead, reduced to a loose dust, effectually intercepted a
current from fifty Daniell cells, although the battery poles
were very near each other. When he increased the electric
tension fourfold to sixfold, the black-lead particles at once
compacted themselves so as to form a bridge of excellent
conductivity. On this principle he invented a
lightning-protector for electrical instruments, the incoming
flash causing a tiny heap of carbon dust to provide it with a
path through which it could safely pass to the earth.
Professor Temistocle Calzecchi Onesti of Fermo, in 1885, in an
independent series of researches, discovered that a mass of
powdered copper is a non-conductor until an electric wave
beats upon it; then, in an instant, the mass resolves itself
into a conductor almost as efficient as if it were a stout,
unbroken wire. Professor Edouard Branly of Paris, in 1891, on
this principle devised a coherer, which passed from resistance
to invitation when subjected to an electric impulse from afar.
He enhanced the value of his device by the vital discovery
that the conductivity bestowed upon filings by electric
discharges could be destroyed by simply shaking or tapping
them apart. …

"The coherer, as improved by Marconi, is a glass tube about 1½

inches long and about 1/12 of an inch in internal diameter.
The electrodes are inserted in this tube so as almost to
touch; between them is about 1/30 of an inch filled with a
pinch of the responsive mixture which forms the pivot of the
whole contrivance. This mixture is 90 per cent. nickel
filings, 10 per cent. hard silver filings, and a mere trace of
mercury; the tube is exhausted of air to within 1/10000 part.
… The coherer, when unexcited, forms a link which obstructs
the flow of a current eager to leap across. The instant that
an electric wave from the sending-station impinges upon the
coherer it becomes conductive; the current instantly glides
through it, and at the same time a current, by means of a
relay, is sent through [a] powerful voltaic battery, so as to
announce the signal through an ordinary telegraphic receiver.

"An electric impulse, almost too attenuated for computation,

is here able to effect such a change in a pinch of dust that
it becomes a free avenue instead of a barricade. Through that
avenue a powerful blow from a local store of energy makes
itself heard and felt. No device of the trigger class is
comparable with this in delicacy. An instant after a signal
has taken its way through the coherer a small hammer strikes
the tiny tube, jarring Hs particles asunder, so that they
resume their normal state of high resistance. We may well be
astonished at the sensitiveness of the metallic filings to an
electric wave originating many miles away, but let us remember
how clearly the eye can see a bright lamp at the same distance
as it sheds a sister beam. Thus far no substance has been
discovered with a mechanical responsiveness to so feeble a ray
of light; in the world of nature and art the coherer stands
alone. …

"An essential feature of this method of etheric telegraphy,

due to Marconi himself, is the suspension of a perpendicular
wire at each terminus, its length twenty feet for stations a
mile apart, forty feet for four miles, and so on, the
telegraphic distance increasing as the square of the length of
suspended wire. In the Kingstown regatta, July, 1898, Marconi
sent from a yacht under full steam a report to the shore
without the loss of a moment from start to finish. This feat
was repeated during the protracted contest between the
'Columbia' and the 'Shamrock' yachts in New York Bay, October,
1899. On March 28, 1899, Marconi signals put Wimereux, two
miles north of Boulogne, in communication with the South
Foreland Lighthouse, thirty-two miles off. In August, 1899,
during the manœuvres of the British navy, similar messages
were sent as far as eighty miles. …

"A weak point in the first Marconi apparatus was that anybody
within the working radius of the sending instrument could read
its message. To modify this objection secret codes were at
times employed, as in commerce and diplomacy. A complete
deliverance from this difficulty is promised in attuning a
transmitter and a receiver to the same note, so that one
receiver, and no other, shall respond to a particular
frequency of impulses. The experiments which indicate success
in this vital particular have been conducted by Professor
Lodge."

G. Iles,
Flame, Electricity and the Camera,
chapter 16 (New York: Doubleday, Page & Co.).

"Shall we not," said Professor John Trowbridge, in an article

published in the "New York Tribune," January 6, 1901, "in the
 next hundred years dispense with the limitations of wires and
speak boldly through space, reaching some expectant human ear
hundreds of miles away with the same ease that we now converse
in a room? It is already possible to send messages by dots and
dashes sixty to seventy miles without the use of wires. In the
early days of the telephone this was the practical limit of
that instrument, and we are all familiar with the immense
extension which has taken place. Shall we not see a similar
extension in the field of wireless telegraphy? Some late
experiments which I have made lead me to be optimistic in
regard to a possible great extension of the methods of
wireless telegraphy.

"In the first place, I believe that these experiments prove

that wireless telegraphy is not necessarily or merely
accomplished through the air, but, on the contrary, that the
earth plays the controlling part, and that the message flows,
so to speak, through the earth or over its surface rather than
through the air. The most striking experiment was as follows:
The poles of a storage battery of twenty thousand cells were
connected with the ground at the Jefferson Laboratory, and I
was enabled to receive the message in a room three quarters of
a mile from the laboratory without the use of masts or wires
of any sort. The earth was the medium of communication, and it
seems possible, by arranging the sending and receiving apparatus
suitably in connection with the electrical capacity of the
earth, that we may dispense with lofty masts and overcome in
this way the curvature of the earth."

{443}

Extensive experiments in wireless telegraphy are being

conducted by the United States Weather Bureau, of which the
following is a recent report: "Recognizing the advantage that
would result to commerce and navigation by the establishment
of wireless electrical communication between vessels at sea
and exposed points on our lake and sea coasts, and also
between islands along said coasts and the mainland, the
Weather Bureau was directed to systematically investigate the
various methods of electrical communication without wires. The
progress made is eminently satisfactory. New appliances have
been devised for the transmission of signals, and receivers
have been constructed that probably are more delicate than any
heretofore made. Messages already have been successfully
transmitted and received over 50 miles of land, which
presented a rough and irregular surface, conditions most
unfavorable for the transmission of electro-magnetic waves. It
is believed that the efficiency indicated by such transmission
overland is sufficient to operate successfully over several
hundred miles of water. The apparatus used is capable of
further improvement. I hope the time is near at hand when the
great number of craft employed in the coastwise commerce of
the United States and over its great inland seas will be
placed in instantaneous communication with the numerous
stations of our Weather Bureau, which are located at all
important ports. The matter is one of such great importance to
our commerce that I have authorized extensive experimentation,
which, from the success so far attending our efforts, will be
vigorously prosecuted."

United States, Annual Report of the

Secretary of Agriculture,
November 24, 1900, page 12.

On the 12th of March, 1901, the chief of the Weather Bureau,

Professor Moore, gave to the Press the following statement as
to experiments in progress along the Virginia and North
Carolina coast: "The most efficient method of long distance
transmission has been found to be from wire cylinders. The new
coast stations are being equipped with cylinders of sixteen
wires each and 140 feet in length. From these cylinders it is
expected to cover a magnetic field of not less than five
hundred miles. The stations now in operation are at Hatteras
and at Roanoke Island, in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina.
 Workmen are beginning the construction of a station at Cape
Henry, which will be the third station. When this is finished
the two remote stations will be 127 miles apart."

MECHANICS:
Steam turbines.

"The latest form of steam-engine recalls the first. The

steam-turbines of De Laval and of Parsons turn on the same
principle as the æolipile of Hero. That simple contrivance was
a metallic globe mounted on axes, and furnished through one of
its trunnions with steam from a boiler near by. As steam rushed
out from two nozzles diametrically opposite to each other, and
at tangents to the globe, there resulted from the relieved
pressure a swift rotation which might have done useful work. …
Before the steam-turbine could be invented, metallurgists and
mechanics had to become skilful enough to provide machinery
which may with safety rotate 10,000 times in a minute; Watt
had to invent the separate condenser; means had to be devised
for the thorough expansion of high-pressure steam; and the
crude device of Hero had to be supplanted by wheels suggested
by the water-turbine.

"The feature which gives the Parsons steam-turbine its

distinction is the ingenious method by which its steam is used
expansively. In a piston-engine the cylinder is filled to
one-twelfth or one-fifteenth of its capacity with
high-pressure steam, when communication with the boiler is cut
off; during the remainder of its stroke the piston is urged
solely by the steam's elasticity. In the Parsons turbine, by
arranging what is practically a series of wheels on the same
shaft, the steam passes from one wheel to the next, and at
each wheel parts with only a fraction of its pressure and
velocity. …

"The 'Turbinia,' a torpedo-boat of 44½ tons displacement, 100

feet in length, and 9 feet in beam, driven by this turbine,
 has consumed but 14½ pounds of steam an hour per indicated
horse-power. The 'Viper,' a torpedo-boat destroyer of 325
tons, and provided with a turbine capable of developing as
much as 12,000 horse-power, ran at the rate of 37 knots in a
rough sea during her trial trip in November, 1899."

G. Iles,
Flame, Electricity and the Camera,
chapter 5
(New York: Doubleday, Page & Co.).

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL:

The determination of germ diseases.

"Since 1880 it has been proved that anthrax, Asiatic cholera,

cerebro-spinal meningitis, diphtheria, one form of dysentery,
erysipelas, glanders, gonorrhœa, influenza, certain epidemics
of meat poisoning, pyæmia and suppuration in general,
pneumonia, tetanus, relapsing fever, tuberculosis, bubonic
plague, and typhoid fever are due to minute vegetable
organisms known as bacteria; that malarial fevers, Texas
cattle fever, and certain forms of dysentery are due to forms
of microscopic animal organisms known as microzoa; and for
most of these diseases the mode of development and means of
introduction of the micro-organism into the body are fairly
well understood. To the information thus obtained we owe the
triumphs of antiseptic and aseptic surgery, a great increase
of precision in diagnosis, the use of specific anti-toxins as
remedies and as preventives, and some of the best practical
work in public hygiene."

Dr. John S. Billings,

Progress of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century
(New York Evening Post, January 12, 1901).

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL:

Antitoxine.
 Treatment of diphtheria.

"In the early study of germs and their relation to disease it

was supposed that the symptoms of the disease depended
directly upon the germs themselves. This, however, has been
proven to be false with reference to most of the infectious
diseases studied. Thus, in diphtheria, the bacilli were found,
as a rule, only in the throat or upper air passages, while the
effects of the disease were far-reaching, involving the heart,
the nerves, and other distant parts of the body. This, and
other like observations, led to the careful study of the
products produced by the growth of bacteria. As the result of
the work of Roux in Paris, and Brieger in Berlin, the exact
nature of the toxic products of the diphtheria bacillus was
discovered. It was found that this bacillus produces in its
growth a poison which is known as the diphtheria 'toxine.'
This was isolated and injected into animals with the
reproduction of all the symptoms of diphtheria excepting the
membrane in the throat. …

{444}

"In his early work upon splenic fever and chicken-cholera

Pasteur, having established the causes of these diseases, set
himself the task of discovering means of preventing them.
After very many experiments he found that animals inoculated
with the germs of splenic fever, when these germs had been
cultivated at a relatively high temperature, were protected
against the disease itself, while these inoculations
themselves were harmless. … These methods of producing
immunity have been extensively used in Europe for the past
twenty years and have been of immense practical value.

"With the discovery that it was not the bacteria themselves

which produced most of the symptoms, but their poisonous
products or toxines, new experiments in immunity were made by
injecting these toxines into animals. It was found that if the
quantity of the diphtheria toxine introduced was at first so
small as not to kill the animal, the dose could gradually be
increased until finally such a tolerance was established that
the animal could resist enormous doses of it. Many theories
were advanced as to the manner in which this tolerance was
established. The conclusion was finally reached that it was
due to the gradual production in the blood of larger and
larger quantities of some substance which neutralized the
toxine, i. e., an 'antitoxine.' … Later experiments showed
that if some of the blood of an animal, which in this way had
been made insusceptible to diphtheria, was injected into
another animal, the latter likewise became to a certain degree
and for a certain time insusceptible; that is to say, became
'immunized. …

"The present plan of producing antitoxine is somewhat as

follows. Large animals, such as the horse or cow, are usually
employed for purposes of injection. In the beginning as large
a quantity of the toxine of diphtheria is injected as the
animal will bear without danger to life. … It is found that
the dose of the toxine can gradually be increased with each
injection until enormous quantities can be tolerated. When
this point is reached at which the injection of large amounts
of the toxine produces no reaction, the animal is said to
possess a high degree of immunity. At this time the
blood-serum contains a very large amount of the antitoxine. A
long time is required for the production of this condition,
the period being from three to twelve months, according to the
size of the animal, its susceptibility, and many other
conditions. … The antitoxine is obtained from the blood of the
animal, generally by bleeding from the jugular vein. … After
standing for a few hours this blood separates into a clot and
a clear portion above which is known as the serum. The
anti-toxine is contained in the blood-serum."

L. E. Holt,
The Antitoxine Treatment of Diphtheria
 (Forum, March, 1895).

See, also (in this volume),

PLAGUE.

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL:

Discovery of the secret of malaria.
Detection of the mosquito as a carrier of disease.

"Twenty-five years ago the best-informed physicians

entertained erroneous ideas with reference to the nature of
malaria and the etiology of the malarial fevers. Observation
had taught them that there was something in the air in the
vicinity of marshes in tropical regions, and during the summer
and autumn in semi-tropical and temperate regions, which gave
rise to periodic fevers in those exposed in such localities,
and the usual inference was that this something was of gaseous
form—that it was a special kind of bad air generated in
swampy localities under favorable meteorological conditions.
It was recognized at the same time that there are other kinds
of bad air, such as the offensive emanations from sewers and
the products of respiration of man and animals, but the term
malaria was reserved especially for the kind of bad air which
was supposed to give rise to the so-called malarial fevers. In
the light of our present knowledge it is evident that this
term is a misnomer. There is no good reason for believing that
the air of swamps is any more deleterious to those who breathe
it than the air of the sea coast or that in the vicinity of
inland lakes and ponds. Moreover, the stagnant pools, which
are covered with a 'green scum' and from which bubbles of gas
are given off, have lost all terrors for the well-informed
man, except in so far as they serve as breeding places for
mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. The green scum is made up
of harmless algæ such as Spirogyra, Zygnema Protococcus,
Euglena, etc.; and the gas which is given off from the mud at
the bottom of such stagnant pools is for the most part a
well-known and comparatively harmless compound of hydrogen and
carbon-methane or 'marsh-gas.'

"In short, we now know that the air in the vicinity of marshes
is not deleterious because of any special kind of bad air
present in such localities, but because it contains mosquitoes
infected with a parasite known to be the specific cause of the
so-called malarial fevers. This parasite was discovered in the
blood of patients suffering from intermittent fevers by
Laveran, a surgeon in the French army, whose investigations
were conducted in Algiers. This famous discovery was made
toward the end of the year 1880; but it was several years
later before the profession generally began to attach much
importance to the alleged discovery."

G. M. Sternberg,
Malaria
(Popular Science Monthly, February, 1901).

"It was the French doctor Laveran who, after a stay in a

deadly malarial region of Algeria, discovered the malaria
parasite in 1880. True, that pigment-cells, which we should
now describe as malaria-parasites, were observed in human
blood as early as 1835, among others by Virchow; but their
relation to the disease was not known. In 1881, Laveran
embodied his researches in a book, but its importance was
overlooked. Bacteria attracted then general attention, and
Laveran's parasite, not being a bacterium, was little thought
of. He stuck, nevertheless, to his discovery, and was soon
joined in his researches by Golgi (the Italian professor to
whom we owe the method that led to the discovery of the
neurons), as also by Marchiafava, Celli, Councilman,
Sternberg, and the Viennese doctor Mannaberg who published in
1893 a full compendium of these researches. Dr. Mannaberg
proved in this book that the real cause of malaria is
Laveran's parasite, and he told its most interesting
life-history so far as it was then known.
 "The parasite of malaria is not a bacterium. It is one of the
protozoa—namely, as it appeared later on, a coccidium, which,
like all other members of that family, undergoes in its
development a series of transformations. … Laveran saw that
some parasites ('corps à flagelles') would send out thin and
long flagella which soon parted company with the mother body,
and, owing to a proper helicoidal movement, disappeared in the
plasm of the blood. This never happened, however, in the body of
man, but only when a drop of his infected blood was drawn and
placed on the glass plate under the microscope.
{445}
Laveran noticed, moreover, minute 'crescent-shaped bodies'
which adhered to the red corpuscles and looked very much like
cysts, protected by a harder envelope. From fifteen to twenty
minutes after these bodies had been placed under the
microscope, they also gave origin to a great number of
'flagella'; and this evolution, too, he remarked, seemed to be
accomplished only when the cysts were taken out of the human
body.

"It was only natural to conclude from these observations that

the further development of the flagella may take place in the
body of some other animal than man, and this consideration
brought Laveran, in a book which he published in 1884, to the
idea that, taking into consideration the quantities of
mosquitoes in malarial countries, they may be the agents of
transition of malaria. This remark passed, however,
unperceived. Many had the suspicion that gnats may play some
part in the inoculation of malaria: the Italian peasants
always thought so, and in the medical literature an American
doctor, Mr. King, had advocated the same idea. But the
complete life-history of the malaria parasite being not yet
known fifteen years ago, the necessity of the mosquito or of
some other living being serving as a host for the completion
of the reproduction-cycle was not understood."

P. Kropotkin,