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Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP001
Heavy Metals in Water

Presence, Removal and Safety
11:25:17.
Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP001 View Online
View Online
Heavy Metals In Water

Presence, Removal and Safety
Edited by
Sanjay K. Sharma
Department of Chemistry, JECRC University, Jaipur, India
Email: drsanjay1973@gmail.com
11:25:17.
Print ISBN: 978-1-84973-885-9

PDF eISBN: 978-1-78262-017-4
11:25:17.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2015
All rights reserved
Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for
private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may not
be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior
permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright owner, or in the
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reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of
Chemistry at the address printed on this page.
The RSC is not responsible for individual opinions expressed in this work.
Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry,

Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road,
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Registered Charity Number 207890
Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books

Preface
Agriculture and industrial developments are not possible without the in-
dispensable element water. All living and non-living things require water for
their existence in one way or another. So, if somebody says that ‘water is the
liquid of life’, it is absolutely correct. Nobody can live without water.
The population explosion, increasing urbanization and industrialization
are the major reasons for the depletion of water availability worldwide and
that’s why the water crisis has become a global challenge today. Scientists,
policy makers and academicians are continuously trying hard to address this
problem to the best of their knowledge and abilities, but without complete
success.
11:25:20.
Besides the water crisis, the availability of ‘safe water’ is another associ-
ated challenge. Because of various types of pollutants and impurities present
in water, whatever water is available is not always ‘safe’. Unfortunately
drinking such ‘unsafe’ water is the fate of billions of people around the
world and pure water is always a ‘dream’ for them.
Dissolved solids, synthetic dyes, agriculture runoffs, industrial effluents
and microorganisms are a few of the things responsible for making water
unsafe. The presence of heavy metals is an add-on to this list, and these are
so dangerous that they may actually lead to death. Metals such as arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel and zinc are commonly
found at contaminated sites and in aqueous systems. For example, arsenic
poisoning claims thousands of deaths every year in Bangladesh and West
Bengal in India, while lead is very toxic to living organisms, accumulating in
the bones, brain, kidney and muscles, and may be the cause of many serious
disorders such as anaemia, kidney diseases, nervous disorders, sickness and
even death.
The presence of heavy metals in water is due to both natural and an-
thropogenic sources. Natural sources may include parent rocks and metallic
Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal and Safety

Edited by Sanjay K. Sharma
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
v
View Online
vi Preface
ores and, on the other hand, agriculture (fertilizers, animal manures,

pesticides), metallurgy (mining, smelting, metal finishing), energy pro-
duction (leaded gasoline, battery manufacture, power plants), micro-
electronics, sewage sludge and scrap disposal can be included in the
anthropogenic sources.
Removal of these heavy metals is a big problem for everyone. Examples
of the many techniques being tried to achieve this include biosorption,
bioremediation, phytoremediation, photocatalytic processes, use of func-
tionalized magnetic nanoparticles and use of industrial and agricultural
waste.
This book is a sincere effort to showcase the latest research in the field of
heavy metals removal, written by leading scientists and researchers. At this
point in time I express my gratitude to all contributors who made this vol-
ume possible. I hope that the chapters presented will be a good source of
reference material for scientists in their further research and development.
Also, I hope that this book provides an insightful text on the theme of
‘heavy metals removal’ and processes that are being studied, optimized and
developed to sustain both mankind and nature.
I sincerely welcome feedback from all my valuable readers and critics.
Happy reading!
Sanjay K. Sharma
11:25:20.
Jaipur, India
Acknowledgments
This is the opportunity to express my thanks and gratitude to my friends,

colleagues, supporters and well wishers and to let them know that I am so
grateful to have had them, and their valuable cooperation, along with me
during the journey of this book—Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal
and Safety.
First of all I express my special thanks to all the esteemed contributors,
who deserve special mention for providing their writings, without which this
book could not be possible.
I sincerely acknowledge my parents Dr M.P. Sharma and Mrs Parmeshwari
Devi, my wife Dr Pratima Sharma and all other family members for their
11:25:24.
never-ending encouragement, moral support and patience during the course

of this book.
I acknowledge the active interest and useful suggestions from Ackmez
Mudhoo, University of Mauritius, Mauritius. Thanks Ackmez!
I also thank Mr Amit Agarwal and Mr Arpit Agarwal (Vice Chairpersons,
JECRC University, Jaipur) and Professor S.S. Pabla (Vice Chancellor, JECRC
University, Jaipur) for their appreciation and encouragement.
My children Kunal and Kritika always deserve special mention as they are
my best companions, who energize me to work with refreshed mood and
motivation.
Special thanks go to the team at the Royal Society of Chemistry behind this
publication, without whose painstaking efforts this work could not have
been completed in a timely manner. Thanks RSC!
I am also grateful to many others whose name I have not been able to
mention but whose association and support has in no way been any less.
Sanjay K. Sharma
Jaipur, India

vii
11:25:24.
This book is for Pratima, my wife, without whose love, support and
cooperation I could not achieve anything in my life.
11:25:25.
11:25:25.
About the Editor
Prof. (Dr) Sanjay K. Sharma is a very well known

author and editor of many books, research journals
and hundreds of articles over the last 20 years.
At present Prof. Sharma is working as Professor &
Head, Department of Chemistry, JECRC University,
Jaipur, India, where he is teaching engineering
chemistry and environmental chemistry to B. Tech
Students, green chemistry, spectroscopy and or-
ganic chemistry to MS students and pursuing his
research interest in the domain area of green
11:25:26.
chemistry.
His research interests are green chemistry, heavy metals removal, bio-
polymers and green corrosion inhibition. Dr Sharma has 15 books on
chemistry from national–international publishers and over 52 research
papers of national and international repute to his credit.
He has also been appointed as Series Editor by Springer, UK, for their
prestigious book series ‘Green Chemistry for Sustainability’, where he has
been involved in editing 12 different titles by various international con-
tributors so far.
He is a member of the American Chemical Society (USA), Royal Society of
Chemistry (UK) and International Society for Environmental Information
Sciences (ISEIS, Canada) and is also a life member of various international
professional societies including the International Society of Analytical Sci-
entists, Indian Council of Chemists, International Congress of Chemistry
and Environment, Indian Chemical Society, etc.
Dr Sharma is also associated, as an Editorial Board Member or a reviewer,
with more than 15 international journals, including the prestigious Green

xi
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xii About the Editor
Chemistry, Green Chemistry Letters & Reviews, Ultrasonics and Ultrasonics

Sonochemistry, etc.
His recently published books are:
Biosurfactants: Research Trends and Applications (CRC Taylor & Francis,

USA)
Waste Water Reuse and Management (Springer, UK)
Advances in Water Treatment and Pollution Prevention (Springer, UK)
Green Corrosion Chemistry and Engineering (Wiley, Germany)
Handbook of Applied Biopolymer Technology: Synthesis, Degradation and
Applications (Royal Society of Chemistry, UK)
Handbook on Applications of Ultrasound: Sonochemistry and Sustainability
(CRC Taylor & Francis, USA)
Green Chemistry for Environmental Sustainability (CRC Taylor & Francis,
USA)
11:25:26.
Contents
Chapter 1 Contamination of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Media:

Transport, Toxicity and Technologies for Remediation 1
Ravindra K. Gautam, Sanjay K. Sharma, Suresh Mahiya and
Mahesh C. Chattopadhyaya
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Sources of Heavy Metals 2
1.3 Environmental and Health Risks 4
1.4 Remediation Technologies 7
1.4.1 Membrane Filtration 7
1.4.2 Phytoremediation 8
1.4.3 Heterogeneous Catalysts and Catalysis 10
11:25:28.
1.4.4 Photocatalysts 10
1.4.5 Electrocoagulation 11
1.4.6 Clays/Layered Double Hydroxides (LDHs) 12
1.4.7 Biomass and Biosorption of Metal Ions 13
1.4.8 Magnetic Nanoparticles as Nanosorbents 15
1.4.9 Removal of Iron and Manganese from Water 15
1.5 Concluding Notes 18
Acknowledgements 18
References 18
Chapter 2 Photocatalytic Processes for the Removal of Toxic

Metal Ions 25
Pankaj Chowdhury, Ali Elkamel and Ajay K. Ray
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Heavy Metal
Removal 27
2.3 Basic Principle of Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 29

xiii
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xiv Contents
2.4 Mechanism of Photocatalytic Reactions 29
2.5 Thermodynamics of Photoreduction of Different
Metal Ions 30
2.6 Dependence of Photoreduction Kinetics on Different
Parameters 31
2.6.1 Effect of Initial Metal Ion Concentration 31
2.6.2 Effect of Photocatalyst Mass 32
2.6.3 Effect of Electron–Hole Scavenger 33
2.6.4 Effect of Light Intensity 33
2.7 Recent Challenges in the Photocatalytic Process 34
2.7.1 Photoreactor Development 34
2.7.2 Photocatalyst Development 35
2.8 Application of Photocatalysis for the Removal
of Heavy Metals 35
2.8.1 Group 6 Metal (Chromium) 35
2.8.2 Group 10 Metals (Nickel and Platinum) 37
2.8.3 Group 12 Metals (Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury) 37
2.8.4 Group 15 Metalloid (Arsenic) 39
2.9 Conclusions 40
Acknowledgement 40
References 40
Chapter 3 Removal of Dissolved Metals by Bioremediation 44

11:25:28.
Subhajit Majumder, Suresh Gupta and Smita Raghuvanshi
3.1 Heavy Metals in Wastewater 44

3.2 Regulatory Limits of Heavy Metals 45
3.3 Physico-Chemical Treatments of Heavy Metals 46
3.3.1 Ion Exchange 46
3.3.2 Chemical Precipitation 46
3.3.3 Electrochemical Precipitation 47
3.3.4 Coagulation–Flocculation 47
3.3.6 Adsorption 48
3.4 Bio-based Separation for Heavy Metal Removal 49
3.5 Applicability of Isolated Strains and their Efficiency 50
3.6 Application of Genetically Modified Microorganisms 52
3.7 Conclusion 52
References 53
Chapter 4 Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles for Heavy Metals

Removal from Aqueous Solutions 57
Ravindra Kumar Gautam, Sanjay Kumar Sharma and
Mahesh Chandra Chattopadhyaya
4.1 Introduction 57
View Online
Contents xv
4.2 Sources of Heavy Metals in the Environment 58
4.3 Toxicity to Human Health and on Ecosystems 62
4.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles 64
4.5 Synthesis of Magnetic Nanoparticles 64
4.5.1 Coprecipitation 65
4.5.2 Hydrothermal Syntheses 68
4.5.3 Microemulsions 69
4.5.4 Thermal Decomposition 69
4.6 Magnetic Nanoparticles in Wastewater Treatment 69
4.6.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles as Nanosorbents
for Heavy Metals 70
4.7 Modeling of Adsorption: Kinetic and Isotherm
Models 73
4.7.1 Kinetic Studies for Adsorption of Heavy
Metals 73
4.7.2 Equilibrium Isotherm Modeling 75
4.8 Thermodynamic Analysis 77
4.9 Recovery of Metals and Regeneration of Magnetic
Nanoparticles 78
4.10 Conclusions 78
Acknowledgements 79
References 79
11:25:28.
Chapter 5 Arsenic Contamination: An Overview 86

Maurizio Carotenuto, Giusy Lofrano and Sanjay K. Sharma
5.1 Introduction 86
5.2 Chemical Characteristics 87
5.3 Arsenic Distribution in the Environment 90
5.3.1 Natural Sources 90
5.3.2 Anthropogenic Sources 94
5.3.3 Arsenic in Water, Air and Soil 96
5.3.4 Arsenic in Plants and Biota 98
5.3.5 Arsenic in Foods and Drugs 100
5.3.6 Metabolisms and Toxicity of Arsenic 102
5.3.7 Natural Groundwater Arsenic
Contamination 105
5.4 Arsenic Removal from Water and Wastewater 105
5.4.1 Coagulation and Flocculation (C–F) 107
5.4.2 Adsorption 110
5.4.4 Constructed Wetlands 114
5.4.5 Advanced and Integrated Technologies 116
5.5 Concluding Remarks 117
References 118
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xvi Contents
Chapter 6 Removal of Iron and Manganese from Water—Chemistry
and Engineering Considerations 122
Keisuke Ikehata, Andrew T. Komor and Yao Jin
6.1 Introduction 122

6.2 Chemistry of Iron and Manganese Oxidation
and Removal 124
6.2.1 Iron and Manganese Generation and
Removal in Natural Waters 124
6.2.2 Chemistry of Iron Oxidation and Removal 125
6.2.3 Chemistry of Manganese Oxidation and
Removal 127
6.3 Engineering Considerations for Iron and Manganese
Oxidation and Removal 129
6.3.1 Source Water Quality Analysis 130
6.3.2 Treatment Process Considerations 133
6.4 Conclusions 138
Acknowledgements 139
References 139
Chapter 7 Heavy Metal Pollution in Water Resources in

China—Occurrences and Public Health Implications 141
11:25:28.
Keisuke Ikehata, Yao Jin, Nima Maleky and Aijun Lin

7.2 Heavy Metals in Water: Definitions and Their Health
Effects 142
7.2.1 Brief Discussion on Heavy Metal Definitions 142
7.2.2 Fate of Heavy Metals in Water 143
7.2.3 Toxicological Properties of Heavy Metals with
Major Public Health Relevance 143
7.3 Heavy Metals in Chinese Water
Resources–Background 148
7.3.1 China’s Recent Industrial Developments and
Heavy Metals in Water 148
7.3.2 Current Water Quality Standards and
Recent Trends 148
7.3.3 Current Discharge Standards for Heavy
Metals in Wastewater 152
7.3.4 Sources of Heavy Metals in Chinese
Water Resources 152
7.4 Recent Heavy Metal Pollutions in Chinese
Water Resources 155
7.4.1 Impacts of Mining, Smelting and Other
Industrial Wastewaters 155
View Online
Contents xvii
7.4.2Impacts of Wastewater Irrigation on
Water Resources in China 158
7.4.3 Heavy Metal Pollution in Rivers and Drinking
Water Sources in Beijing 159
7.4.4 Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy

Metals in Drinking Water Sources in China 159
7.4.5 Heavy Metal Contamination in the
Sediments of Rivers and Lakes 161
7.5 Concluding Remarks 162
Acknowledgements 163
References 163
Chapter 8 Heavy Metals Distribution in Surface Water Samples

of Taihu Lake, China 168
Hou-Qi Liu, Ying Liu, Guang Liu and Xue-Bin Yin

8.2 Methods 169
8.2.1 Sample Collection 169
8.2.2 Sample Processing and Analytical
Procedures 170
8.3 Results 170
11:25:28.
8.3.1 Chromium (Cr) 170

8.3.2 Lead (Pb) 170
8.3.3 Cadmium (Cd) 171
8.3.4 Zinc (Zn) 172
8.3.5 Copper (Cu) 172
8.3.6 Arsenic (As) 173
8.3.7 Cobalt (Co) 173
8.3.8 Nickel (Ni) 174
8.3.9 Tin (Sn) 174
8.3.10 Manganese (Mn) 175
8.4 Discussion and Conclusions 175
References 176
Chapter 9 Use of Nanotechnology against Heavy Metals Present

in Water 177
Ming Zhang, Bin Gao, Jin Jin, Hao Chen, Ying Yao,
June Fang and Anne Elise Creamer

9.2 Nanoclays 178
9.2.1 Nano-Kaolinite 179
9.2.2 Nano-Montmorillonite 179
9.2.3 Nano-layered Double Hydroxides 180
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xviii Contents
9.3 Nanosized Metal Oxides 180
9.3.1 Nanosized Titanium Oxides 181
9.3.2 Nanosized Ferric Oxides 181
9.3.3 Nanosized Aluminium Oxides 183
9.3.4 Other Nanosized Metal Oxides 184

9.4 Nanostructured Carbon Materials 184
9.4.1 Carbon Nanotubes 184
9.4.2 Graphene 185
9.4.3 Other Nanostructured Carbon Materials 187
9.5 Potential Negative Environmental Impact
of Nanotechnology 187
9.6 Conclusions 188
References 188
Chapter 10 Modified and New Adsorbents for Removal of Heavy

Metals from Wastewater 193
M. A. Barakat and Rajeev Kumar

10.2 Heavy Metals in Industrial Wastewater and Toxicity 194
10.3 Treatment Processes for Heavy Metals Removal 196
10.4 Adsorptive Removal of Heavy Metals 198
10.4.1 Adsorption of Heavy Metals on Modified
11:25:28.
Natural Materials 198

10.4.2 Adsorption of Heavy Metals on Industrial
By-products 200
Agriculture and Biological Wastes
(Biosorption) 202
Biopolymers and Hydrogels 205
10.5 Batch Equilibrium Studies 207
10.6 Summary 208
References 208
Chapter 11 Natural Clays/Clay Minerals and Modified Forms for

Heavy Metals Removal 213
Alfin Kurniawan, Suryadi Ismadji, Felycia Edi Soetaredjo
and Aning Ayucitra

11.2 Structural Features of Clays and Clay Minerals as
Heavy Metals Sorbent 218
11.3 Surface Modification Techniques of Clays and Clay
Minerals for Enhanced Heavy Metals Sorption 222
11.3.1 Thermal Activation 225
View Online
Contents xix
11.3.2 Chemical Activation/Conditioning 227
11.3.3 Pillaring, Grafting and Intercalation
Techniques 230
11.4 Isotherms, Kinetics and Thermodynamics
Evaluation of Heavy Metals Sorption onto Clays and

Clay Minerals 237
11.5 Conclusions 242
References 243
Chapter 12 Heavy Metals in Tannery Wastewater and Sludge:

Environmental Concerns and Future Challenges 249
Giusy Lofrano, Maurizio Carotenuto, Ravindra Kumar
Gautam and Mahesh Chandra Chattopadhyaya

12.2 Heavy Metals in Tannery Wastewater and Sludge:
Treatment Options 250
12.2.1 Characteristics 250
12.2.2 Treatment Options: Removal and Recovery 253
12.3 Environmental Concerns 256
12.3.1 Exposure Pathways and Health Effects 256
12.3.2 Phytotoxicity 257
11:25:28.
12.4 Future Challenges 258

References 258
Chapter 13 Fluorides in Different Types of Aquatic Systems and their

Correlation with Metals and Metalloids 261
C. Christophoridis, I. Pasias, E. Mitsika, S. Veloutsou and
K. Fytianos
13.1 HeavyMetals and Fluorides in the Environment 261

13.1.1Natural Sources 262
13.1.2Anthropogenic Sources of Fluorides 263
13.1.3Fluoride Content in Environmental
Samples 265
13.1.4 Health Effects of Fluorides 265
13.2 Relation Between Fluorides and Metals/Metalloids 269
13.2.1 Role of Physico-chemical Parameters
and Ions 269
13.2.2 Fluoride and Arsenic Correlation 272
13.3 Fluoride Removal Techniques 274
13.3.1 Membrane Methods 274
13.3.2 Adsorption Methods 276
References 277
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xx Contents
Chapter 14 Use of Industrial and Agricultural Waste in Removal of
Heavy Metals Present in Water 281
June Fang, Bin Gao, Yining Sun, Ming Zhang and
Sanjay K. Sharma

14.2 Sorption Mechanisms 283
14.2.1 Biomass Sorbents 283
14.2.2 Inorganic Sorbents 283
14.3 Adsorption Models 284
14.4 Modification Methods 284
14.4.1 Physical 285
14.4.2 Chemical 286
14.5 Sorption Studies 286
14.5.1 Differences Between Materials in the
Adsorption Rate of a Metal 287
14.5.2 Effect of pH on Adsorption 291
14.5.3 Raw versus Modified Materials 292
14.5.4 Effect of Temperature on Adsorption 293
References 294
Chapter 15 Biosorption of Metals – From the Basics to High Value

11:25:28.
Catalysts Production 296

Teresa Tavares and Cristina Quintelas

15.2 Metals of Environmental Concern 297
15.2.1 Arsenic 297
15.2.2 Cadmium 298
15.2.3 Chromium 299
15.2.4 Copper 299
15.2.5 Mercury 300
15.2.6 Lead 301
15.2.7 Nickel 301
15.2.8 Zinc 302
15.3 Biosorption Mechanisms: Physical
and Biochemical Aspects 303
15.3.1 Assimilation 303
15.3.2 Adsorption 304
15.3.3 Biodegradation 306
15.4 Factors Affecting Biosorption 307
15.4.1 Solution pH 307
15.4.2 Bulk Temperature 308
15.4.3 Contact Time 308
View Online
Contents xxi
15.4.4 Competing Ions Present on Solution 308
15.4.5 Initial Concentration of Metal Ions and of
Biomass 308
15.4.6 Cell Age 309
15.5 New Perspectives 309

References 310
Chapter 16 Chromium in Tannery Wastewater 315

Mariliz Gutterres and Bianca Mella

16.2 Forms of Chromium in Nature 316
16.2.1 Chromium in the Environment 318
16.2.2 Chromium in Water 319
16.3 The Processing of Leather 320
16.3.1 Tanning with Chromium Salts 323
16.4 Unitary Operations in Tannery Effluents Treatment 327
16.4.1 Preliminary Treatment 327
16.4.2 Primary Treatment 329
16.4.3 Secondary Treatment 329
16.4.4 Tertiary or Advanced Treatment 330
16.4.5 Sludge Treatment 330
11:25:28.
16.4.6 Wastewater Reuse 331

16.4.7 Chromium Recovery for Tanning by
Chemical Precipitation 332
16.4.8 Electrocoagulation of Chromium 335
16.4.9 Other Treatment Techniques for
Chromium Recovery 338
References 340
Subject Index 345

11:25:28.
Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00001
CHAPTER 1
Contamination of Heavy
Metals in Aquatic Media:
Transport, Toxicity and
Technologies for Remediation
RAVINDRA K. GAUTAM,a SANJAY K. SHARMA,*b
SURESH MAHIYAb AND MAHESH C. CHATTOPADHYAYA*a
a
Environmental Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of
Chemistry, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, 211 002, India; b Green
11:25:29.
Chemistry & Sustainability Research Group, Department of Chemistry,

JECRC University, Jaipur, 303905, India
*Email: drsanjay1973@gmail.com; mcc46@rediffmail.com
1.1 Introduction
The term ‘‘heavy metal’’ refers to any metal and metalloid element that has a
relatively high density ranging from 3.5 to 7 g cm 3 and is toxic or poisonous
at low concentrations, and includes mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), arsenic
(As), chromium (Cr), thallium (Tl), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu) and
lead (Pb). Although ‘‘heavy metals’’ is a general term defined in the litera-
ture, it is widely documented and frequently applied to the widespread
pollutants of soils and water bodies.1 These metals are found widely in the
earth’s crust and are non-biodegradable in nature. They enter into the
human body via air, water and food. A small number have an essential role
in the metabolism of humans and animals in very trace amounts but their
higher concentration may cause toxicity and health hazards. The hazardous

1
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2 Chapter 1
nature of heavy metals has been recognized because of their bioaccumula-

tive nature in biotic systems. They can enter into the environment through
mining activities, industrial discharge and from household applications,
into nearby bodies of water.
1.2 Sources of Heavy Metals

Heavy metals differ widely in their chemical properties, and are used ex-
tensively in electronics, machines and the artifacts of everyday life, as well as
in high-tech applications. As a result they are able to enter into the aquatic
and food chains of humans and animals from a variety of anthropogenic
sources as well as from the natural geochemical weathering of soil and
rocks. The main sources of contamination include mining wastes, landfill
leaches, municipal wastewater, urban runoff and industrial wastewaters,
particularly from the electroplating, electronic and metal-finishing indus-
tries. With increasing generation of metals from technologies activities, the
problem of waste disposal has become one of paramount importance. Many
aquatic environments face metal concentrations that exceed water quality
criteria designed to protect the environment, animals and humans. The
problems are exacerbated because metals have a tendency to be transported
with sediments, are persistent in the environment and can bioaccumulate in
the food chain. Some of the oldest cases of environmental pollution in the
world are due to heavy metal use, for example, Cu, Hg and Pb mining,
11:25:29.
smelting and utilization by ancient civilizations, such as the Romans and the
Phoenicians.
The heavy metals are among the most common pollutants found in was-
tewater. These metals pose a toxicity threat to human beings and animals
even at low concentration. Lead is extremely toxic and shows toxicity to the
nervous system, kidneys and reproductive system. Exposure to lead causes
irreversible brain damage and encephalopathic symptoms.2 Cadmium is
used widely in electroplating industries, solders, batteries, television sets,
ceramics, photography, insecticides, electronics, metal-finishing industries
and metallurgical activities. It can be introduced into the environment by
metal-ore refining, cadmium containing pigments, alloys and electronic
compounds, cadmium containing phosphate fertilizers, detergents and
refined petroleum products. Rechargeable batteries with nickel–cadmium
compounds are also sources of cadmium.3–5 Cadmium exposure causes
renal dysfunction, bone degeneration, liver and blood damage. It has
been reported that there is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of
cadmium.3
Copper, as an essential trace element, is required by biological systems for
the activation of some enzymes during photosynthesis but at higher con-
centrations it shows harmful effects on the human body. High-level exposure
of copper dust causes nose, eyes and mouth irritation and may cause nausea
and diarrhea. Continuous exposure may lead to kidney damage and even
death. Copper is also toxic to a variety of aquatic organisms even at very low
View Online
Contamination of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Media 3
concentrations. Mining, metallurgy and industrial applications are the

major sources of copper exposure in the environment.
Zinc is also an essential element in our diet. Too much zinc, however, can
also be damaging to health. Zinc toxicity in large amounts causes nausea
and vomiting in children. A higher concentration of zinc may cause anemia

and cholesterol problems in human beings. Mining and metallurgical pro-
cessing of zinc ores and its industrial application are the major sources of
zinc in the air, soil and water. It also comes from the burning of coal.
Nickel occurs naturally in soils and volcanic rocks. Nickel and its salts are
used in several industrial applications such as in electroplating, automobile
and aircraft parts, batteries, coins, spark plugs, cosmetics and stainless
steel, and is used extensively in the production of nickel–cadmium batteries
on an industrial scale. It enters into the water bodies naturally by weathering
of rocks and soils and through the leaching of the minerals.4 The water
soluble salts of nickel are the major problems of contamination in aquatic
systems.5 Paint formulation and enameling industries discharges nickel
containing effluents to the nearby bodies of water.6 Nickel is also found in
cigarettes, as a volatile compound commonly known as nickel carbonyl.7
Arsenic is found naturally in the deposits of earth’s crust worldwide. The
word arsenic is taken from Zarnikh in Persian literature, which means yellow
orpiment.8 It was first isolated as an element by Albert Magnus in 1250 AD.
Arsenic exists in powdery amorphous and crystalline forms in the ores. In
certain areas the concentration of arsenic may be higher than its normal
11:25:29.
dose and creates severe health hazards to human beings and animals. It
enters the environment through the natural weathering of rocks and an-
thropogenic activities, mining and smelting processes, pesticide use and
coal combustion. The toxicity of arsenic as a result of the contamination of
groundwater bodies and surface waters is of great concern. Arsenic exists as
arsenate, As(V), and arsenite, As(III), in most of the groundwater.9–12 Ad-
sorption and solution pH commonly controls the mobility of arsenic in the
aqueous environment.13–17 Metal oxides of Fe, Al and Mn play a role in the
adsorption of arsenic in aquatic bodies.18–20 Arsenic has been found nat-
urally at high concentration in groundwater in countries such as India,
Bangladesh, Taiwan, Brazil and Chile. Its high concentration in drinking
water causes toxic effects on humans and animals.
The toxicity of mercury has been recognized worldwide, such as in
Minamata Bay of Japan. Mentally disturbed and physically deformed babies
were born to mothers who were exposed to toxic mercury due to con-
sumption of contaminated fish. The natural sources of mercury are volcanic
eruption, weathering of rocks and soils, whereas anthropogenic mercury
comes from the extensive use of the metal in industrial applications, its
mining and processing, applications in batteries and mercury vapor lamps.
Methyl mercury is more toxic than any other species of mercury.
Extensive use of chromium compounds in industrial applications has
discharged huge amounts of wastewater containing toxic chromium species
into water bodies. Chromium enters into the environment by natural inputs
View Online
4 Chapter 1
and anthropogenic sources. Volcanic eruptions, geological weathering of

rocks, soils and sediments are the natural sources of chromium, whereas
anthropogenic contributions of chromium come from the burning of fossil
fuels, production of chromates, plastic manufacturing, electroplating of
metals and extensive use in the leather and tannery industries.21 Hexavalent
chromium is more toxic than trivalent chromium.
1.3 Environmental and Health Risks

Cadmium is the most toxic element, even at its low concentration in the food
chain and has been found to cause of itai-itai disease in Japan. Unlike other
heavy metals, cadmium is not essential for biological systems. Hence it has
no benefit to the ecosystem and only harmful effects have been reported. It is
used in the manufacturing of nickel–cadmium batteries, plastics and pig-
ments. Phosphate fertilizers and waste dumping are both routes for cad-
mium transference into the environment. Concern regarding the role and
toxicity of cadmium in the environment is on the increase, because it can be
highly toxic to human beings and animals at very low concentrations. Cad-
mium toxicity causes renal dysfunction and lung cancer, and also osteo-
malacia in the human population and animals, in addition to increasing
blood pressure. Smoking of cigarettes is one of the sources of cadmium
poisoning in humans.
Chromium is commonly used in the leather and tanning industries, paper
11:25:29.
and pulp and rubber manufacturing applications. High levels of exposure

cause liver and kidney damage, skin ulceration and also affects the central
nervous system. With plant species it reduces the rate of photosynthesis. It is
also associated with the toxic effects on hematological problems and im-
mune response in freshwater fish. Chromium(VI) causes greater toxicity than
chromium(III) in animal and human health.
Copper has been used by man since prehistoric times. It is used in the
production of utensils, electrical wires, pipes and in the manufacture of
brass and bronze. It has a role as an essential element in human and animal
bodies. However, at a higher dose it shows toxic effects, such as kidney and
stomach damage, vomiting, diarrhea and loss of strength.
Human exposure to lead causes severe toxicity. Higher doses may damage
the fetus and be toxic to the central nervous system. Newborn babies are
more sensitive than the adults. Lead toxicity may harm hemoglobin syn-
thesis, the kidneys and reproductive systems. Exposure to higher doses of
lead may disrupt the function of the central nervous system and gastro-
intestinal tract. Airborne lead may cause the poisoning of agricultural food
by the deposition on fruits, soils and water.7
Mercury is a very toxic element in its organic form and has been the cause
of Minamata disease in Japan. It shows toxicity to the physiology of animals
and human beings. Mercury toxicity has been found to be associated with
physiological stress, abortion and tremors. Methyl mercury is highly toxic
and causes toxic effects on the central nervous system in the human
View Online
population. Mercury can result from volcanic eruptions and degassing. The
exposure to mercury causes toxicity to the brain, blindness, mental retar-
dation and kidney damage.
Nickel plays an essential role in the synthesis of red blood cells; however,
it becomes toxic when taken in higher doses. Trace amounts of nickel do not
damage biological cells, but exposure to a high dose for a longer time may
damage cells, decrease body weight and damage the liver and heart. Nickel
poisoning may cause reduction in cell growth, cancer and nervous system
damage.5–7
The undesirable presence of iron and manganese in drinking water may
pose a toxicity threat to health. However, iron and manganese are required
by the biological system as they play major roles in the hemoglobin synthesis
and functioning of cells. The presence of these metals in water may cause
staining of cotton clothes and give a rusty taste to drinking water. The major
concerns focus on the dietary intake of iron because a higher dose may pose
acute toxicity to newborn babies and young children. The gastrointestinal
tract rapidly absorbs iron that may pose a toxicity risk to the cells and
cytoplasm. The liver, kidneys and cardiovascular systems are the major
toxicity targets of iron. Neurological disturbances and muscle function
damage are the result of toxic effects of manganese in human bodies.
Heavy metals are highly toxic to the fetus and newborn babies, where
higher levels of exposure exist for human beings, mainly to industrial
workers. Metal ions exposure to newborn babies may damage brain memory,
11:25:29.
disrupt the function of red blood cells, the central nervous system, physio-
logical and behavioral problems. Severe toxicity from these metals may cause
cancers. Exposure of plants to heavy metals may lead to physiological and
morphological changes and damage to cell function and reduce photo-
synthesis rates. Mutagenic changes have also been observed in several plant
species. Metal ion toxicities may lead to chlorosis, bleaching, nutrient de-
ficiencies and increased oxidation stress in plants. Heavy metals obstruct the
growth of microbes.22 Table 1.1 shows the standards for metal concentration
in drinking water and the health effects.
An arsenic presence in groundwater through the weathering of rocks and
sediments and drinking of arsenic contaminated water causes poisoning to
the blood, central nervous system, lung and skin cancer, breathing prob-
lems, vomiting and nausea. Its presence in Third World countries is be-
coming hazardous. The countries that are suffering with the problems of
arsenic are India, Bangladesh, Taiwan, China, Brazil, Chile, South Korea,
Thailand and Indonesia. Arsenic is a geogenic problem worldwide but an-
thropogenic sources, such as the processing of metals and manufacture of
pesticides and their byproducts, are contributing equally to the levels of
arsenic in the environment.
Severe toxic effects and poisoning by heavy metal ions worldwide and
strict discharge regulations for wastewater effluents to aquatic bodies
requires better treatment techniques. Environmental scientists have de-
veloped several procedures such as coprecipitation, membrane filtration,
View Online
6 Chapter 1
Table 1.1 The standard metal concentration in drinking water and the health
effects.
Metal Effects Drinking water standards
Lead Toxic to humans, aquatic By the Environmental
fauna and livestock Protection Agency

High doses cause maximum concentration:
metabolic poison 0.1 mg L 1
Tiredness, irritability anemia By European Community:
and behavioral changes of 0.5 mg L 1
children Regulation of water quality
Hypertension and (India) 0.1 mg L 1
brain damage
Phytotoxic
Nickel High conc. can cause By the Environmental
DNA damage Protection Agency
Eczema of hands maximum concentration:
High phytotoxicity 0.1 mg L 1
Damaging fauna By European Community:
0.1 mg L 1
Regulation of water quality
(India) 0.1 mg L 1
Chromium Necrosis nephritis and death By the Environmental
in man (10 mg kg 1 of body Protection Agency
weight as hexavalent maximum concentration:
chromium) (hexavalent and trivalent)
Irritation of gastrointestinal total 0.1 mg L 1
11:25:29.
mucosa By European Community:

0.5 mg L 1
(India) 0.1 mg L 1
Copper Causes damage in a variety By the Environmental
of aquatic fauna Protection Agency
Phytotoxic maximum concentration:
Mucosal irritation and 1.0 mg L 1
corrosion By European Community:
Central nervous system 3 mg L 1
irritation followed by Regulation of water quality
depression (India) 0.01 mg L 1
Zinc Phytotoxic By the Environmental
Anemia Protection Agency
Lack of muscular maximum concentration:
coordination 5 mg L 1
Abdominal pain etc. By European Community:
5 mg L 1
(India) 0.1 mg L 1
Cadmium Cause serious damage to By the Environmental
kidneys and bones in humans Protection Agency
Bronchitis, emphysema, maximum concentration:
anemia 0.005 mg L 1
Acute effects in children By European Community:
0.2 mg L 1
(India) 0.001 mg L 1
View Online

Table 1.1 (Continued)
Metal Effects Drinking water standards
Mercury Poisonous By the Environmental
Causes mutagenic effects Protection Agency
Disturbs the cholesterol maximum concentration:

0.002 mg L 1
By European Community:
0.001 mg L 1
(India) 0.004 mg L 1
Arsenic Causes toxicological and World Health Organization
carcinogenic effects guideline of 10 mg L 1
Causes melanosis, keratosis By European Community:
and hyperpigmentation 0.01 mg L 1
in humans Regulation of water quality
Genotoxicity through (India): 0.05 mg L 1
generation of reactive oxygen
species and lipid peroxidation
Immunotoxic
Modulation of co-receptor
expression
ion-exchange resins, photocatalytic reduction and adsorption for treatment

of wastewater effluents containing heavy metals.
11:25:29.
1.4 Remediation Technologies

Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in food chains and their toxicity to bio-
logical systems due to increased concentration over time have led to tre-
mendous pressure for their separation and purification. Heavy metals can
enter into water bodies through agricultural runoff, industrial effluents,
household uses and from commercial applications. We can remove heavy
metals from drinking water very easily with reliable technology. Several
technologies available in the market remove a huge range of metals com-
monly found in drinking water and wastewater effluents. There are various
remediation technologies that have been used for the removal of heavy metals
from water/wastewater. These remediation technologies are summarized as:
Precipitation and coagulation

Ion exchange
Membrane filtration
Bioremediation
Heterogeneous photocatalysts
Adsorption
1.4.1 Membrane Filtration

Membranes are complex structures that contain active elements on the
nanometer scale. Modern day reverse osmosis membranes are typically
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Athalia (centifoliae) spinarum, 515
Atropinae, 394 f.
Atropos divinatoria, 394 f., 396
Atta (Oecodoma) cephalotes, 501
Attitude, 248, 250, 256, 268, 514
Attraction of light, 230
Auditory organ, 400;
of Calotermes, 358
—see also Ear
Audouin on thorax, 100, 101
Aulacus, 562
Aulax, 532
Avicenna, 41
Axes of body, 113
Bacillides, 278
Bacillus patellifer, 263
Bacteria, 276
Bacteriides, 277
Bacunculides, 277
Baëtis, 433
Ballostoma, 196
Ballowitz on spermatozoa, 140
Barber, Mrs., on S. African locust, 294
Barbitistes yersini, 321
Barnston on Perlidae, 402, 405
Barriers with eggs, 461
Base, 112
Basement membrane, 162
Bassett on oviposition of inquilines, 532
Bataillon, on metamorphosis, 131, 168;
on reversed circulation, 135
Bates, on singing grasshopper, 319;
on Termites, 375
Bateson, on forceps of earwig, 209;
on antennae of same, 212
Batrachotettix whiti, 305
Bedeguar, 527, 531
Bees killed by Locusta, 321
Belt on domestic cockroaches, 231
Bermuda, 33
Bertkau, on Psocus, 391;
on micropterous Psocidae, 394
Bethylus habits, 535
Bherwa, 326
Bird eaten by Mantis, 250
Bird-lice, 345, 351
Biting-lice, 345, 351
Bittacus, 451, 453;
B. tipularius, 452
Blabera, 235;
wings, 237;
B. gigantea, 222
Blaberides, 241
Black beetle, 221
Blanjulidae, 44
Blanjulus, 44
Blastoderm, 147
Blastophaga grossorum, 547 f.
Blatta, 240
Blattidae, 201, 220-241, 240;
parasites of, 563
Blattinae, 240
Blind Insects, 217, 233
Blood, 132
Blood-gills, 479
Blowfly, egg, 145;
metamorphosis, 163
Bolivar on eyes of Machilis, 185
Bombus, dorsal vessel of, 133;
metamorphosis, 497;
B. lucorum, 488
Bombyliidae, 291
Bonnet and Finot on Eugaster, 324
Book-lice, 390 f.
Boreus hiemalis, 451;
larva, 453
Boutan on concealment of leaf-like Insects, 323
Brachyscelides, 526
Brachystola magna, 308
Brachytrypes megacephalus, 332
Bracon palpebrator, 559
Braconidae, 558 f.
Bradford Cave, Myriapods in, 34
Brain, 118, 120;
of ant, 119;
of Perlidae, 404
Branchiae, 401, 421
—see also Gills
Brandt on nervous system, 119, 495
Brauer, on classification, 175;
on median segment, 491;
on hypermetamorphosis, 160;
on Menorhyncha, etc., 161;
on Ascalaphus larva, 460;
on development of Mantispa, 464;
on Palaeodictyoptera, 486;
on Panorpa larva, 452;
on tegmina of Phyllium, 270
Breitenbach on Proscopiides, 299
Bridgman on British Ichneumonidae, 557
Brindley on growth of cockroach, 229
British, Myriapods, 36;
Orthoptera, 201;
earwigs, 215;
grasshoppers and locusts, 308;
crickets, 339;
Psocidae, 395;
Perlidae, 406;
Odonata, 424;
Sialidae, 444, 448;
Chrysopides, 469;
Trichoptera, 480;
Phytophagous Hymenoptera, 504;
Siricidae, 510;
Cynipidae, 533;
Ichneumonidae, 557;
Braconidae, 561
Brongniart, on fossil Insects, 428;
on fossil Neuroptera, 343;
on Neuropteroidea, 486;
on post-embryonic development of locust, 287;
on young Mantis, 247 f.
Brongniart and Becquerel on chlorophyll in Phyllium, 268
Bruner on variation of Orthoptera, 304
Brunner, on Hypertely, 322;
on classification of Orthoptera, 202;
of Blattidae, 240;
of Mantidae, 259;
of Phasmidae, 277;
of Acridiidae, 309;
of Locustidae, 328;
on variation of Oedipoda, 304
Bryodema tuberculata, 281
Bugnion on histolysis, 166;
on Encyrtus, 545
Buller on Weta-punga, 326
Burchell on Mantis, 249
Burgess on Psocus, 391 f.
Burmeister on Mantidae, 250
Bursa copulatrix, 139
Caddis-flies, 473 f.
Caecum, 125
Caenis dimidiata, 442
Calcares, 104
Calepteryginae, 422, 426
Calepteryx, 417, 420, 422;
its eggs' parasite, 538
Callimenides, 318, 329
Callimome bedeguaris, 532
Caloptenus spretus, 288 f., 289, 298, 303;
development, 289
Calotermes flavicollis, 362, 363, 371, 376;
C. nodulosus, 359;
C. rugosus, 358, 382, 383
Calvert on Odonata, 412
Calvisia atrosignata, 266, 273
Calyx, 283, 439
Cameron, on ant-parasite, 545;
on gall-producing plants, 527;
on parthenogenesis, 498, 499, 517;
on Pimpla larva, 557
Camerano on earwig, 211, 213
Campodea, 61;
C. staphylinus, 182, 183, 197
Campodeidae, 183
Camponotus, nerves, 495
Cannibalism, 425, 477
Cantharidae, 291
Capnia vernalis, 405
Caprification, 547 f.
Capsule of eggs, 201
—see also Egg-capsule
Caraphractus cinctus, 538
Carboniferous, Myriapods, 75, 76;
Insects, 196, 238 f., 259, 276, 408, 428, 442 f., 449
Cardiophorus larva, 90
Cardo, 95
Carnivorous and vegetarian, 250
Carpenter bee wings, 494
Carruthers on locust swarm, 292
Case, Hymenopterous, 514
Cases, caddis-fly, 476 f., 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485
Castes, 500, 501
Caudal branchiae, 423
Cave, Myriapods, 34, 37;
Insects, 197, 451;
Locustidae, 321;
cockroach, 232, 233
Cecidomyia, parasites of, 536, 537
Cenchri, 511
Centipedes, 30, 36, 40
Cephalocoema lineata, 299
Cephalonomia formiciformis, 536
Cephidae, 504 f.
Cephus integer, 505;
C. pygmaeus, 505
Cerci, 110, 183, 216, 257, 337, 400;
of Blattidae, 224, 238
Cermatia, 35
Cermatiidae, 46
Ceroys saevissima, 264
Cervical sclerites, 99, 99, 409
Chalcididae, 539
Chalicodoma muraria, nest, parasites, 540 f.
Changing colour, 288, 253, 267, 268
Chasmodon apterus, 561
Chatin on labrum, 93;
on mandibles, 95
Chauliodes, 447
Cheeks, 94
Cheimatobia brumata, parasites, 521
Chelidura dilatata, 205
Cheshire on fertilisation of bee, 499
Chilaspis lowii, 530;
C. nitida, 531
Chilian Insects, 447, 463
Chilognatha, 30, 43, 47, 76;
development of, 63-72;
structure of, 52-56, 53;
double segments, 53, 70
Chilopoda, 30, 33, 44, 47, 52, 74, 75;
structure of, 56-59;
development of, 70-72
Chitin, 162
Chitinogenous cells, 162
Chlorophyll in tegmina, 269
Choeradodis cancellata, 252
Cholodkovsky, on head, 87;
on styles of cockroach, 224;
on embryology of Phyllodromia, 237;
on morphology of sting, 493
Chordeuma, 31
Chordeumidae, 44
Chordotonal organs, 121
Chorion, 144
Chorisoneura, 240
Chromosomes, 146
Chrysopa eggs, 469;
larva, 469;
C. aspersa, 470;
C. flava, 469;
C. pallida larva, 470
Chrysopides, 469 f., 472
Chun on rectal gills, 422
Chyle, 133
Chylific ventricle, 125, 228
Cimbex abdomen, 493;
abdominal articulation, 492;
dorsal vessel, 134;
C. sylvarum, saws, 512
Cimbicides, 511, 517
Cinura, 182
Circulation, 132 f.;
in caudal setae, 435
Cladomorphides, 278
Cladonotus humbertianus, 301
Classification, 171 f.;
of Blattidae, 240;
of Mautidae, 259;
of Phasmidae, 277;
of Acridiidae, 309;
of Locustidae, 328;
of Gryllidae, 340
Claws, 105, 106, 469
Clitumnides, 278
Cloëon, eyes, 430;
C. dimidiatum, larvule, 432;
C. dipterum, nymph, 432;
respiration of nymph, 435
Clothilla, 395;
C. pulsatoria, 395, 396;
anatomy, 392
Clypeus, 92, 93
Cockroaches, 220
Cocoons of sawfly, 515
Coeloblast, 149
Coleoptera, 173
Collembola, 182, 189 f.
Collophore, 193
Colour, 200
Commissures, 116
Common cocoons, 515
Compass Termite, 386
Complementary Termites, 361
Compound eyes, 97, 430;
(=facetted eyes) in Myriapods, 36
Concealment by movement and position, 268;
by selection of place, 308
Coniopterygides, 471
Coniopteryx lutea, 471;
C. psociformis, 471;
C. tineiformis, 472
Conocephalides, 313, 327, 328
Copiophora cornuta, 313
Cordulegaster, 415;
C. annulatus, 415
Cordulegasterinae, 426
Corduliinae, 426
Correlative variation, 536
Corrodentia, 175, 389
Corrosion by Termites, 360
Corydalis, 447;
C. crassicornis, 447
Corydaloides scudderi, 344
Corydia, 221;
C. petiveriana, 233
Corydiides, 241
Coryna, 550
Corynothrix borealis, 191
Costa, 108
Cotes on Indian locusts, 298
Cotylosoma dipneusticum, 272
Coxa, 88, 104
Craspedosoma, 76
Crawlers, 447
Creepers, 407
Cretaceous Myriapods, 75;
Insects, 485
Creutzberg on circulation, 436
Cricket, 330, 338
Crioceris asparagi, legs of larvae, 106
Crop, 114, 124, 495
Crunoecia irrorata, case of, 480
Cryptides, 557
Cryptocerus, abdomen of, 109
Cryptops, 36, 41
Crystalline cone, 98
Cuculligera flexuosa, 304
Cunningham on fig fertilisation, 549
Cursoria (Orthoptera), 201
Cuvier, 77
Cyclops form, 536
Cylindrodes campbellii, 336;
C. kochi, 336
Cynipidae, 523
Cynips aciculata, 531;
C. disticha, 530;
C. folii, 530;
C. kollari, 530;
C. lignicola, 530;
C. spongifica, 531
Cyphocrania aestuans, 266
Cyprus, 32
Cyrtophyllus concavus, 320;
C. crepitans, 311
Dahl and Ockler on feet, 105

D'Albertis on may-flies, 441
Damsel-flies, 417
Dancing may-flies, 439 f.
Dasyleptus lucasii, 196
Death-watch, 395 f.
Decaux on cannibalism of mole-cricket, 336
Deception, 250, 265
Decoys, 257
Decticides, 329
De Geer on earwigs, 214
Degeeriidae, 190
Deinacrida heteracantha, 326
Demoiselles, 417
Dendroleon pantherinus, 458
Denny on Mantis in England, 258
Derham on death-watches, 396, 397
Dermaptera, 202, 216
Dermatoptera, 202
Derocalymma, 235
Deroplatys sarawaca, 243
De Saussure, on Orthoptera, 202;
on wings of Blattidae, 226 f.;
on classification of Gryllidae, 340;
on Hemimerus, 217;
on nomenclature of Blattidae, 240;
on oceans as barriers to migration, 297
Desert Insects, 253, 304
Deuterotoky, 141, 497 f.
Deuto-cerebron, 118
Development, of alar organs of Platycleis, 312;
of crickets, 332
—see also Embryology and Metamorphosis
Devonian, 428, 442
Dewitz on caste, 500;
on ovipositor of Locusta, 314;
on morphology of sting, 493;
on internal legs, 496;
on development of wings of Phryganeidae, 479, 480;
on dragon-fly nymphs, 423;
on Chrysopa larva, 470
Diaphana fieberi, 226
Diapheromera femorata, 263, 264, 265, 267
Diastrophus, 532
Diaulus, 484
Dicranota, larva, glands of, 142
Dictyoneura, 277, 344
Dictyopteryx microcephala, 406;
D. signata, 401
Dielocerus ellisii, 515
Digestion, 127
Dilarina, 465
Dilke, Sir Charles, on Orchis-like Mantis, 254
Dimorphic cocoons, 560;
males, 547, 549
Diplectrona, 479
Diploglossata, 217
Diplopoda, 43, 53, 74
Diploptera silpha folded wing, 227
Diptera, 173
Disgorgement, 495
Distant on S. African locust, 298
Ditrochous, 494, 520
Divided eyes, 409
Docophorus fuscicollis anatomy, 348;
D. icterodes, D. cygni, 349
Dog, biting-louse of, 349
Dohrn on tracheal system of Gryllotalpa, 132;
on embryology of Gryllotalpa, 336
Dolichopoda palpata, 322
Dorsal vessel, 133, 134;
reversed action, 435
Dorsum, 100
Dragon-flies, 409
Drakes, 441
Drepanepteryx phalaenoides, 453, 468;
wings, 468
Drones, 499
Drummers, 237
Dubois on decapitated Mantis, 250
Duchamp on egg-capsule of cockroach, 228
Ductus ejaculatorius, 140
Dudley and Beaumont on Termites, 372, 387
Dufour, on alimentary canal, 124;
on tracheal system, 129;
on air sacs of Acridiidae, 283;
on sexual organs, 138, 139;
on testes, 140;
on phonation, 286;
on Tridactylus, 338;
on Mantidae, 246;
on earwigs, 210;
on anatomy of cockroach, 228;
on anatomy of Gryllotalpa, 335;
on anatomy of Termites, 360;
on anatomy of Panorpa, 450;
on larva of Sialis, 446;
on Myrmeleon larva, 458
Duns, 441
Dust-lice, 390 f.
Dwellings of Termites, 385 f.
Dytiscus, mesothorax, 101;
egg-tube, 138, 139
Dzierzon theory, 499
Ear, 101, 121;

of Acridiidae, 285 f., 285;
of Locustidae, 316 f., 316, 317;
of crickets, 332;
of Gryllotalpa, 333, 334
Earliest Insect, 238
Earwig, 202 f., 211, 213, 214;
forceps, 208 f., 209;
wing, 206;
the name, 214
Eaton, on nymph, 157;
on Ephemeridae, 435, 437, 440
Ecdysis, 156, 162;
nature of, 169
Ectobia, 236;
E. lapponica, egg-capsule, 229
Ectobiides, 240
Ectoblast, 149
Ectoderm, 148;
of Peripatus, 20 f., 22
Ectognathi, 189
Ectotrophi, 189
Eggs, 143-145;
of Peripatus, 19;
of Myriapods, 38, 39, 64;
of Ascalaphus, 460;
growing, 513;
of parasites, 552;
of egg-parasites, 545;
of Corydalis, 447;
of Cynipidae, 528;
of Limacodes, 153;
of Mallophaga, 348;
of Microcentrum, 314;
of Phasmidae, 265, 270 f., 270;
of Perla, 404;
of Sialis, 445;
of Trichoptera, 476
Egg-capsule, 265, 290;
of Phyllium, histology, 271
Egg-parasites, 522, 536, 538
Egg-tubes, 137, 139, 392
—see also Ovaries
Eileticus, 76
Eisig on chitinous excretion, 130, 163
Ejaculatory duct, 392, 414
Ejection of fluid, 264, 324, 399, 515
Elasmosoma, 559
Elater larva, 29
Elipsocus brevistylus, 393
Elytra, 108
Embia, 352, 353
Embidopsocus, 395
Embiidae, 351, 395
Embryology, 145-153;
of Peripatus, 19 f.;
of Myriapods, 63 f.;
of parasites, 522;
of earwig, 216;
of Blattidae, 237;
of Encyrtus, 546;
of Gryllotalpa, 336;
of Polynema, 538;
of Smicra, 545;
of Proctotrypidae, 536 f.
Emergence from egg, 263, 264, 290, 291, 313
Empodium, 105
Empusa pauperata, 245, 257
Empusides, 259
Encyrtus fuscicollis development, 545
Endoblast, 149
Endoderm, 148;
of Peripatus, 20 f., 22
Endolabium, 97
Endo-skeleton, 399
Eneopterides, 340
Enock on Alaptus and Caraphractus, 538
Enoicyla pusilla, 481
Entognathi, 189
Entomology, 86
Entothorax, 103, 114, 116
Entotrophi, 189
Eocene, 407
Ephemera, 434;
E. danica, 429, 441;
wing, 431;
E. vulgata, 441;
nymph, 433
Ephemeridae, 429-443
Ephippigera Malpighian tubes, 335;
E. rugosicollis, 323
Ephippigerides, 318, 329
Epiblast, 65, 149
Epicranium, 92, 93, 93
Epidemes, 107
Epilamprides, 240
Epimeron, 100, 101, 104
Episternum, 88, 100, 101, 104
Epistome, 92
Epithelium of stomach, 126
Eremiaphila, 243, 253;
E. turcica, 253
Eremobiens, 304
Erianthus, 301
Erichson on Neuroptera, 342
Erne on Rhyssa, 554
Etoblattina manebachensis, 238, 239
Eucharis myrmeciae, 545
Euchroma, head and neck, 99
Eucorybas, 37
Eugaster guyoni, 324
Eugereon bockingi, 486
Eumegalodon blanchardi, 327
Eumegalodonidae, 327
Euorthoptera, 216
Euphaea, 422
Euphoberia, 76
Euphoberiidae, 73, 76
Euprepocnemis plorans, 303
Eurycantha australis, 274
Eurytoma abrotani, 539
Eusthenia spectabilis, 407
Eutermes, 374;
E. ripperti, 388
Euthyrhapha, 226
Evania, 562
Evaniidae, 562
Exner on sight, 416
Exodus, locust of the book of, 298
Exsertile blood-sacs, 132
External parasite, 555
External structure, 87;
diagram, 88;
of earwigs, 203 f.;
of cockroaches, 221;
of Mantidae, 242 f.;
of Phasmidae, 260 f.;
of Acridiidae, 280 f.;
of Odonata, 409 f.;
of Ephemeridae, 430 f.;
of Panorpa, 450;
of Phryganeidae, 474;
of Hymenoptera, 489 f.;
of Tenthredinidae, 511
Eyes, 97
—see also Compound Eyes and Ocelli
Fabre on Leucospis, 540;

on Monodontomerus, 543;
on Sirex, 509
Facetted eyes—see Compound Eyes
Family, 177
Fasting, 448, 458
Fat-body, 136
Feeding, by Termites, 376;
young, 495
Femur, 88, 104
Fenestra, 221
Fenestrate membrane, of eye, 98;
of pericardium, 134
Fertilisation, 499;
of fig, 549
Field-cricket, 332
Fields of wings, 206
Fig-Insects, 547 f.
Figitides, 525
Finot on Japyx, 196
Fire-brats, 186
Fischer on instars, 158
Fish destroyed, 425
Fletcher on parthenogenesis, 498
Flight, 416
Floral simulators, 254 f.
Flying-machine, model for, 417
Foenus, 563
Foetus of Hemimerus, 218
Foramen, occipital, 92, 94
Forbes on Blattid, 235
Forceps of earwigs, 208, 209
Forel on nervous system of ant, 495
Forficula auricularia, 202 f., 204, 209, 211;
F. gigantea, 210
Forficulidae, 201, 202
Formica-leo, 456
Formicajo, 456
Formicario, 456
Fossil, Insects, 178, 472, 485, 486;
Acridiidae, 308;
Blattidae, 238;
cricket, 340;
dragon-flies, 427;
earwigs, 216;
Locustidae, 328;
Mantidae, 258;
may-flies, 442, 443;
Phasmidae, 276;
Panorpidae, 453;
Perlidae, 407;
Sialidae, 449;
Termites, 389;
Thysanura, 196;
Myriapods, 72 f.;
Palaeozoic Neuroptera, 343
Founding communities, 381
Fourmilions, 456
Fowl, biting-louse of, 350
Fritze on Ephemerid alimentary canal, 439
Frons, 94
Front wings absent, 260 f.
Fungus chambers, 387
Fungus-growing Termites, 385, 387
Funiculus, 492
Furca, 103
Furcal orifices, 399, 402
Galapagos Islands, 459

Galea, 95
Gall-flies, 523 f.
Galls, 514 f.;
nature of, 525 f., 533
Ganglia, 116
Ganin, on metamorphosis, 162;
on embryology, 536 f., 538
Gasteruption, 562
Gena, 94
Geophilidae, 46, 58, 75
Geophilus, 33, 36, 39, 46;
marine, 30;
phosphorescent, 34
Geoscapheusides, 241
Gerephemera simplex, 428
Gerstaecker, on Neuroptera, 343;
on mouth of Odonata, 411
Giebel on Mallophaga, 347
Gigantic Insects, 276, 306, 428
Gilbert White, on mole-cricket, 333;
on field-cricket, 339
Gills, 132, 400, 421, 432 f., 478;
jointed, 445, 446, 467;
filamentous, 476;
spongy, 447;
prothoracic, 443;
of pupa, 483;
on imago, 401, 479;
blood-gills, 479
Giraud on Cynipid oviposition, 528
Gizzard, 124, 125
Glacier water, 405
Glande sébifique, 139
Glands, 139, 142;
conglobate, 229;
maxillary, 458;
mushroom, 228
—see also Salivary Glands
Glandulae odoriferae, 31, 36, 54
Glomeridae, 43, 76
Glomeris, 33, 43, 52
Gnathites, 94, 97
Golden-eyes, 469
Göldi on eggs of Phasmidae, 265
Gomphinae, 426
Gomphocerus, 308
Gomphus, 415
Gonapophysis, 110
Gongylus gongylodes, 254 f., 255
Gosch on median segment, 491
Goureau on Microgaster, 560
Graber, on dorsal vessel, 134;
on blood cells, 137;
on embryology, 148-151;
on ears, 286;
on ears of Locustidae, 316, 317;
on chordotonal organs, 121;
on blood, 133;
on phonation of Stenobothrus, 284;
on Platycleis, 312
Grassi, on Myriapoda, 47;
on Campodea, 163;
on Embia, 353;
on Termitidae, 361 f.
Grassi and Rovelli on Thysanura, 182
Green grasshoppers, 311
Green, Mr. Staniforth, on Helicomitus larva, 461
Gromphadorhina portentosa, 235
Grosse on Mallophaga, 346
Growth of wings, 393;
of Mantidae, 248

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Heavy metals in water presence

removal and safety Sanjay K. Sharma

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Bisphenol A Removal from Water and Wastewater Magdalena

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Water Hyacinth A Potential Lignocellulosic Biomass for

Heavy Metals in Water

Heavy Metals In Water

Print ISBN: 978-1-84973-885-9

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Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal and Safety

ores and, on the other hand, agriculture (fertilizers, animal manures,

This is the opportunity to express my thanks and gratitude to my friends,

never-ending encouragement, moral support and patience during the course

Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal and Safety

About the Editor

Prof. (Dr) Sanjay K. Sharma is a very well known

Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal and Safety

xii About the Editor

Chemistry, Green Chemistry Letters & Reviews, Ultrasonics and Ultrasonics

 Biosurfactants: Research Trends and Applications (CRC Taylor & Francis,

Chapter 1 Contamination of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Media:

Chapter 2 Photocatalytic Processes for the Removal of Toxic

Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal and Safety

Chapter 3 Removal of Dissolved Metals by Bioremediation 44

Subhajit Majumder, Suresh Gupta and Smita Raghuvanshi

3.1 Heavy Metals in Wastewater 44

Chapter 4 Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles for Heavy Metals

Chapter 5 Arsenic Contamination: An Overview 86

6.1 Introduction 122

Chapter 7 Heavy Metal Pollution in Water Resources in

Keisuke Ikehata, Yao Jin, Nima Maleky and Aijun Lin

7.1 Introduction 141

7.4.4 Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy

Chapter 8 Heavy Metals Distribution in Surface Water Samples

8.1 Introduction 168

8.3.1 Chromium (Cr) 170

Chapter 9 Use of Nanotechnology against Heavy Metals Present

9.1 Introduction 177

9.3.4 Other Nanosized Metal Oxides 184

Chapter 10 Modified and New Adsorbents for Removal of Heavy

10.1 Introduction 193

Natural Materials 198

Chapter 11 Natural Clays/Clay Minerals and Modified Forms for

11.1 Introduction 213

Evaluation of Heavy Metals Sorption onto Clays and

Chapter 12 Heavy Metals in Tannery Wastewater and Sludge:

12.1 Introduction 249

12.4 Future Challenges 258

Chapter 13 Fluorides in Different Types of Aquatic Systems and their

13.1 HeavyMetals and Fluorides in the Environment 261

14.1 Introduction 281

Chapter 15 Biosorption of Metals – From the Basics to High Value

Catalysts Production 296

15.1 Introduction 296

Biosurfactants: Research Trends and Applications (CRC Taylor & Francis,

mucosa By European Community:

Disturbs the cholesterol maximum concentration:

Precipitation and coagulation