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Smart Sensors, Measurement and Instrumentation 19

Asaf Grosz
Michael J. Haji-Sheikh
Subhas C. Mukhopadhyay Editors

High Sensitivity
Magnetometers
Smart Sensors, Measurement
and Instrumentation

Volume 19

Series editor
Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay
School of Engineering and Advanced Technology (SEAT)
Massey University (Manawatu)
Palmerston North
New Zealand
e-mail: S.C.Mukhopadhyay@massey.ac.nz
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10617
Asaf Grosz Michael J. Haji-Sheikh
•

Subhas C. Mukhopadhyay
Editors

High Sensitivity
Magnetometers

123
Editors
Asaf Grosz Subhas C. Mukhopadhyay
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Massey University (Manawatu)
Beer-Sheva Palmerston North
Israel New Zealand

Michael J. Haji-Sheikh
Northern Illinois University
DeKalb, IL
USA

ISSN 2194-8402 ISSN 2194-8410 (electronic)

Smart Sensors, Measurement and Instrumentation
ISBN 978-3-319-34068-5 ISBN 978-3-319-34070-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-34070-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016942777

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
Contents

Induction Coil Magnetometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Kunihisa Tashiro
Parallel Fluxgate Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Michal Janosek
Orthogonal Fluxgate Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Mattia Butta
Giant Magneto-Impedance (GMI) Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Christophe Dolabdjian and David Ménard
Magnetoelectric Magnetometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Mirza I. Bichurin, Vladimir M. Petrov, Roman V. Petrov
and Alexander S. Tatarenko
Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR) Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Michael J. Haji-Sheikh and Kristen Allen
Planar Hall Effect (PHE) Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Vladislav Mor, Asaf Grosz and Lior Klein
Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Candid Reig and María-Dolores Cubells-Beltrán
MEMS Lorentz Force Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Agustín Leobardo Herrera-May, Francisco López-Huerta
and Luz Antonio Aguilera-Cortés
Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)
Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Matthias Schmelz and Ronny Stolz
Cavity Optomechanical Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Warwick P. Bowen and Changqiu Yu

v
vi Contents

Planar Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Asif I. Zia and Subhas C. Mukhopadhyay
Magnetic Resonance Based Atomic Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Antoine Weis, Georg Bison and Zoran D. Grujić
Nonlinear Magneto-Optical Rotation Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Wojciech Gawlik and Szymon Pustelny
Spin Exchange Relaxation Free (SERF) Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Igor Mykhaylovich Savukov
Helium Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Werner Heil
Microfabricated Optically-Pumped Magnetometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Ricardo Jiménez-Martínez and Svenja Knappe
Magnetometry with Nitrogen-Vacancy Centers in Diamond . . . . . . . . . 553
Kasper Jensen, Pauli Kehayias and Dmitry Budker
Abstract

One approach to the development of magnetometers is the pursuit of an ideal device

that meets the demands and limitations of all the possible applications. Such an
ideal device must have ultra-high resolution, ultra-low power consumption, a wide
dynamic range and bandwidth, as well as being ultra-miniature, inexpensive,
operable over a wide range of temperatures and more, which, all together, does not
seem realistic.
Since this silver bullet is currently unachievable, researchers are seeking optimal,
rather than ideal, magnetometers. An optimal magnetometer is that which best fits a
set of requirements dictated by a specific application. However, the large number of
applications employing magnetic sensors leads to a great variety of requirements
and, naturally, also to a large number of “optimal magnetometers”.
The aim of this book is to assist the readers in their search for their optimal
magnetometer. The book gathers, for the first time, an overview of nearly all of the
magnetic sensors that exist today. This broad overview exposes the readers, rela-
tively quickly, to a wide variety of sensors. The book offers the readers thorough
and comprehensive knowledge, from basics to the state-of-the-art, and is therefore
suitable for both beginners and experts.
From the more common and popular AMR magnetometers and up to the
recently developed NV center magnetometers, each chapter describes a specific
type of sensor and provides all the information that is necessary to understand the
magnetometer behavior, including theoretical background, noise model, materials,
electronics, design and fabrication techniques.
We invite students, researchers and engineers to learn more about the fascinating
world of magnetic sensing.

vii
Induction Coil Magnetometers

Kunihisa Tashiro

Abstract This chapter describes induction magnetometers with air-core coils for
weak magnetic fields detection. In order to explain the historical background, the
introduction provides the useful references through the author’s experiences. Two
detection models, the voltage and current detection model, can help to understand of
the operational principle. Because the key components are the coils and electronics,
practically useful design tips are summarized. Some experimental demonstration
results with well-designed induction magnetometers are also mentioned.

1 Introduction

Because the study of induction magnetometers has long history in many research
fields, this magnetometers are also given several names as induction sensors (ISs),
induction magnetic field transducers (ITs), search coil magnetometers (SCMs),
magnetic antenna, coil sensors, and pickup coils. They have been used many years
to measure micropulsations of the Earth’s magnetic field in ground-based stations
[1], to study of magnetic field variations in space plasmas [2], and to several
scientific spacecraft missions [3]. Although fluxgate is well adapted for weak
magnetic field from dc to a few Hz, while induction magnetometers extend the
frequency band measurement from few 100 MHz to few kHz [4]. A very important
advantage of induction magnetometers is that they are completely passive sensors:
they do not require any internal energy source to convert magnetic field into
electrical signal. The only power consumption associated with a search coil is that
needed for signal processing [5]. Induction magnetometers are one of the oldest and
most well-known types of magnetic sensors, and they can cover numerous appli-
cations. Several good review papers [6–8] and handbooks [9–11] published in the
21st century may help to follow them. Although there are a lot of magnetic sensors

K. Tashiro (&)
Spin Device Technology Center (SDTC), Shinshu University, Wakasato 4-17-1,
Nagano, Japan
e-mail: tashiro@shinshu-u.ac.jp

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 1

A. Grosz et al. (eds.), High Sensitivity Magnetometers, Smart Sensors,
Measurement and Instrumentation 19, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-34070-8_1
2 K. Tashiro

are proposed, the study of induction magnetometer is still attractive to this author.
One of the reason is that the technical details are still difficult to answer, clearly.
The motivation of this chapter is to provide author’s experiences and tips related to
study the induction magnetometer.
The “first contact” of this author to the induction magnetometers was related to
the biomagnetic measurements. Although SQUID sensors are common tool in this
measurements at present, they did not exist when the evidence for the existence of
magnetic fields from human heart [12] and brain [13] were presented. For the both
magnetocardiography (MCG) and magnetoencephalograpy (MEG) measurements,
the signals were measured with induction magnetometers whose operational prin-
ciple was voltage detection mode. Because of the operational principle based on
Faraday’s induction law, the pickup coil has a magnetic (ferrite) core and large the
number of windings as one-million or two-million. Although the use of a magnetic
core makes the sensitivity high, the estimation of effective permeability is one of the
difficult problem [14]. Because theoretical estimation of demagnetization factor
only exists for an ellipsoidal body which is placed in a uniform magnetic field. This
chapter does not focuses on the design of the magnetic cores. In order to weak,
low-frequency magnetic field, reduction of environmental magnetic fields is nec-
essary. The design and construction of magnetic shielded room [15] were very
important for the success of the first MEG measurements. In other words, the
necessity of the magnetic shielded room is a barrier to install the MEG system for
local hospitals. In case of the first MCG measurements, the environmental noise
was suppressed by the use of the signal conditioning circuit and gradiometer, two
pickup coil connected in anti-parallel direction. In fact, the author also confirmed
that the possibility to detect the MCG signal outside the magnetic shielded room
[16]. It should be noted that the electrical interferences should be reduced by
choosing suitable grounding points and simple electrical shielding enclosure,
Faraday cage.
The motivation to start studying the induction magnetometers was not for the
MCG measurements; it was the demands for a magnetic shield evaluation.
Compared with the geomagnetic field (dc field), the amplitude of environmental
magnetic fields at 50/60 Hz in our living environmental is low. And the perfor-
mance in dc fields is usually limited by the internal magnetic field produced by own
magnetic layers, so that the fluxgate is enough to the evaluation in dc performance
[17]. When the magnetic shield to be evaluated is placed with a sufficient distance
from electrical devices or power lines, the amplitude of environmental magnetic
field at 50/60 Hz were usually less than 0.1 µT. The magnetic shielding factor is
usually defined by the ratio of external to internal field strength. If the evaluation of
magnetic shielding factor is larger than 100,000, the corresponding magnetic field
inside the magnetic shield is less than 1 pT. Although SQUID sensors can be used
for this evaluation, the interferences of urban RF noises should be reduced because
they disturbs the measurement results [18]. Compared with a commercially avail-
able fluxgate, the advantages of induction magnetometers are very attractive [19].
Induction Coil Magnetometers 3

Although SQUID sensors have several advantages in the sensitivity and spatial
resolution, the maintenance of liquid nitrogen or helium is indispensable. For a
young researcher, who used SQUID sensors as a tool, this demerit made troubles
and disappointment. The most impressive paper for this author was written by
R.J. Prance in 2003 [20]. The title is “Compact room-temperature induction mag-
netometer with superconducting quantum interference device level field sensitiv-
ity”. This induction magnetometer was the current detection model which is based
on the definition of self-inductance. To the best of author’s knowledge, the first
paper related to the current detection model was proposed by M.A. Macintyre in
1980 [21]. In this optimization, the estimation of the coil inductance is very
important [22]. This kind of induction magnetometers were not only used for MCG
measurements [23], but also to measure magnetic fields produced by nerve action
currents of a 2 kg lobster [24]. Because the pickup coil does not require to keep
inside liquid nitrogen or helium, they can approach to the object as possible. In the
current detection model, the magnetic flux linkage of the coil is converted to the
induced voltage with a transimpedance amp, or current-to-voltage converter.
Because the induced current can be used to produce a well-controlled magnetic
field, it could be combined with a SQUID device. Some practical applications were
proposed as a clip-on SQUID current probe [25], SQUID magnetometer with a
room-temperature pickup coil for impedance magnetocardiography [26] and
superconducting induction magnetometer [27].
This chapter focuses on the current detection model. In the section two,
induction magnetometers are categorized into two detection models. The equivalent
circuits for both models are explained through Faraday’s law, definition of induc-
tance, and Ohm’s law. In the section three, the coil design is explained. The main
point is the estimation of self-inductance for several shapes of coils. Although the
theoretical estimation of self-inductance for any shapes of coils does not exist, good
approximations are useful in practical use. In the section four, some tips of the
electronics design are provided. In general, a high-sensitive magnetometer is not
only sensitive to magnetic field, but also to electrical interferences. The suppression
of the interferences, a stable grounding point for the electronics should be provided.
In the section five, experimental demonstration results with well-designed induction
magnetometers are mentioned.

2 Operational Principle

Although the fundamental explanation through the two equivalent circuits was
presented in previous paper [28], this section describes more simple explanation
with modified figures. First of all, the induction magnetometers are categorized into
two models. The theoretically backgrounds for both models are mentioned with
several equations. Finally, advantages of the current detection model are explained
with an example of both the calculated and measured results.
4 K. Tashiro

Fig. 1 a Faraday’s induction law and b definition of inductance for the explanation of voltage and
current detection models

2.1 Two Detection Models

The basis of induction magnetometer can be explained by two detection models,

voltage detection model and current detection model. Figure 1 shows Faraday’s
induction law and definition of inductance for explanation of both models.
Figure 1a shows the model based on Faraday’s law for the explanation of
voltage detection model. When a homogeneous magnetic field, µ0H [T], at fre-
quency, f [Hz], is crossed with a coil having mean radius, a [m], the induced
voltage, V [V], is expressed by the following equations:

dU
V ¼ ð1Þ
dt

V ¼ jxnSl0 H ¼ j2p2 fna2 l0 H ð2Þ

where j is an imaginary number and n is the number of coil windings. It means that
the both waveform of the magnetic field and induced voltage has phase difference in
90°. If an ideal integrator integrates the induced voltage, the output voltage
waveform corresponds to the objective magnetic field.
Figure 1b shows a model based on the definition of inductance for the expla-
nation of current detection model. The relationship between the current, I [A], and
flux linkage, U [Wb], is expressed by the following equations:

U ¼ LI ð3Þ

nSl0 H pna2 l0 H
I¼ ¼ ð4Þ
L L
Induction Coil Magnetometers 5

where L [H] is the inductance of the coil. If an ideal current-to-voltage converter, or

transimpedance amplifier, converts the induced current, the output waveform cor-
responds to the objective magnetic field. In practical use, it should be considered a
finite resistance in the coil, R [X], and input resistance in the instrumentation, Rin
[X]. Because the equivalent circuits of both detection types are regarded as a simple
RL circuit, cutoff frequencies fc can be defined.

R þ Rin
fc ¼ ð5Þ
2pL

Although the coil resistance of an ideal superconducting coil is zero, connecting

wire between the coil and instrumentation may cause as coil resistance. SQUID
sensors does not have the connecting wire between the coil and instrumentation.
From the view point of an engineer related to induction magnetometer, this kind of
sensor is based on current detection model. The pickup coil in SQUID sensor not
only convert to the objective magnetic field to induced current, but also passes
magnetic flux to the superconducting interference device, SQUID. SQUID with a
flux closed loop, FLL, is the instrument which can convert a magnetic flux to output
voltage.

2.2 Voltage Detection Model

Figure 2a shows the voltage detection model. Based on Thevenin’s theorem, the
pickup coil can be replaced with parameters of R, L, and V. Figure 2b shows the
equivalent circuit model. From the Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), the current I can
be expressed by the following equations:

dI
V ¼L þ ðR þ Rin ÞI ð6Þ
dt
V 1 V 1
I¼
¼
 ð7Þ
R þ Rin 1 þ j 2pLf R þ Rin 1 þ j f
R þ Rin fc

Because the output current is as same as the induced current, the output voltage,
Vout [V], is expressed by:

Rin 1
Vout ¼ Rin Iout ¼ Rin I ¼
V ð8Þ
R þ Rin 1 þ j f
fc
6 K. Tashiro

Fig. 2 Voltage detection model. a Model. b Equivalent circuit

The frequency response of the output voltage can be considered by two fre-
quency regions where the resistance or the inductance is dominant. If the frequency
of the objective field is low as f  fc:

Rin Rin
Vout ¼  V ¼ j  2p2 na2  f  l0 H ð9Þ
R þ Rin R þ Rin

and if the frequency of the objective field is high as f  fc:

Rin fc Rin
Vout ¼ j V ¼  pna2  l0 H ð10Þ
R þ Rin f L
Induction Coil Magnetometers 7

At the low frequency region, it is same to Faraday’s induction law when the Rin
is very large as Rin  R. The output voltage is proportional to the frequency. At the
high frequency region, it is same to the definition of inductance. The output voltage
is proportional to the magnetic field, and does not depend on the frequency. It may
cause a misunderstanding because the output voltage is also proportional to the
input resistance as amplifier gain. If the input resistance is infinity, the cutoff
frequency is also infinity so that the output voltage is expressed by the Faraday’s
induction law. If the input resistance has a finite value, the cutoff frequency has also
finite value. It means that the output voltage should be considered with both
Faraday’s induction law and definition of inductance. Although the resistance of an
ideal integrator is infinity, the value is limited to a finite value in practical. When the
detection of relatively high frequency field as MHz frequency range, the input
resistance of the instrumentation, a spectrum analyzer or network analyzer, is
usually 50 or 75 X to prevent the reflection phenomenon.

2.3 Current Detection Model

Figure 3a shows the current detection model with a transimpedance amplifier.

Because the plus pin of the OPamp is connected to the ground, the input resistance
is zero in ideal case, Rin = 0, and the pickup coil is in a virtual short. Figure 3b
shows the equivalent circuit. The induced current is expressed by:

V 1 V 1
I¼ 2pLf  ¼
 ð11Þ
R1þj R R1þj f
fc

Although the oscilloscope, or other analyzer for measuring the output voltage,
has a finite input resistance, Rin′, the OPamp controls the output voltage, Vout [V], as
follows:

Rf 1
Vout ¼ IRf ¼ 
V ð12Þ
R 1þj f
fc

The frequency response of the output voltage can be also considered by two
frequency regions where the resistance or the inductance is dominant. If the fre-
quency of the objective field is low as f  fc:

Rf Rf
Vout ¼  V ¼ j  2p2 na2  f  l0 H ð13Þ
R R
8 K. Tashiro

Fig. 3 Current detection model. a Model. b Equivalent circuit

and if the frequency of the objective field is high as f  fc:

R f fc Rf
Vout ¼ j V ¼   pna2  l0 H ð14Þ
R f L

At the low frequency region, the output voltage is (Rf/R) times than that of the
voltage detection model. Although an increase in n makes the output voltage large
in the voltage detection model, the value of R becomes large. Because Johnson
noise is proportional to R1/2, the noise floor level of the magnetometer becomes
worse. Although a low-noise voltage amplifier could be used for the voltage
detection model, the gain of a commercially available amplifier is usually limited to
Induction Coil Magnetometers 9

Fig. 4 An induction
magnetometer with an
air-core pickup coil. The
operational principle is the
current detection model [19]

1000, or 60 dB. In contrast, the value of Rf can be achieved larger than 100,000, or
100 dB, with a commercially available OPamp.

2.4 Comparison of Frequency Response

From the simple equivalent models, both detection models have similar manner
related to frequency response; the output voltage is proportional to the frequency in
low frequency region and does not depend on the frequency in high frequency
region. Compared with both models, the ideal values of Rin are different; Rin ! ∞
for voltage detection model and Rin ! 0 for current detection model. Figure 4
shows an induction magnetometer with an air-core pickup coil, whose design was
based on the current detection model [19]. The frequency responses are categorized
into three regions;
I. Low frequency in voltage detection model (f < fc): Eq. (9),
II. Low frequency in current detection model (f < fc): Eq. (13),
III. High frequency in both detections model (f > fc): Eqs. (10) and (14).
At the region III, the sensitivity is same because the typical values of both Rin in
the input resistance of an instrument for voltage detection model and Rf in the
transimpedance for current detection model are 1 MX. Figure 5 shows the fre-
quency responses of the induction magnetometer with the coil (a). Plots represent
the experimental results, and lines represent the theoretical estimation results. It
does not only explain the validity of the theoretical estimations, but also the
advantages of the current detection model. This magnetometer exhibit the linear
response from 18 Hz to 10 kHz without an integrator. If the linear and wide
response is required, a frequency compensation circuit is useful which described in
10 K. Tashiro

Fig. 5 Comparison of
frequency response on the
sensitivity between the
voltage and current detection
model. The pickup coil is
Coil-01. [28] (a = 45 mm,
n = 2827, R = 70 X,
L = 0.611 H,
Rf = Rin = 1 MX)

Fig. 6 Linearity of the

induction magnetometer
(Coil-01) compared with a
fluxgate magnetometer. The
evaluation frequency is
100 Hz [19]

Sect. 3. It seems that a resonance phenomenon is found in the range between 10 and
100 kHz. It was caused by the stray capacitance of the cable which is connected
between the coil and electronics. In order to obtain the linear and flat response, stray
capacitances should be small. In contrast, if the frequency of objective field is
already defined, the use of resonance phenomenon, which should be categorized as
third detection model, is the best way.

2.5 Remarks

To give the straightforward understandings for induction magnetometers, some

remarks are mentioned with some experimental and theoretical estimation results.
The first remark is that the induction magnetometer based on current detection
model has an advantage in the sensitivity compared with a fluxgate. Figure 6 shows
an example of the measured linearity compared with a fluxgate (MAG-03,
Induction Coil Magnetometers 11

Fig. 7 Noise floor level

measured inside a magnetic
shield [19]

Fig. 8 Two pickup coils for

induction magnetometers
based on current detection
model [29]

Bartington). The induction magnetometer had a linear sensitivity as 30 mV/nT, and

it was in good agreement with the theoretical estimation. Compared with the
fluxgate, the sensitivity is 300 times. Although it could gain combined with an
instrumentational amplifier as described in Sect. 5, it is a challenging to suppress
both the electrical interferences and environmental magnetic field. Figure 7 shows
an example of the noise floor level measured inside a magnetic shielding. The
measured range was from 50 to 150 Hz with 0.125 Hz in a bandwidth, and the
averaging was 4 times. The measured noise floor level was as low as 300 fT/Hz1/2
which is one of the advantage for the weak and low-frequency magnetic field
detection.
Other remarks are related to the design of coil parameters. Figure 8 shows two
pickup coils for induction magnetometers based on current detection model [29].
Although the values of mean diameter of the coils are similar as Coil-01, the
numbers of turns are different. According to the design based on the voltage
detection model, the number of turns makes the sensitivity high. In contrast, the
best sensitivity can achieve the magnetometer with Coil-01 based on the current
detection model. The values of sensitivity in III region are 30, 6.5 and 2.4 mV/nT
12 K. Tashiro

Fig. 9 Comparison of
frequency response between
the induction magnetometers.
Plots represent the measured
results [29] and lines
represents the theoretical
estimation results. a Coil-02.
b Coil-03

for Coil-01, 02 and 03, respectively. The frequency responses of the current
detection model strongly depends on the coil inductance, the design of coil shape
and parameters is very important. Figure 9 shows the frequency responses of
Coil-02 and Coil-03 for the magnetic field of 100 nT. The electronics was the same
as Coil-01; Rf = 1 MX. Because of the numbers of turns, the sensitivity in the
region I of Coil-03 is twice compared with Coil-02. In contrast, the sensitivity based
on the current detection model, region II and II, for Coil-02 is twice or more
compared with that for Coil-03. It should be noted that the value of the cutoff
frequency was also low in Coil-02. If the lowest cutoff frequency is required, the
use of Brooks coil as Coil-01 is one of the smart solution which described in
Sect. 2.
The final remark in this section is the temperature stabilization. This is not only
the problem for the induction magnetometer, but also all magnetic sensors for
practical use. The reason of the high sensitivity in region II relies on the coil
resistance. From the view point of the voltage detection model design, this resis-
tance define the voltage gain of a pre-amplifier as (Rf/R). For example, this value
becomes as high as 83.1 dB for the Coil-01. However, it is well known that the
resistance has temperature dependency. In the extreme case, the resistance value of
copper wire becomes about 1/8 when it is dipped in a liquid nitrogen (77 K).
Induction Coil Magnetometers 13

Fig. 10 Comparison of
frequency response between
the induction magnetometers
cooled in a liquid nitrogen.
Plots represent the measured
results [29] and lines
represents the theoretical
estimation results. The
amplitude of the measured
magnetic field was 100 nT.
a Coil-02. b Coil-03

Figure 10 shows the frequency responses of Coil-02 and Coil-03 cooled in a liquid
nitrogen for the magnetic field of 100 nT. In conclusion, the temperature dropping
makes the flat frequency response wide, and the sensitivity does not change in the
region III.

3 Coil Design

The estimation of coil inductance is very important to design induction magne-

tometer based on current detection model. Although the estimation of the induc-
tance for ideal solenoid coil is well known, it could not be used for the other shapes
of coils. The study of inductance estimation contains long historical background
and difficult mathematics [30]. From the point of engineers related to development
of the induction magnetometer, it is not easy to follow all the details.
Figure 11 shows the shapes of coil which are selected for practical use. In order
to estimate the inductance, suitable approximations should be chosen. In 1995,
K. Kajikawa and K. Kaiho confirmed the accuracy of the several approximations
for a circular coil of rectangular cross section with the help of computer calculations
14 K. Tashiro

Fig. 11 Coil shapes for estimation of self-inductance. The parameters written in the figures are:
ai, ao and a represent the inner, outer and mean radius, respectively. c and l represent the coil width
and length, respectively. a Thin solenoid coil (c = 0). b Flat spiral coil (l = 0). c Short solenoid
coil (d < l). d Long solenoid coil (l > d). e Brooks coil (l = ai = c, a = 1.5c, ao = 2c, d = 3c)

[31]. According to their excellent works, it was reported that the five approxima-
tions are enough to estimate the inductance within three digit accuracy. For the
induction magnetometer design, the selection in this section is more simplified into
four general shapes and one special shape, Brooks coil. All the estimations can be
calculated by a simple calculator as Excel program.
Induction Coil Magnetometers 15

3.1 Thin Solenoid Coil

The inductance of a single-layered solenoid coil with negligible coil winding width
is expressed by

l0 pa2 n2
L ¼ Cnagaoka ð15Þ
l

where µ0 (H/m) is the permeability in vacuum, a (m) is radius of the coil, n is

number of the coil windings, l (m) is length of the solenoid coil, and Cnagaoka is the
Nagaoka coefficient. For the ideal solenoid coil, the value of Cnagaoka is 1. In
practical case, the existence of open ends should be taken in account even if the
solenoid coil has relatively long length. The Nagaoka coefficient is defined by
 
4 1 k02
Cnagaoka ¼ ð K  E Þ þ E  k ð16Þ
3p k0 k 2

where k and k′ are the elliptic module and complementary elliptic module, K and
E are complete elliptic integral of the first and second kind, respectively. In order to
calculate with a simple calculator as Excel spreadsheet program, approximations
proposed by C. Hastings [32] are very useful. The calculation of values of esti-
mation error are lower than 0.01 % [33].
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
4r 2
k¼ ; k 02 ¼ 1  k2 ; ð17Þ
4r 2 þ l2

Zp=2
1
K ¼ KðkÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffidh
1  k2 sin2 h
0
  ð18Þ
 1:3862944 þ 0:1119723k02 þ 0:0725296k04
1
þ þ 0:1213478 k02 þ 0:0288729k04 lnð1=k02 Þ
2

Zp=2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
E ¼ EðkÞ ¼ 1  k2 sin2 hdh
0 ð19Þ
 02 04

 1 þ 0:4630151k þ 0:1077812k
 
þ 0:2452727k02 þ 0:0412496k04 lnð1=k02 Þ
16 K. Tashiro

3.2 Flat Spiral Coil

According to the reference [31], Spielrein’s approximations are known to calculate

the inductance for a flat spiral coil with negligible coil winding width. To calculate
the inductance, the aspect ratio c should be used to select the suitable approximation.
ai
k¼ ð20Þ
ao

If c < 0.5,

n2 ao
L ¼l0 
4pð1  kÞ2
 
8p p p 1
2G  1  k p ln 2  2G þ 1 
3
þ ln ½H
3 12 2 k
 
2 3 5 15 7 175 9 2205 11 14553 13
þp k þ k þ k þ k þ k
20 448 13824 360448 4259840
ð21Þ

where,

Zp=2
udu
2G ¼ ¼ 1:8319311883544380301. . . ð22Þ
sin u
0

Else if c > 0.5,

n2 ao
L ¼l0 
1þs
      ð23Þ
4 1 1 4 43 11 4 1
ln  þ s2 ln þ þ s4 ln þ
s 2 24 s 288 2880 s 150

where,

1k
s¼ : ð24Þ
1þk

3.3 Short Solenoid Coil (d > l)

This shape of coils is popular for the pickup coil of an induction magnetometers.
The inductance of Coil-04, Coil-05, a one turn coil for high frequency field
Induction Coil Magnetometers 17

detection, described in Sect. 5, was also estimated by this approximation. The

estimation of the inductance for this coil shape is known as Lyle’s approximation.
According to the reference [31], it was pointed that there was a mistake in the
approximation described in the original Lyle’s paper. Lyle’s approximation is
acceptable when the values of (l/d) is lower than 1.0 within the 0.1 % error.
Because approximation has a lot of terms, it should be divided into several parts to
calculate a Excel program as follows. The Lyle’s approximation could be expressed
by

L ¼ l0 an2  ðA0 þ A2 þ A4 þ A6 Þ ð25Þ

where,

l 2 l 2 þ c2
u¼ ln 2 ; ð26Þ
c2 l

c2 l2 þ c2
v¼ ln 2 ; ð27Þ
l2 c
l c
w ¼ tan1 ; ð28Þ
c l
c l
w0 ¼ tan1 ; ð29Þ
l c
8a 1 uþv 2
A0 ¼ ln þ þ  ðw þ w0 Þ; ð30Þ
l2 þc 2 12 12 3

1  2  8a 1 1
A2 ¼ 3l þ c2 ln 2 þ l 2 u  c2 v
96a 2 l þ c2 2 10
ð31Þ
16 69 2 221 2
 l2 w þ l þ c
5 20 60

1 22 4 8a
A4 ¼ 30l4 þ 35l2 c2 þ c ln 2
30720a4 3 l þ c2
115l4  480l2 c2 23 256  4 
 u  c4 v þ 6l  7l2 c2 w ð32Þ
12 28 21
36590l4  2035l2 c2  11442c4
 ;
840
18 K. Tashiro

1   8a
A6 ¼ 525l6  1610l4 c2 þ 770l2 c4 þ 103c6 ln 2
6881280a6 l þ c2
3633 6 359 6
þ l  3220b4 c2 þ 2240l2 c4 u  cv
10 30
ð33Þ
5 7 2161453 6
 2048 l6  4l2 c2 þ l2 c4 w þ l
3 5 840
617423 4 2 8329 2 4 108631 6
 l c  l c þ c :
180 60 840

3.4 Long Solenoid Coil (d < l)

This shape of coils is also popular for the pickup coil of an induction magne-
tometers. According to the reference [31], there are two candidates for the suitable
approximations, Butterworth’s or Dwight approximation. For the design of
induction magnetometers, Dwight approximation is acceptable. The values of
inductance for Coil-02, Coil-03 and Coil-06 can be estimated by this approximation
[22, 34]. If the coil width is very thick, (c/d) > 0.8, and the coil length as similar as
the mean diameter, 1 < (l/d) < 1.2, the shape of the coil should be re-designed. The
Dwight’s approximation could be expressed by

l0 pa2 n2  
L¼ Cnagaoka þ DL0 þ DL2 þ DL4 þ DL6 ð34Þ
l

where,

d
m ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð35Þ
d þ 4l2
2

2 c 1 c2
DL0 ¼  þ
3 d 3 d2
4d 1 c2 4d 23 1 c4 4d 1
þ ln   ln  ð36Þ
3pl 4 d 2 c 12 80 d 4 c 20
1 c6 23 4d 4547
 ln  ;
896 d 6 20 c 5600

c2 d n m 5 3 m 5 95 7 217 9
DL2 ¼ 2
 m þ  m þ m
d l 6 24 3 128 128
ð37Þ
2135 11 21571 13 895895 15
 m þ m  m ;
512 2048 32768
Induction Coil Magnetometers 19

c4 d m 17 3 53 5 1265 7 38857 9
DL4 ¼ 4
 m þ m  m þ m
d l 36 180 96 576 4608
ð38Þ
3913 11 2206281 13 1519375 15
 m þ m  m ;
128 20480 4096

c6 d 1 3 15 5 1117 7 1183 9
DL6 ¼ 6
 m þ m  m þ m
d l 120 112 672 96
ð39Þ
76461 11 4043831 13 15637479 15
 m þ m  m :
1024 10240 8192

3.5 Brooks Coil (l = ai = c, a = 1.5c, ao = 2c, d = 3c)

Although the inductance of Brooks coil could be estimated by Lyle’s approxima-

tion, the historical background should be mentioned according to the handbook of
inductance calculation written by F.G. Grover:
Maxwell found that for maximum inductance with a given length to a chosen wire, the
mean diameter of the turns should be 3.7 times the dimension of the square cross section.
This result, although often quoted, is only approximate. The more accurate formulas for the
inductance now available show that the ratio lies quite close to 2a / c = 3… Accordingly,
Brooks has proposed that a coil for which 2a / c = 3 is, for all practical purposes, one of the
optimum form and has the advantage over that yielded by mathematical analysis of sim-
plicity of the proportions. Such a coil offers, in fact, an inductance only 2 parts in 100,000
less than the maximum attainable with the wire in question. [30]

This shape of coil can achieve maximum inductance for a given length of
winding wire, and the estimation error of the inductance is less than 3 % [22]. The
inductance of the Brooks coil is given by

L ¼ 1:6994  106  an2 ð40Þ

It should be noted that the cutoff frequency is defined by the size of the Brooks
coil. The resistance of a coil is given by

2pan
R¼ q ð41Þ
s

where s [m2] and q [Xm] represents the cross section and resistivity of the wire,
respectively. With the values of the inductance and resistance, the cutoff frequency
for the Brooks coils is given by

R q q
fc ¼ ¼ ¼ ð42Þ
2pL 1:6994  106 sn 1:6994  106 bc2
20 K. Tashiro

Fig. 12 Cutoff frequency as a

function of outer diameter of
Brooks coil

where b represents the spacing factor of the Brooks coil. If the ideal high-conductor
density coil, the value of b closes to 1. Figure 12 shows the cutoff frequency as a
function of outer diameter of Brooks coils, as a parameter of the spacing factor. The
values for Coil-01 and other Brooks coils described in previous reports are also
plotted. In practical design, the reasonable value of b is 0.65. In previous reports
[19, 22, 28, 35], the values of b were overestimated because of the definition of
s based on the square cross section. It should be corrected that the definition of the
s is

d2
s¼p ð43Þ
4

where d [m] represents the diameter of the wire.

4 Electronics Design

The basis of the electronics design for the current detection model was proposed by
Macintyre in 1980 [21]. Design of the electronics is not only related to the coil
design, but also to reduction of both the environmental magnetic field and electrical
interferences. This section provides some useful tips for the design of this induction
magnetometer for practical use.

4.1 Optimum Design

Figure 13 shows the equivalent circuit of the induction magnetometer. An op-amp

has both an input noise voltage and current density, en [V/Hz1/2] and in [A/Hz1/2],
respectively. Considering both the op-amp noise and thermal noise in the resistance.
Induction Coil Magnetometers 21

Fig. 13 Equivalent circuit of

an induction magnetometer
based on the current detection
model

For example, typical values of a low noise op-amp LT1028 (Linear Technology)
are 0.9 V/Hz1/2 and 1 pA1/2, respectively [36]. The values of both R and Rf cor-
respond to thermal voltage noise source eR [V/Hz1/2] and eRf [V/Hz1/2], respec-
tively. The total voltage noise, Vn [V/Hz1/2], in output voltage is defined by all the
voltage and current noises, which define the noise floor level of the induction
magnetometer, Bmin [T/Hz1/2]:
Vnoise
Bmin ¼ ð44Þ
jVout =l0 H j

where |Vout/µ0H| [V/T] represents the sensitivity of the induction magnetometer

which defined by (13) for low frequency region, II, and (14) high frequency region,
III. They are expressed by
Vout Rf
¼  2p2 na2  f ; for region II; ð45Þ
l0 H R

Vout Rf
¼  pna2 for region III; ð46Þ
l0 H L

From this author’s experiences, the thermal voltage in coil resistance, eR, is
usually main contribution to the noise floor level. For the practical use, the values of
eR and Vnoise could be given by
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
eR ¼ 4kTR ð47Þ

Rf
Vnoise ¼ eR ð48Þ
R

where k [J/K] represents the Boltzman constant (*1.38  10−23) and T [K] rep-
resent the room temperature. The value of (4kT)1/2 could be estimated as
(1/8)  10−9 at room temperature. It should be recommended that the value of
Vnoise should be set larger than 1 µV/Hz1/2 because of the limitation of a
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 CONCLUSION

Constantine’s accession proved to be, like the coming of Alexander,

a turning-point in the history of the world. His so-called conversion
put into the hands of the Catholic Church a weapon for the
suppression of all rivalry, of which she was not slow to make use.
Already in his reign many of the heathen temples were torn
down[1217], and under the rule of his morose and gloomy successor,
Constantius, the work of demolition went on apace[1218]. The
accession of the philosophic Julian gave the worshippers of other
gods than Christ a short respite, and even allowed some of the
temples destroyed in the former reigns to be restored by or at the
expense of the Christians[1219]. Julian’s heroic death in Persia again
threw the crown into the hands of a Christian emperor, whose reign
of seven months gave him little time, as he perhaps had small
inclination, for persecution[1220]; but under his successors Valentinian
and Valens, heathen sacrifices were forbidden under severe
penalties. The end came under Gratian, when the temple estates
were confiscated, the priests and vestals deprived of the stipends
which they had hitherto received from the public treasury, and the
heathen confraternities or colleges were declared incapable of
receiving legacies[1221]. Only a few rich men like the Vettius Agorius
Praetextatus whom we have seen among the worshippers of
Mithras, or the Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, whose learned and
patriotic life has been so well described by Sir Samuel Dill[1222], could
henceforth venture to practise, even with maimed rites, the faiths
condemned by the Court and the Church.
As for the Gnostic sects, which since Hadrian’s time had striven with
such success as we have seen to combine magic and other ancient
beliefs with Christianity, they found but short shrift at the hands of the
triumphant Church. By an edict issued by Constantine before his
own reception into the Church, all their “houses of prayer” were
confiscated for the benefit of the Catholic Church, their meeting even
in private forbidden, and their books seized and burned[1223].

“Thus,” says Eusebius, “were the lurking places of the heretics

broken up by the emperor’s command, and the savage beasts
they have harboured (I mean the chief authors of their impious
doctrines) driven to flight. Of those whom they had deceived,
some, intimidated by the emperor’s threats, disguising their real
feelings, crept secretly into the Church. For since the law
directed that search should be made for their books, those of
them who practised evil and forbidden arts were detected, and
these were ready to secure their own safety by dissimulation of
every kind[1224].”

Throughout the length and breadth of the Roman Empire all but a
very few Roman nobles thus professed the faith of Christ. In the
words of the dying Julian, the Galilaean had conquered.
From this time until our own, Christianity has reigned in the West
with no serious rival. In the VIIth century, when Mahommed’s Arabs,
flushed with the enthusiasm of a new faith which owed something at
least to the relics of Gnosticism, poured in upon an Empire wearied
out alike by perpetual war against the barbarians and by its own civil
and religious dissensions, the Church was compelled to abandon to
them her conquests in Africa and the East. In Europe, however, she
continued in unchecked supremacy, gathering to herself and
assimilating the barbarians who at one time seemed likely to
extinguish all civilization; and she thus became a bond uniting many
nations and languages in one community of faith and thought. She
even succeeded in keeping alive the remains of that Greek art and
learning which still form our best and proudest intellectual
possession, and if during her reign many of the precious monuments
of antiquity perished, the fault was not entirely hers. In every respect,
her rule was supreme; and such enemies as she had in Europe were
those of her own household. The Manichaeans who, as has been
said, once bid fair to deprive her of some of her fairest provinces,
never dared to make open war upon her, and their secret defection
was punished by an unsparing use of the secular arm. The German
Reformation of the XVIth century has probably left her stronger than
before, and the few losses that she has suffered in the Old World
have been more than compensated by the number of lieges she has
succeeded in attaching to herself in the New.
In the days of her infancy, and before she thus came into her
inheritance, Christianity borrowed much from the rivals over which
she was in the long run to reign supreme. Her outward observances,
her ritual, and the organization of her hierarchy, are perhaps all due
to the associations that she finally overcame. The form of her
sacraments, the periods of her fasts and festivals, and institutions
like monachism, cannot be explained without reference to those
religions from whose rivalry she so long suffered. That, in such
matters, the Church should take what was useful to her was, as said
above, part of her consciously expressed policy, and doubtless had
much to do with her speedy triumph. To show that her dogmas also
took many things from the same source would involve an invasion
into the domain of professional theology, for which I have neither
authority nor desire. But if, at some future time, investigation should
show that in this respect also Christianity owes something to her
forerunners and rivals, the argument against her Divine origin would
not thereby be necessarily strengthened. That, in the course of her
development, she acquired characteristics which fitted her to her
environment would be in strict conformity with the laws which appear
to govern the evolution of all institutions; and if the Power ruling the
universe chooses to work by law rather than by what seems to us
like caprice, such a choice does not show Him to be lacking either in
wisdom or benevolence.
As was said at the outset, everyone must be left to place his own
interpretation on the facts here attempted to be set forth. But if, per
impossibile, we could approach the study of the origins of
Christianity with the same mental detachment and freedom from
prejudice with which we might examine the worship of the Syrian
Jupiter Dolichenus or the Scandinavian Odin, we should probably
find that the Primitive Church had no need of the miraculous powers
which were once assigned as the reason for her gradual and steady
advance to all but universal dominion. On the contrary, it may be that
Christianity would then appear as a link—although a most important
and necessary link—in a regular chain of events which began more
than three centuries before she emerged from her birthplace in
Palestine into that Roman world which in three centuries more was
to be hers of right. No sooner had Alexander’s conquests made a
world-religion possible, than there sprang up, as we have seen, in
his own city of Alexandria, a faith with a far higher and purer idea of
Divinity than any that had until then been known in the West. Then
the germs already present in small fraternities like those of the
Orphics and the Essenes blossomed forth into the fantastic and
unwholesome growths, as we must needs think them, of that
Gnosticism which marked the transition of the ancient world from
Paganism to Christianity. Lastly there came in from the countries
under the influence of Rome’s secular enemy, Persia, the heresy of
Marcion, the religion of Mithras, and the syncretistic policy of Manes
and his continuators. Against all these in turn, Christianity had to
struggle in a contest where the victory was not always on her side:
and if in time she overthrew them all, it can only be because she was
better fitted to the needs of the world than any of her predecessors
or contemporaries.
 INDEX

Abel, Ophite story of, ii. 52;

and Manichaean, ii. 304
Aberamenthôu, name used in Magic Papyri and Pistis Sophia, i. 102.
See Jesus, Texts of Saviour
Abiuth, receiver of Ariel in Texts of Saviour, ii. 186
Abraham, named in Mag. Pap., i. 106 n. 6; ii. 34;
an astrologer apud Artapanus, i. 173;
inspired by Ialdabaoth, ii. 53;
Bosom of, in Marcion’s system, ii. 211
Abraxas, in system of Basilides, ii. 90, 92
Abydos, gods of, i. 33 n. 1;
excavations at, i. 36
Achaea, worship of Goddesses Twain in, i. 135;
Cilician pirates deported to, ii. 229
Achaemenides, Persian religion under, i. 122; ii. 234
Achamoth, Sophia of Ophites, ii. 45 n. 1;
called the Mother by Valentinus, ii. 112 n. 3;
the Sophia Without of Valentinus, ii. 117 n. 2;
baptism in name of, by Marcus, ii. 189 n. 1.
See Sophia (2)
Acheron, Isis shining in, i. 60
Achilles, his horror of Hades, i. 59, 150;
his flattery of Zeus, i. 95;
his purification by Ulysses, i. 121 n. 4
Achrammachamari, name of Great Propator in Texts of Saviour and
Mag. Pap., ii. 142 n. 2
Acropolis, sacred things of Eleusis lodged in, i. 39;
Serapeum built opposite, i. 52
Acrostics, use of, in Jewish, Greek and Christian literature, i. 169 n.
1;
in Valentinian epitaph, ii. 129 n. 3
Adam, the protoplast, Ophite story of, ii. 52, 58, 70;
and Manichaean, ii. 299;
and neo-Manichaean, ii. 329
Adam or Adamos, god of Samothrace, i. 139 n. 1; ii. 54 n. 6
Adamas, the Ophite, the First Man or Great Light, ii. 38;
gives birth to Second Man or Son, ibid.;
called Father-and-Son, ii. 39;
androgyne, ii. 40;
forms triad with Holy Spirit, ii. 41 nn. 2, 3;
all things except matter contained in, ii. 44 n. 2, 64;
all light returns to, ii. 65, 80;
called Caulacau, ii. 94 n. 3.
See First Man, Caulacau, Hades
Adamas, king of the Twelve Aeons in Pistis Sophia, his rebellion, ii.
48 n. 4, 152 n. 1;
place of, ii. 137 n. 3;
ruler of Zodiac, ii. 152;
delays redemption of souls, ii. 153;
sends demon in shape of flying arrow, ii. 156;
probably Diabolos or Cosmocrator of Valentinus, ii. 163.
See Sabaoth Adamas
Adamas of the Light, in neo-Manichaeism, ii. 325;
slayer of monster, ii. 329
Adonai, epithet of Zeus in Mag. Pap., i. 106;
in Coptic, ii. 46 n. 3;
son of Ophite Sophia, ii. 47;
ruler of planetary sphere in Diagram, ii. 69;
 meaning of name of, ii. 71 n. 1;
address of soul to, ii. 72
Adonis, wailed for in Athens, temp. Alcibiades, i. 16;
Dying God of Mediterranean, i. 37;
Asiatic form of Dionysos, i. 47;
identified with Osiris, i. 55;
identified with Dionysos by Orphics, i. 137, 145;
identified with Dionysos at Eleusis, i. 139 n. 1;
androgyne, i. 185;
Ophites attend mysteries of, ii. 21, 54;
identified with Phrygian god, ii. 31;
fiend in hell in Texts of Saviour, ii. 186
Advent, the. See Parusia
Aegean, islands of, birthplace of gods, i. 16, 52;
early worship of Alexandrian gods in, i. 52;
and of Eleusinian, ii. 135
Aeinous or Aionios (Everlasting), member of Valentinian Dodecad, ii.
101
Aelius Aristides, quoted, i. 55 n. 2, 58, 60, 64 n. 3; ii. 66 n. 2
Aeon, Thirteenth, highest place of Left in P.S., ii. 143, 150;
Authades would-be ruler of, ii. 151, 153;
first dwelling-place of Pistis Sophia, ii. 155;
place below it made for Pistis Sophia, ii. 155, 156;
Pistis Sophia restored to, ii. 157
Aeons, the Twelve, described, ii. 143, 152, 153;
souls made from tears of rulers of, ii. 153;
Jesus takes away part of their power, ii. 154;
divided into repentant and unrepentant, ii. 182;
the mystery of, in Bruce Papyrus, ii. 195.
See Zodiac
Aerodios, power mentioned in Bruce Papyrus, ii. 191
Aeschines, son of Glaucothea, i. 22;
Demosthenes’ invective against, quoted, i. 138.
 See Sabazius
Aeschylus, quoted, i. 48, 55, 123
Aether, offspring of Time ap. Orphics, i. 123
Afghanistan, included in Persian Empire, i. 1
Africa, political power of priesthoods in, i. 31;
Mithraism in Northern, ii. 230;
christianized Manichaeism of, ii. 339
Agape or Love, supreme God of Diagram, ii. 68, 123 n. 3;
supreme God of Valentinus, ii. 98 n. 1;
feminine member of Valentinian Dodecad, ii. 101;
supreme God of Marcion, ii. 210;
seal of Azrua in neo-Manichaeism, ii. 341.
See Eros
Agdistis, name of androgyne Cybele, ii. 39, 40
Ageratos or Never-ageing, member of Valentinian Decad, ii. 101
Agla, cabalistic word used in mediaeval magic, ii. 139 n. 1
Agra on the Ilissus, mysteries of, i. 41
Agrestius, a clarissimus and high priest of Mithras, ii. 239
Ahnas-el-Medineh or Heracleopolis, mentioned in magic spell, i. 98
Ahriman, Areimanios, or Arimanius, in Bundahish slayer of
Gayômort, i. 126 n. 3;
not entirely evil till Sassanid times, ii. 232, 253;
Magi sacrifice to, ii. 234;
son of Zervan Akerene (Cumont), ii. 236, 252;
altars dedicated to, ii. 239;
Mithras superior to, ii. 240;
in Bundahish slayer of bull Goshurun, ii. 246, 254;
ruler of earth in Mithraism, ii, 255, 256;
modified worship of, in Mithraism, ii. 278;
likeness of representation of, to Manichaean Satan, ii. 291.
See Goshurun
Ahura Mazda, the Omniscient Lord, i. liii;
father of Gayômort, i. lxi;
Supreme Being of Yashts, ii. 231;
his relations to Amshaspands, ii. 232;
in Behistun inscription, ii. 233;
not mentioned in Mithraic monuments, ii. 239;
in Bundahish, ii. 246;
replaced by Jupiter O.M. in Mithraism, ii. 246;
worship of, restored by Ardeshîr, ii. 284
Ailoaios or Eloaeus, ruler of planetary sphere in Diagram, ii. 69, 70 n.
2, 74 n. 3;
address to, ii. 73;
sphere of Venus, 74 n. 1
Akae, cryptographic name in Book of Enoch, i. 169, 170
Akinetos or Immovable, member of Valentinian Decad, ii. 101
Albigenses, successors of Manichaeans, ii. 357
Al-Bîrûnî, quoted, ii. 279, 280, 283, 284, 286 n. 1, 307
Alcibiades, goes to Susa, i. 7;
Adonis wailed for when Sicilian expedition of, sails, i. 16
Alcmaeon of Crotona, calls stars gods, i. 186 n. 2
Aldabeim, name of sun in Mag. Pap., ii. 46 n. 3
Aletheia, member of 1st Valentinian syzygy, ii. 98
Alexander of Abonoteichos, his impostures, i. 24;
comes to Rome under Marcus Aurelius, ii. 203
Alexander, King of Epirus, Asoka’s mission to, i. 20
Alexander the Great, his conquests hellenize Mediterranean Basin, i.
lviii;
the world before and after, i. 1 sqq.;
greatest individual in history, i. 4, 12 sqq.;
his aims and achievements, i. 5-8, 26-27;
his deification explained, i. 18;
religious associations follow conquests of, i. 22-26 sqq.;
 his work in Egypt, i. 29, 44;
his probable plans for universal religion, i. 30;
breaks down national barriers, i. 54, 107;
makes world-religions possible, i. 111;
his conduct towards Jews, i. 150;
re-settles Samaria, i. 177;
son of Zeus in serpent form, ii. 49;
his effect on cosmology and ethics, ii. 86;
consoled by Anaxarchus for death of Clitus, ii. 87.
See India
Alexander, bishop of Lycopolis, quoted, ii. 294 n. 2, 295 n. 2.
Alexander Severus, the Emperor, gods in lararium of, i. 82;
his success against Persians, ii. 226
Alexander the Valentinian, leader of Anatolic School, ii. 119
Alexandria, its foundation by Alexander, i. 5;
its importance not at first recognized, i. 28;
Sema of Alexander at, i. 30;
a Greek city, i. 44;
Serapeum of, i. 48, 51, 58 n. 1;
oracle of Serapis at, i. 77;
worship of Serapis at, i. 82 n. 2, 86;
destruction of temples at, by Theodosius, i. 83, 84;
Hadrian’s opinion of, i. 86;
early Gnostics start from, i. 111; ii. 8;
Orphics plentiful at, i. 156;
Simon Magus’ doctrines at, i. 198; ii. 89;
intellectual centre of Roman world, ii. 88;
Basilides teaches at, ii. 90
Alfenius Julianus Kumenius, clarissimus and priest of Mithras, ii. 268
Allat, the goddess, Ereshkigal an epithet of, i. 100
Alleius Craeonius, author on magic, i. 105
Amazons, the story of, suggests bisexual deity, ii. 40
Ambrose of Milan, convert from Valentinianism, i. 112 n. 1; ii. 21 n. 5;
 his date, ii. 132 n. 2
Amélineau, E., translates Pistis Sophia, ii. 13;
translates Bruce Papyrus, ii, 190;
his date for Bruce Papyrus, ii. 194;
quoted, ii. 178, 191, 192, 193, 195
Amen of Thebes, the god, father of Alexander, i. 18;
priesthood of, i. 23, 31 sqq.;
Ptolemies raise temples to, i. 52
Amenhotep IV, King of Egypt, failure of monotheistic teaching of, i.
11;
priests of Amen crush heresy of, i. 31
Amens, the Three, powers mentioned in P.S., ii. 142;
and in Bruce Papyrus, ii. 193
Amens, the Seven, powers mentioned in P.S., ii. 141;
and in Bruce Papyrus, ii. 193
Amenti, the god called Lord of, i. 33;
Osiris the bull of, i. 45, 102;
Jesus the conqueror of, i. 102 n. 1;
a hell in Texts of Saviour, ii. 182, 186;
horrors of Egyptian, ii. 196.
See Aberamenthôu, Jesus, Khent-Amentit
Ameretât or Immortality, one of the Amshaspands, i. 181 n. 1; ii. 324
n. 4, 355.
See Appellant and Respondent
Amitrochates, son of Chandragupta, his desire for Greek learning, i.
8 n. 3
Amon. See Amen of Thebes
Amos, the Prophet, inspired by Ialdabaoth ap. Ophites, ii. 81 n. 2
Amshaspands, the Seven, and the Seven Planets, i. 117;
names of, i. 181, n. 1; ii. 103 n. 3;
likeness of, to “roots” of Simon Magus, ii. 103 n. 3;
and to Aeons of Valentinus, ii. 103 n. 3;
 in Avesta, ii. 232;
absent from early Manichaeism, ii. 327 n. 4;
mention of, in neo-Manichaeism, ii. 330, 355
Anat, the goddess, assessor of Yahweh, ii. 32 n. 4
Anatolia, its religious peculiarities temp. Christ, ii. 28 sqq., 77;
its worship of double axe, 67 n. 3
Anaxarchus the Atomist philosopher, consoles Alexander after death
of Clitus, ii. 87
Ancient of Days, name of Valentinian Ialdabaoth, ii. 107 n. 2
Andrew the Apostle, Saint, name of, shows predilection of Jews for
Greek names, i. 173 n. 2;
mentioned in Pistis Sophia, ii. 157
Anebo, letter of Porphyry to, for threats of Egyptian magicians to
gods, i. 104 n. 3
Angels, Essenes sworn to preserve the names of, i. 153, 157;
no names of, in O.T., until Daniel, i. 158;
rulers over tribes of demons, ibid.;
sinning, cast into abyss of fire (Baruch), i. 165;
Ennoia produces world-making, ap. Simon M., i. 187;
patterns after which worlds made (Philo), i. 187 n. 3;
world to be freed from rule of, ap. Simon, i. 196;
Simonians say God of Jews one of world-making (Epiphanius), i.
199;
seven heavens are also, ap. Valentinians (Irenaeus), ii. 107 n. 4;
are Logoi sent into soul by Jesus and Sophia, ii. 110;
souls after death, brides of, ibid.;
terror of angels at speech of man (Valentinus), ii. 112 n. 3;
Archons of Adamas in Texts of Saviour beget, ii, 152 n. 1;
Splenditenens and Atlas of Manichaeism, ii. 297, 298.
See Enoch, Gabriel, Great Council, Michael, Tertullian
Annu or On, Egyptian name of Heliopolis and chief seat of worship of
Râ, i. 31
Anthesteria, ceremonies of, show resurrection and marriage of
Dionysos, i. 42
Anthropos, member of 3rd Valentinian syzygy, ii. 98
Antigonus Monophthalmos, King of Syria, his retort when hailed as a
god, i. 19;
Phrygia occupied alternately by him and Lysimachus, ii. 29
Antigonus Gonatas, King of Macedonia, mission of Asoka to, i. 20.
See Tarn
Antinous, death of, fixes date of Hadrian’s letter to Servian, i. 86 n. 5
Antioch, worship of Serapis at, i. 35;
birthplace of Carpocrates, i. 111;
and of Saturninus, ii. 9, 89
Antiochus I Soter, King of Syria, mission of Asoka to, i. 20
Antiochus III the Great, King of Syria, seizes Palestine, i. 151;
transports Jewish families to Anatolia, ii. 28
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, King of Syria, attempts to hellenize Jews, i.
151, 156, 162, 163;
Book of Daniel written temp., i. 158;
caught between Romans and Parthians, i. 160;
his mystic antagonist Taxo, i. 170;
Samaritans accept reforms of, i. 177
Antitheses, the. See Marcion
Antonines, the, Isis-worship at its apogee temp., i. 54, 81
Antoninus Pius, the Emperor, Simonians in Rome temp., i. 199
Anubis, the god, son of Osiris and Nephthys, i. 35;
tribal deity of jackal totem, i. 36;
his seeking for Osiris in Rome, i. 70;
in procession at Cenchreae, i. 72;
mask of, used as disguise, i. 78.
See Marcus Volusius
Apelles, the Marcionite, his tenets, ii. 218
Apep, the serpent, enemy of the sun-god Ra, ii. 78
Aphrodite, the goddess, worshipped under other names by
confraternities, i. 25;
and Adonis, i. 37; ii. 31;
daughter of Zeus, i. 124 n. 3;
identified by Orphics with Isis and others, i. 137 n. 1;
Orphic hymn to, i. 142 n. 2;
called Cytheraea, i. 143;
the Mother of the Gods in Cyprus, ii. 40;
called Mother of All Living in Asia, ii. 135 n. 3;
on Mithraic monuments, ii. 238.
See Venus
Apis, the “life” of Osiris, i. 32, 45, 49
Apocalypse of St John, the, its date, ii. 26 n. 3;
quoted, i. 145 n. 1, 158, 169, 182 n. 4; ii. 4 n. 1, 25
Apocatastasis, return of the worlds to God, an Ophite doctrine, ii. 42,
57
Apollo, the god, his birthplace, i. 16;
identified with Horus, i. 48, 63;
his contempt for mankind, i. 57;
his place in Orphic legend, i. 125, 147;
on Mithraic monuments, ii. 238;
distinct from Helios, i. 240;
worship of, under Julian, i. 269
Apollonius of Tyana, image of, in Alexander Severus’ lararium, i. 82
Apophasis of Simon Magus, the, described, i. 179;
quoted, i. 182, 188, 189, 193, 194; ii. 90 n. 5
Apostles, demand only faith from converts, i. lvii;
do not borrow from earlier creeds, i. 88;
their meeting with Simon Magus, i. 176, 177;
in Clementines, i. 178;
intolerance of, due to Jewish origin (Bouché-Leclercq), ii. 10;
souls of, in P.S. drawn from Treasure-house, ii. 137, 147
Apostolical Constitutions, their date, ii. 7 n. 2;
quoted, i. 87 n. 1; ii. 7 nn. 2, 3, 219 n. 2
Appellant and Respondent gods, the, in neo-Manichaeism, ii. 302 n.
1, 324, 343, 354, 355
Apuat, the god, “opener of the ways,” i. 33
Apuleius of Madaura, quoted, i. 56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
68, 71, 73-74, 75, 77, 86 n. 3, 101 n. 2
Aramati, the Vedic goddess, identified with Spenta Armaiti of the
Avesta, ii. 45 n. 1, 300 n. 2
Ararat or Ararad, Mt, Books of Jeû hidden in, ii. 147 n. 5
Arbela, Greek troops on Persian side at, i. 7;
Alexander’s pursuit after, i. 13
Arcadia, Eleusinian triad worshipped in, i. 135
Arcadius, the Emperor, Church dedicated to, in place of Serapeum, i.
84
Archelai Acta. See Hegemonius
Archimedes, his calculation of places of stars sinful (Hippolytus), i.
112 n. 2
Architect of the Universe. See Demiurge
Archon, the Great, of Basilides, the Demiurge, ii. 91;
likeness of, to Ialdabaoth, ii. 94
Archontics, the, a sect related to the Ophites, ii. 77
Arctinus of Miletus, first Greek author to mention purification, i. 121
n. 4
Arctos, the Great Bear, in Mithraism, ii. 266
Arda viraf namak, the, quoted, ii. 264 n. 5
Ardeshîr, the Shah, restorer of Persian nationality, ii. 226, 282;
his son Peroz converted to Manichaeism, ii. 281;
restores worship of Ahura Mazda, ii. 284
Ares, the god, identified with Roman Mars, i. 17;
Homeric or Orphic hymn to, i. 141 n. 2, 142 n. 2;
on Mithraic monuments, ii. 238
Argolis, the, Eleusinian triad worshipped in, i. 135
Ariel, a fiend in Texts of Saviour, ii. 186
Arimaspi, the, fables concerning, i. 2 n. 1
Aristaeus, pro-Jewish writer, i. 173
Aristides. See Aelius Aristides
Aristides, Christian apologist, ii. 203, 204 n. 1
Aristion, Athenian courtezan member of religious confraternity, i. 22
Aristophanes, quoted, i. 17 n. 1, 40 n. 4, 124, 137;
scholiast on, i. 17 n. 1
Aristotle, his monotheism, i. 10;
says that religion follows form of government, i. 12, 15;
that Orpheus did not exist, i. 121 n. 1
Armageddon, covers name of Rome, i. 170 n. 5
Armenia, Ophites in, ii. 76;
kings of, claim descent from Persian heroes, ii. 225 n. 1;
Marcionites and Bardesanites in, ii. 283;
invasion of, by Mihr Nerses, ii. 285
Arnobius, adv. Gentes, quoted, i. 124 n. 3; ii. 39 nn. 2, 4, 264 n. 5
Arrian, Anabasis, quoted, i. 4 n. 1
Arsaces, founder of Parthian kingdom, ii. 224
Arsinoe, wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus, i. 18
Artapanus, On the Jews, quoted, i. 173
Artemis, the goddess, the Ephesian, i. lvi, 40;
birthplace of Greek, i. 16;
Indian worship of, i. 17;
Orthia, i. 100 n. 2;
priestesses of Ephesian, called bees, i. 143 n. 4;
 Phrygian, ii. 67 n. 3;
on Mithraic monuments, ii. 238.
See Diana
Aryans, their dealings with lower races, i. 3, 92
Asar-hapi, Osiris as Apis, i. 49
Asha Vashishta or Truth, the Amshaspand, i. 181 n. 1
Asia, before Alexander, i. 1;
made Greek by Alexander, i. 5;
rush of Greeks to, i. 7;
Greek spoken throughout, i. 8;
cruelty of Assyrian domination in, i. 12;
returns to Persian ways, ii. 225
Asia Minor, native religions of, i. lviii, 37, 126; ii. 29, 36, 49, 67 n. 3;
gods of, coalesce with Greek, i. 17;
home of Dionysos worship, i. 43 n. 3;
Alexandrian gods worshipped in, i. 53;
Vedic gods worshipped in, i. 122 n. 3;
Eleusinian gods worshipped in, i. 136;
Orphics in, i. 141, 156; ii. 236;
priestesses called bees in, i. 143 n. 4;
Jewish atrocities in, temp. Trajan, i. 173 n. 1;
Ophite heresy probably native to, ii. 26, 76;
Jewish settlements in, ii. 28;
Jewish magicians in, temp. Apostles, ii. 33;
matriarchate in, ii. 40;
Babylonian culture in, ii. 48;
serpent worship in, ii. 49, 77, 78;
reverts to Persian ways, ii. 225;
Mithraism in, ii. 229, 232, 268
Askew, Dr, sells Pistis Sophia to British Museum, ii. 134
Asklepios or Aesculapius, the god, Alexander of Abonoteichos priest
of, i. 24;
Serapis statue that of, i. 48 n. 3, 78 n. 2;
identified with Serapis, i. 78, 87
Aso, the Ethiopian queen, enemy of Osiris, i. 33, 37 n. 1
Asoka, his missions to Greek kings, i. 20
Assur-bani-pal, King of Assyria, his library at Kuyunjik, i. 94, 114
Assyria, penitential psalms of, i. 115;
Jews tributary to, i. 160 n. 4
Assyrians, the, tyranny of, i. 3;
suzerains of Hebrews, i. 150;
name used for Syrians in Christian times, ii. 53 n. 4, 54 n. 6;
worship of Mylitta by (Herodotus), ii. 234
Astaphaios or Astaphaeus, ruler of planetary sphere in Diagram, ii.
47;
name derived from magic (Origen), ii. 47, 48;
once called Astanpheus, ii. 47, 69 n.
lord of third gate, ii. 70 n. 2, 73, 74 n. 3;
address to, ii. 73
Astarte, the goddess, worship of, brought into Greece, i. 17;
worshipped by Greek confraternity, i. 25;
Phoenician form of earth goddess, i. 126;
dove, totem-animal of, ii. 135 n. 3;
Mater Viventium, ibid.
Astrampsuchos, name of Roman writer on magic, i. 107;
name of celestial guard in Bruce Papyrus, i. 107 n. 1;
power worshipped by the Peratae, ibid.
Astrology, origin of, in Chaldaea, i. 113;
fundamental idea of, i. 114;
system of correspondences results from, i. 115, 116;
impulse given to, by Greek mathematics, i. 116, 117;
all religions in Graeco-Roman world take note of, i. 117, 118;
gives new life to Gnosticism, i. 119;
Ophites mix astrological ideas with Orphic teaching, ii. 78;
first prominent in Gnosticism in Excerpta Theodoti, ii. 158 n. 1;
its great vogue in Rome under Severi, ibid.;
reprobated in Pistis Sophia, ii. 185;
 part of scheme of punishments and salvation in Texts of Saviour,
ii. 185 n. 2;
its importance in Mithraism, ii. 235, 276.
See Babylonia
Atargatis or Dea Syria, favourite deity of Nero, ii. 31;
her Anatolian name and identification with other goddesses, ii. 31
n. 1;
homonym of Derketo (Garstang), ii. 40 n. 1;
her identity with the Mother of the Gods, ii. 299 n. 1;
Manichaean Mother of Life derived from, ii. 300 n. 2
Athamas the Pythagorean, his doctrine of “roots,” i. 197
Athanasius, Saint, creed of, i. 89
Athena, the goddess, identified with Minerva, i. 17;
her part in Eleusinian Mysteries, i. 39;
the Homeric, i. 57, 95, 124 n. 3;
statue of Helena of Tyre as, i. 198;
on Mithraic monuments, ii. 238.
See Minerva, Pallas
Athenagoras, quoted, i. lvii n. 1, 63 n. 5, 64 n. 3; ii. 18 n. 2
Athens, foreign worships in, i. 16, 17 n. 1, 137;
accepts deification of Alexander, i. 18;
gathering in, for Eleusinian Mysteries, i. 38-41;
Alexandrian religion in, i. 52, 76;
Orphic myths brought into, by Epimenides, i, 121;
Orphic gold plates in Museum at, i. 132
Athos Mt, Philosophumena discovered at, ii. 11
Atlas. See Corybas, Omophorus
Attis or Atys, the god, his worship brought into Greece, i. 17, 136;
his legend, i. 37; ii. 39;
identified with Sun, i. 118;
and with Dionysos, Adonis and Osiris, i. 137 n. 1, 145; ii. 17;
and with Sabazius, i. 138, 139;
androgyne, i. 185;
 Gnostics attend mysteries of, ii. 21;
Phrygia, home of worship of, ii. 28, 67 n. 3;
to Ophites, type of world-soul, ii. 65 n. 3
Augustine of Hippo, Saint, convert from Manichaeism, i. 112 n. 1;
well informed about Manichaeans, ii. 352;
quoted, i. 103 n. 4; ii. 10 n. 1, 12 n. 4, 25, 261, 298 n. 1, 317, 319,
331, 332, 343, 346, 349 n. 4, 350
Augustus, the Emperor, Samaria’s capital named Sebaste in honour
of, i. 177;
Galatians become Roman temp., ii. 28;
Parthians’ terror of (Horace), ii. 225
Aurelian, the Emperor, his worship of sun-god, i. 119 n. 1; ii. 228;
position of Christianity under, ii. 23;
restores Roman arms in the East, ii. 226;
gives up Dacia to Goths, ii. 271
Authades, the Proud God of the Pistis Sophia, last member of Triad
of the Left, ii. 151;
his disobedience, ii. 152;
his envy of Pistis Sophia, ii. 155;
sends demon in shape of flying arrow, ii. 156;
his place given to Pistis Sophia, ii. 162
Autogenes, power mentioned in Bruce Papyrus, ii. 192
Autophyes or Self-produced, member of Valentinian Decad, ii. 101
Avebury, Lord, quoted, i. 91, 99 n. 1
Avesta, the Zend, Seven Amshaspands of, i. 117;
emanation doctrine in, ii. 35;
First Man in, ii. 38 n. 3;
Supreme Being in, ii. 231;
Ormuzd and Ahriman in, ii. 236;
bull Goshurun in, ii. 243;
denounces magic, ii. 275 n. 2;
doubtful about eternity of evil, ii. 289;
quoted, ii. 310, 311.