Lean Engineering for Global

Development Anabela Carvalho Alves

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/lean-engineering-for-global-development-anabela-car
valho-alves/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Lean Education: An Overview of Current Issues 1st

Edition Anabela Carvalho Alves

https://textbookfull.com/product/lean-education-an-overview-of-
current-issues-1st-edition-anabela-carvalho-alves/

Lean Game Development : Apply Lean Frameworks to the

Process of Game Development 1st Edition Julia Naomi
Rosenfield Boeira (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/lean-game-development-apply-
lean-frameworks-to-the-process-of-game-development-1st-edition-
julia-naomi-rosenfield-boeira-auth/

Lean Six Sigma and statistical tools for engineers and

engineering managers First Edition Ding

https://textbookfull.com/product/lean-six-sigma-and-statistical-
tools-for-engineers-and-engineering-managers-first-edition-ding/

Doing business in emerging markets roadmap for success

Alves

https://textbookfull.com/product/doing-business-in-emerging-
markets-roadmap-for-success-alves/
The Lean Book of Lean: A Concise Guide to Lean
Management for Life and Business 1st Edition John
Earley

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-lean-book-of-lean-a-concise-
guide-to-lean-management-for-life-and-business-1st-edition-john-
earley/

SEO Basics Learn the Secrets of the Search Engines 1st

Edition Eliel Carvalho [Carvalho

https://textbookfull.com/product/seo-basics-learn-the-secrets-of-
the-search-engines-1st-edition-eliel-carvalho-carvalho/

SAFe 4 5 reference guide scaled agile framework for

lean software and systems engineering Second Edition
Leffingwell

https://textbookfull.com/product/safe-4-5-reference-guide-scaled-
agile-framework-for-lean-software-and-systems-engineering-second-
edition-leffingwell/

Global Lean for Higher Education A Themed Anthology of

Case Studies Approaches and Tools 1st Edition Stephen
Yorkstone (Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/global-lean-for-higher-
education-a-themed-anthology-of-case-studies-approaches-and-
tools-1st-edition-stephen-yorkstone-editor/

Global Nonlinear Dynamics for Engineering Design and

System Safety Stefano Lenci

https://textbookfull.com/product/global-nonlinear-dynamics-for-
engineering-design-and-system-safety-stefano-lenci/
Anabela Carvalho Alves ·
Franz-Josef Kahlen · Shannon Flumerfelt ·
Anna Bella Siriban-Manalang Editors

Lean
Engineering
for Global
Development
Lean Engineering for Global Development
Anabela Carvalho Alves•

Franz-Josef Kahlen Shannon Flumerfelt

• •

Anna Bella Siriban-Manalang

Editors

Lean Engineering for Global

Development

123
Editors
Anabela Carvalho Alves Franz-Josef Kahlen
ALGORITMI R&D Center, Department of Kahlen Global Professional Solutions
Production and Systems Gronau, Germany
University of Minho, Campus of Azurém
Guimaraes, Portugal Anna Bella Siriban-Manalang
Resources, Environment and Economics
Shannon Flumerfelt Center for Studies
Oakland University Makati City, Philippines
Rochester, MI, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-13514-0 ISBN 978-3-030-13515-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13515-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019931823

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Lean Thinking for Sustainable Development

Currently, it is a fact that Lean Production (LP) is a popularized term. A Google

search by this term returned 183,000,000 results (0.45 s). Nevertheless, for the
scientific community what matters are the publications in the most famous and
indexed databases. Therefore, a simple search by the same term in all fields in the
Scopus database returned 11,860 documents and 2853 results as a topic from all
databases in the Web of Science. This could exponentially increase if other similar
designations such as Lean Manufacturing and/or Lean Management, were used.
Nevertheless, the authors point here is to show that Lean production comes to stay
and it is not a “fashion word” or “common sense” as some academy teachers seems
to continue in believing and refuse to credit Lean Production as a scientific subject.
Thus, the practitioner and academic community had been contributing for the
growth and spread of Lean over the past 25 years as Samuel et al. (2015) published.
Other literature reviews reported the same (Bhamu and Sangwan 2014; Jasti and
Kodali 2015; Negrão et al. 2016; Panizzolo et al. 2012; Silva et al. 2010; Stone
2012; Wong et al. 2009). Even in Journals that are not expected to contain Lean
Production related papers, they appear, such as in International Journal of Pure and
Applied Mathematics (Touhidul Islam et al. 2018).
A long way has been journeyed since Toyota Production System (TPS) man-
agers (Monden 1998; Ohno 1988; Shingo 1981) so much so that due to the eco-
nomic and structural conditions at that time, thought leaders were forced to think
differently from the Ford System they saw in the US. Their JIT and Jidoka pillars
were created to pull from the client just what the client is willing to pay without any
wastes, i.e., assurance that the products were waste free. For this, employees need to
have a different attitude, they had to “pull de cord” when needed, i.e., stop to fix the
problems. So, their hands as well as their heads (minds) should be focused on the
activities they were doing, they must be involved and aligned all the time.
At the same time, overproduction, one of seven identified wastes by Ohno
(1988) is prohibited because it consumes more than needed, polluting more than

v
vi Preface

needed, implying more activities than needed, being the cause of all other wastes
(more transports, more motion, more stocks, overprocessing). Furthermore, more
employees stress push them to unwanted muri and mura, overburden and vari-
ability. Consequently, main key idea in TPS is “doing more with less” (Krafcik
1988; Womack et al. 1990).
Aligned with this idea, is the “creating more value with less impact” of
eco-efficient systems. This concept was first published by Stephan Schmidheiny
from Business Council of Sustainable Development (BCSD) in 1992 (Brundtland
1987). It was defined as “delivery of competitively priced goods and services that
satisfy human needs and bring quality of life, while progressively reducing eco-
logical impacts and resource intensity throughout the life cycle, to a level at least in
line with the earths estimated carrying capacity” (WBCSD 1996, p. 4). When
effectively achieved, an eco-efficient system will allow to attain the business goal of
sustainable development (Brundtland 1987, p. 51), a concept that in the 60s has
been used in a more or less interchangeable way with sustainability (Alves and
Colombo 2017).
Sustainability is the word of the moment and a Google search allow to
obtain 705,000,000 results in just 0.52 s. Sustainability integrates the Economic,
Environmental, and Social Responsibility dimensions that must be balanced in
order to have the sustainable development. The need to balance economy, ecology,
and equity, also called “Triple Bottom Line” (TBL), or “3P” (Profit, Planet, and
People) is fundamental to obtain sustainable development and reach the final goal
of sustainability.
To provide a common and global agenda to achieve sustainable development,
the United Nations Development Programme set 17 global goals: (1) No Poverty;
(2) Zero Hunger; (3) Good Health and Well-being; (4) Quality Education;
(5) Gender Equality; (6) Clean Water and Sanitation; (7) Affordable and Clean
Energy; (8) Decent Work and Economic Growth; (9) Industry, Innovation, and
Infrastructure; (10) Reduced Inequality; (11) Sustainable Cities and Communities;
(12) Responsible Consumption and Production; (13) Climate Action; (14) Life
Below Water; (15) Life on Land; (16) Peace and Justice Strong Institutions and
(17) Partnerships to Achieve the Goal (United Nations Development Programme
2015).
Successive Industrial Revolutions have been providing society with all they
need, achieving some of the sustainable goals, at least, to a part of the world, by
reducing poverty and hunger. Nevertheless, these same Industrial Revolutions
retrieve more from the planet than it has, and its resources are exhausted and
polluted. Life becomes unsustainable in too many parts of the world, due to climate
changes, environmental degradation, and due to human hand (e.g., wars, conflicts,
and overconsumption). Inequalities, of all kinds, were never so present and visible.
People from the developed world is accustomed to have more than they need and to
think sources are not exhaustible. To achieve SDG, first of all this way of thinking
must change in producers and consumers minds.
The editors of this volume believe that Lean Thinking principles applied in
companies, organizations (profit or nonprofit), schools, public administration will
Preface vii

furnish a different culture. By educating future professionals in these principles,

they will develop system-thinking, ethics, and sustainability competencies (Alves
et al. 2017; Flumerfelt et al. 2015). Attending to this, the editors invited some
recognized authors to contribute for this volume by delivering chapters that provide
a theoretical or empirical application of Lean Thinking and rationale as to how it
contributes to improved sustainability. All chapters should describe how the
application of Lean principles and strategies either creates and/or ensures sustain-
able development of a practice or theory for better results in a given sector.
This volume is the result of these chapters. The volume is constituted by 9–13
Chapters that include case studies, literature reviews, and models. The editors
organized the volume starting by presenting a literature review about Lean case
studies and surveys that prove the globalization of Lean Thinking principles
(Amaro et al.). After this, two models (Messaoudene and Sawhney et al.) about
learning Lean, one in a Higher Education Institution and other in professional
environment are presented. They have in common the need to consider learning
problem-solving skills. This directly impact quality education goal by providing
people relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment,
decent jobs, and entrepreneurship and all learners acquire the knowledge and skills
needed to promote sustainable development.
The fourth chapter is also about people, mainly, people work conditions (Brito
et al.). This is first focused in providing decent work and economic growth by
promoting safe and secure working environments for all workers and achieving full
and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for
young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value.
In spite of some controversial ideas of some authors (Arezes et al. 2015), when
Lean is well-implemented, it brings enormous benefits to the employees’ ergonomic
work conditions. The literature review of this chapter presents also how Industry
4.0 (Kagermann et al. 2013) could help on this. Industry 4.0 effects to Lean
facilitation and Lean as facilitator of Industry 4.0 implementation is the theme of
chapter from Bittencourt et al. that provides a systematic literature review of this
relationship.
The three following chapters are case studies (Tenera et al.; Manalang et al.;
Dieste and Panizzolo) about how some companies increase sustainability outcomes
of their systems by implementing Lean Thinking principles and tools. These case
studies show how Lean Production directly impacts responsible consumption and
production and help to build resilient infrastructure, promoting sustainable indus-
trialization. Also, this LP implementation will substantially reduce waste generation
through prevention, making industries sustainable, with increased resource-use
efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies
and industrial processes.
Chapters from Abreu et al. and Carvalho et al. are two chapters that present
Lean-Green indexes that intend to measure the Lean-Green practices in companies.
This is important to evaluate and compare green practices. This implies to measure
and monitor some relevant indicators related with sustainability (key environmental
performance indicators—KEPI) that, many times, are unknown. In the context of
viii Preface

responsible consumption and production, Goal 12, companies are encouraged to

adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their
reporting cycle. To achieve this goal, Maia et al. described some projects developed
and in development in the Portuguese Textile and Clothing Industry.
Industry supplies cities and communities that should also be responsible and
have their share of sustainability responsibility and Goal 11 is about Sustainable
Cities and Communities. Chapter by Week presents a model of a sustainable city by
applying Lean Thinking principles. The volume is concluded with a Lean
Leadership chapter by Flumerfelt and Wenson (2018) that highlight the importance
of Lean Leadership to fulfill the companies’ sustainability responsibilities.
The editors conclude this preface by referring to the additional dimensions of
sustainability discussed by some authors (Alves and Colombo 2017; Pappas 2012;
Pappas et al. 2015). They are Technical or Technological, Individual; Relational or
Convivial, Territorial or Geographical, and Epistemological. Though they seem
similar to the ones already presented (Economic, Environmental, and Social), these
reinforce the need to better frame others’ contexts when teaching sustainability.
Namely, the Epistemological dimension builds on the notion that results and net-
works of production, application, and dissemination of knowledge can be essential
means for social development, inclusion, and innovation, generating new possi-
bilities and challenges. This dimension is focused on the need to promote, deepen,
and nurture the relations between the different producers, disseminators, and/or
users of knowledge. It should be noted that, although generally assumed as pro-
ducers and holders of knowledge are those who belong to academia and other actors
in the scientific community, within the scope proposed here, it is understood that
knowledge is also generated in other contexts and actors outside this community
(Colombo et al. 2017). The editors felt that it is their obligation to bring companies’
experience (case studies) and to spread the importance of thinking Lean and how
this lead society to the Sustainable Development because Lean Thinking is a dif-
ferent mind-set, one that could provide the solutions to solve the sustainability
paradox (Rotmans 2006).

References

Alves, A. C., & Colombo, C. R. (2017). Introducing sustainability in engineering education

curricula: An achievable outcome or a utopia? In Proceedings of the 45th SEFI Annual
Conference 2017—Education Excellence for Sustainability, SEFI 2017 (pp. 95–103).
Alves, A. C., Flumerfelt, S., & Kahlen, F.-J. (2017). Lean education: An overview of current
issues. In A. C. Alves, S. Flumerfelt, & F.-J. Kahlen (Eds.), Lean education: An overview of
current issues. Cham: Springer International Publishing. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-
45830-4.
Arezes, P. M., Dinis-Carvalho, J., & Alves, A. C. (2015). Workplace ergonomics in lean pro-
duction environments: A literature review. Work, 52(1), 57–70. http://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-
141941.
Preface ix

Bhamu, J., & Sangwan, K. S. (2014). Lean manufacturing: Literature review and research issues.
International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 34(7), 876–940.
Brundtland, G. H. (1987). Our common future. Oxford paperbacks. World Commission on
Environment and Development. http://doi.org/10.2307/633499.
Colombo, C. R., Caires, S., & Alves, A. C. (2017). In N. Prelo (Ed.), Universidade Cidadã:
Entendendo e Construindo Conceitos rumo a um Novo Paradigma de Responsabilidade Social
Universitária. Porto, PT.
Flumerfelt, S., Kahlen, F.-J., Alves, A. C., & Siriban-Manalang, A. B. (2015). Lean engineering
education: Driving content and competency mastery. ASME Press.
Jasti, N. V. K., & Kodali, R. (2015). Lean production: Literature review and trends. International
Journal of Production Research, 53(3), 867–885. http://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2014.
937508.
Kagermann, H., Wahlster, W., & Helbig, J. (2013). Recommendations for implementing the
strategic initiative INDUSTRIE 4.0. München.
Krafcik, J. F. (1988). Triumph of the lean production system. Sloan Management Review, 30(1),
41–52.
Monden, Y. (1998). Toyota production system: An integrated approach to just-in-time (3rd ed.).
Engineering and Management Press.
Negrão, L. L. L., Godinho Filho, M., & Marodin, G. (2016). Lean practices and their effect on
performance: A literature review. Production Planning & Control, 28(1), 1–24. http://doi.org/
10.1080/09537287.2016.1231853.
Ohno, T. (1988). Toyota production system: Beyond large-scale production. Portland:
Productivity Press.
Panizzolo, R., Garengo, P., Sharma, M. K., & Gore, A. (2012). Lean manufacturing in developing
countries: Evidence from Indian SMEs. Production Planning & Control: The Management of
Operations, 23(10–11), 769–788.
Pappas, E. (2012). A new system approach to sustainability: University responsibility for teaching
sustainability in contexts. Journal of Sustainability Education, 3.
Pappas, E., Pappas, J., & Sweeney, D. (2015). Walking the walk: Conceptual foundations of the
sustainable personality. Journal of Cleaner Production, 86. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.
2014.08.077.
Rotmans, J. (2006). Tools for integrated sustainability assessment: A two-track approach. The
Integrated Assessment Journal, 6(4), 35–57. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/
18518367.pdf.
Samuel, D., Found, P., & Williams, J. S. (2015). How did the publication of the book The Machine
That Changed The World change management thinking? Exploring 25 years of lean literature.
35(10), 1386–1407. http://doi.org/10.1108/02683940010305270.
Shingo, S. (1981). Study of the Toyota production system from an industrial engineering
viewpoint.
Silva, C., Tantardini, M., Staudacher, A. P., & Salviano, K. (2010). Lean production implemen-
tation: A survey in Portugal and a comparison of results with Italian, UK and USA companies.
In R. Sousa, C. Portela, S. S. Pinto, H. Correia (Eds.), Proceedings of 17th International
Annual EurOMA Conference—Managing Operations in Service Economics, Universidade
Católica Portuguesa, 6–9 June, Porto, Portugal (pp. 1–10).
Stone, K. B. (2012). Four decades of lean: A systematic literature review. International Journal of
Lean Six Sigma, 3(2), 112–132. http://doi.org/10.1108/20401461211243702.
Touhidul Islam, A. S. M., Sorooshian, S., Rahamaddulla, S. R., & Mustafa, S. B. (2018).
Standardizing the concept of lean: A literature review. International Journal of Pure and
Applied Mathematics, 119(15), 2089–2094.
United Nations Development Programme. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for
sustainable development.
x Preface

WBCSD. (1996). Eco-efficiency and cleaner production: Charting the course to sustainability.
UNEP Environment Programme.
Womack, J., Jones, D. T., & Roos, D. (1990). The machine that changed the world: The story of
lean production. New York: Rawson Associates.
Wong, Y. C., Wong, K. Y., & Ali, A. (2009). A Study on lean manufacturing implementation in
the Malaysian electrical and electronics industry. European Journal of Scientific Research, 38
(4), 521–535.
Contents

Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management

Philosophy to Achieve Sustainability Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Paulo Amaro, Anabela Carvalho Alves and Rui M. Sousa
Lean Thinking as a Learning Strategy at the Service
of Global Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Zahir Messaoudene
Teaching Sustainable Lean: The Next Step Towards
Inculcating a Critical Problem-Solving Mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Rupy Sawhney, Ninad Pradhan, Nelson Matias, Enrique Macias De Anda,
Esdras Araujo, Samuel Trevino and Carla Arbogast
Ergonomic Analysis in Lean Manufacturing and Industry
4.0—A Systematic Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Marlene Ferreira Brito, Ana Luísa Ramos, Paula Carneiro
and Maria Antónia Gonçalves
Contributions of Lean Thinking Principles to Foster Industry
4.0 and Sustainable Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Victor Bittencourt, Felipe Saldanha, Anabela Carvalho Alves
and Celina Pinto Leão
Lean Tools Contribution to Sustainability Outcomes:
Insights from a Set of Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Alexandra Maria Baptista Ramos Tenera, Carina Maria Oliveira Pimentel,
Rui Manuel Ferreira Dias and João Carlos de Oliveira Matias
Clean & Lean Production in Fish Canning Industry—A
Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Anna Bella Siriban-Manalang, Jamica B. Brillante,
Frances Isabel V. Cabahug and Rozanne P. Flores

xi
xii Contents

The Effect of Lean Practices on Environmental Performance:

An Empirical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Marcos Dieste and Roberto Panizzolo
The Lean-Green BOPSE Indicator to Assess Efficiency
and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
M. Florentina Abreu, Anabela Carvalho Alves and Francisco Moreira
Using Lean and Green Indexes to Measure Companies’
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Helena Carvalho, Virgínia Helena Machado, Ana Paula Barroso,
Diana de Almeida and Virgílio Cruz-Machado
Implementing Lean Production to Promote Textile
and Clothing Industry Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Laura Costa Maia, Anabela Carvalho Alves and Celina Pinto Leão
The Lean City: Citizen as Producer, Consumer, Product . . . . . . . . . . . 345
David Week
Accelerating Sustainability with Lean Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Shannon Flumerfelt and Jeni Wenson
Lean Thinking: A Transversal
and Global Management Philosophy
to Achieve Sustainability Benefits

Paulo Amaro, Anabela Carvalho Alves and Rui M. Sousa

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to discuss the relevance of Lean Thinking
principles implementation around the world, both in industry and services, based on
the growing number of published case studies and surveys. A comprehensive review
has been conducted on case studies and surveys published between 1990 and 2018
describing Lean Production/Thinking implementations on different countries, classi-
fied by year of publication, country and type of company (discrete-industry/process-
industry/services) and intervention scope (product/sector). The main findings of this
study show that Lean Thinking is a real global (worldwide) and transversal approach
to improve organizations’ performance (all types of industries and services). How-
ever, several organizations are not yet fully aware of the Lean principles as they
do not apply the approach to an entire value stream (i.e. to products or families of
products) but only to parts of value streams (i.e. to sectors or areas of the company).
The review includes the identification of benefits related to environmental issues that
contribute to the sustainability of the organizations.

1 Introduction

Increasingly, organizations are confronted with challenges such as globalization of

markets, climate changes and social issues, among others, which require a type of
organization different from the traditional ones. This traditional approach, inherited
from the Taylorism principles (Taylor 1911), relies on the centralization concept and
has been adopted by most organizations of goods and services. However, it appears to
be outdated considering the current social, cultural and economic context. In fact, the

P. Amaro (B) · A. C. Alves · R. M. Sousa

ALGORITMI R&D Center, Department of Production and Systems, School of Engineering,
University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
e-mail: pamaro@efacec.pt
A. C. Alves
e-mail: anabela@dps.uminho.pt
R. M. Sousa
e-mail: rms@dps.uminho.pt
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1
A. C. Alves et al. (eds.), Lean Engineering for Global Development,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13515-7_1
2 P. Amaro et al.

school, internet and social networks have brought people the prospect of a better life
(both professionally and socially) and also the perception of the need for involvement
with society (as well as in terms of work environment).
In fact, the bureaucratic centralization inherent to the application of Taylorism
principles to production and services (e.g. hospitals, banking, insurance and large
shopping centers) is no longer appropriate and may even be considered obsolete.
This centralization involves a clear separation between responsibilities and task
execution, which are respectively assigned to management (e.g. decision makers
and controllers) and production (executors). This approach persists in the design and
structure of todays’ organizations, and is characterized by Graça (2002): (i) hierarchi-
cal chain of control (e.g. management, central control services, and controllers); (ii)
one-way communication (top to bottom); (iii) socio-spatial differentiation (graphi-
cally represented). Furthermore, the typical adoption of functional services assigned
to the organization of work (e.g. planning, organization of staff and methods, techni-
cal service and quality control), commonly designated as functional silos (or islands),
hinders the communication between departments thus compromising the exploitation
of possible synergies thereby undermining the performance of the organization.
Trying to overcome the aforementioned limitations, the Lean Thinking paradigm
Womack and Jones (1996) promotes a new management style, strongly based on
teams, involving cross-organizational levels that eliminate the functional silos. Lean
Thinking is regarded as a philosophy (Bhasin and Burcher 2006) that began at the
Toyota Company as Toyota Production System (TPS) (Monden 1998; Ohno 1988),
after World War II. The goal of TPS is to reduce costs and increase productivity
through waste elimination/reduction. Waste are all activities that do not create value
from the customer point of view. The TPS was named by John Krafcik (1988), a
co-worker of NUMMI (New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc.) and researcher from
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Holweg 2007), as Lean Production because
in TPS all products were produced with less raw-materials, stocks, resources, human
effort, etc. than in mass production systems.
This system has become better known in 1990 due to the publication of the best-
seller The Machine that Changed the World (Womack et al. 1990) by the MIT
researchers, Womack, Jones and Roos. This book compared the American and
Japanese automotive industries and the results clearly showed that the latter had
much better performance than the first (e.g. in terms of productivity and quality).
The Japanese Toyota Motor Company achieved higher productivity with fewer
resources (less space, less inventory, less human effort, less product development
time, etc.). Thus, TPS was dubbed Lean Production as the key idea was “doing
more with less.” Moreover, the involvement of people, the practice of “doing it right
first time,” the use of human potential and the respect for people and their skills,
which is quite different than Taylor’s organizational culture, are fundamental to this
philosophy (Sugimori et al. 1977).
Much has been said about Lean Production, many times questioning its advan-
tages, but Lean is recognized as the management practice responsible for the
“returning of manufacturing” to the US organizations (Donofrio and Whitefoot
2015). Organizations like General Electric appliances, used Lean practices to reduce
Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management Philosophy… 3

the time to assemble refrigerators from the US average of 9–10 h/unit to roughly
2 h/unit (Cowger 2016). According to this author, the implementation of Lean
practices was a key factor to achieve this inshore process.
The success of Lean implementations has been not limited to manufacturing
processes. The evolution of Lean implementations beyond the manufacturing
processes has shown that Lean can be applied to all the internal areas of the
organizations (regardless of the business area) (Alves et al. 2014b). Additionally, the
influence and spread of Lean through the academic and practitioner community over
the last 25 years is remarkable, as Samuel et al. (2015) demonstrated in their paper.
In spite of the many advantages of Lean reported by innumerous studies, there
are many inhibitors that hinder the implementation of Lean Thinking principles. The
motivation for this paper is to discover, in the literature, international and cross-
sectional case studies and surveys that show successful and/or unsuccessful Lean
implementations. The objective of the paper is to analyze these case studies and
surveys, to demonstrate that Lean could be applied anywhere in the world and in any
business sector. Also, these implementations bring many benefits to organizations
that ultimately conduce to a better practices for the environment.
This paper is organized in six sections. This first section introduces the paper’s
motivation and objectives. Section 2 presents a brief literature review and the Sect. 3
describes the research methodology. The findings are presented on Sect. 4 and the
corresponding analysis and discussion are included in the Sect. 5. Finally, on Sect. 6,
the conclusions are outlined.

2 Literature Review

According to, Womack and Jones (1996) the Lean Thinking principles emerged as a
need requested by organizations who have read the book The Machine that Changed
the World. These authors defined five principles to guide the organizations through
a Lean implementation journey: (1) Identify Value; (2) Map the Value Stream; (3)
Create Flow; (4) Establish Pull Production; and (5) Seek Perfection.
Womack and Jones (1996) defined value stream as “the set of all the specific
actions required to bring a specific product (whether a good, a service, or, increas-
ingly, a combination of the two) through the three critical management tasks of any
business: the problem-solving task running from concept through detailed design and
engineering to production launch, the information management task running from
order-taking through detailed scheduling to delivery, and the physical transforma-
tion task proceeding from raw materials to a finished product in the hands of the
customer”.
By following the above mentioned principles, organizations can achieve a Lean
Thinking state. Womack and Jones (1996) stated that Lean Thinking promotes a
culture of continuous improvement, engaging everyone in the process.
Many authors have argued about Lean definitions. For instance, in the UK Lean
Aerospace Initiative survey of 2002, Lean Thinking was defined as a dynamic,
4 P. Amaro et al.

knowledge-driven and customer-focused process where everyone is continuously

searching for improvements by eliminating non-value added activities (Harrison
et al. 2002). According to Henderson and Larco (2010), Lean is a concept and a
commitment process that can significantly contribute for the organizations’ health,
wealth and competitiveness.
The emphasis on adding value to the processes along with the best use of resources
is a key strength of Lean Thinking. According to Altekar (2012), the establishment
and mastering of the Lean Thinking system would allow organizations to increase the
customer service level while reducing: waste (by 80%); production cost (by 50%);
manufacturing cycle time (by 50%); labor (by 50%); inventory (by 80%). Despite
these expectations, the lean thinking approach is criticized by many authors. For
instance, Keitany and Riwo-Abudho (2014), identified that key criticisms to Lean
Thinking include the lack of contingency and ability to deal with variability, lack
of consideration of human aspects and operational focus confined to the shop-floor.
Other authors include: objections coming from trade unions, increase of the workers’
responsibilities that can lead to pressure and anxiety (inexistent in the traditional
system), expansion of job requirements without a comparable increase in terms of
salary, inability to deal with turbulence and change, and the pursuit of perfection
that may eliminate the scope for flexibility. This type of criticism may jeopardize the
successful implementation of the Lean approach.
Some factors are critical to the success of Lean implementations, particularly
in the small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), as referred in the studies of
Achanga et al. (2006) and Bakås et al. (2011), respectively developed in UK, and,
Norway and Belgium. These factors are: leadership and management, finance, skills
and expertise, and culture of the recipient organization. At the same time, SMEs have
also faced difficulties in implementing Lean due to a lack of understanding of what
is Lean (Cowger 2016). According to this author, there are too many definitions of
Lean, too much information and lack of human resources, time and money to adopt
Lean initiatives.
Leadership is so important in the Lean implementation success, that many authors
advocate a Lean Leadership style (Dombrowski and Mielke 2013, 2014), defined
as a “…methodical system for the sustainable implementation and continuous
improvement of LPS. It describes the cooperation of employees and leaders in their
mutual striving for perfection. This includes the customer focus of all processes as
well as the long-term development of employees and leaders” (Dombrowski and
Mielke 2013, p. 570). Other authors also refer the importance of behaviors and
the common errors made by business leaders as inhibitors of any implementation
(Emiliani 1998, 2008). Lean implementation needs a different mindset (Yamamoto
and Bellgran 2010) so organizational leaders are recognizing and demanding from
Lean graduates (Flumerfelt et al. 2016; Alves et al. 2017).
Some literature reviews about Lean have been conducted to explore the different
dimensions of Lean implementations, namely the ones from Stone (2012), Bhamu
and Sangwan (2014), Jasti and Kodali (2015) and Samuel et al. (2015). The work of
Stone (2012) is a systematic literature review of almost 200 papers and called atten-
tion to: (1) the lack of theoretical connections between the planned organizational
Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management Philosophy… 5

changes and the process improvement interventions; (2) the focus centered on the
“how-to-do” lean principles, and, critiques instead of dialog; and (3) the disregarding
of the ‘human’ factor.
Bhamu and Sangwan (2014) analyzed 209 research papers and identified
various Lean definitions with different objectives and scopes. From each paper,
these authors gathered data on: research contribution, research methodology adopted,
tools/techniques/methodologies applied, industry type, authors’ profile, country of
research and year of publication. One of their main findings was the lack of a standard
process/framework for Lean Management (LM) implementation.
The extensive literature review from Jasti and Kodali (2015) encompassed a total
of 546 papers and refers aspects such as implementation status and performance
measurement of various existing frameworks/models. Additionally, these authors
discussed the trends in Lean research, pointing out the need to: (1) apply the lean
principles in the product development area and also at the enterprise level areas; (2)
more interregional research collaborations; (3) lean elements as a group instead of
individual elements (an integrated system); (4) avoid all the seven lean wastes in an
integrated way; and (5) test and validate the proposed frameworks/models. The seven
wastes as classified by Ohno (1988) are: (1) transports; (2) inventory; (3) motion;
(4) waiting; (5) overproduction; (6) over processing; (7) defects.
Samuel et al. (2015) focused their literature review in the papers published around
the book The Machine that Changed the World to demonstrate how Lean research,
application and thinking has evolved over 25 years, from its origins in the Japanese
auto-manufacturing industry to a holistic value system that is applicable to all busi-
ness sectors, both private and public.
Other literature reviews were more focused in exploring Lean relationships and
synergies with other important topics/disciplines such as Supply Chain and Sustain-
ability (Martínez-Jurado and Moyano-Fuentes 2014); Lean and Ergonomics (Arezes
et al. 2015), among others. This showed the multidisciplinary of Lean that empha-
sis its role as an important paradigm and an holistic approach being transversal to
different disciplines, as Alves et al. (2014b) and Alves et al. (2017) presented and
discussed. Additionally, this was also evident in the literature reviews focused in the
Lean Thinking applied in areas such as: Services (Leite and Vieira 2015); Construc-
tion (Alves et al. 2012); Healthcare (Mazzocato et al. 2010); Education (Fliedner
and Mathieson 2009; Alves et al. 2017; Flumerfelt et al. 2016), among others.
Particularly important, is the link between Lean Production and sustainable devel-
opment, which has been called Lean-Green (Rothenberg et al. 2001; Moreira et al.
2010; Abreu et al. 2016; Alves et al. 2016; Abreu et al. 2017). Such authors advo-
cate that the reduction of the seven wastes referred above will conduce organiza-
tions to reduce the environmental wastes defined in 2007 by the US Environmental
Protection Agency (U.S.-EPA 2007) as the consumption of materials, water, energy
and emissions of pollutants (for water, soil and air). The reduction of the seven wastes
will lead, directly or indirectly, to better environmental practices, where material and
resource requirements are reduced, taking less out of the planet that belongs to every-
one (Moreira et al. 2010).
6 P. Amaro et al.

3 Research Methodology

This research uses a qualitative methodology based on a literature review of Lean

implementations case studies and surveys. The sources include peer reviewed jour-
nal papers from bibliographic databases such as ISI Web of Knowledge, Scopus,
Science Direct (Elsevier), Wiley Online Library (Wiley), Taylor & Francis, Springer
and Emerald Insight, and some conference papers from the manufacturing and
management areas. Books, dissertations, unpublished working papers, newsletters,
reports or other documents were excluded. The search included the keywords “Lean”;
“case study”; “survey”.
A spreadsheet was used to compile all the papers found and retrieve their relevant
elements. The search resulted in 129 papers presenting case studies and surveys. The
main research questions that guide the research were:
• When was developed the case study/survey?
• Where was developed the case study/survey?
• In what type of industry/service the case study was developed?
• Was the case study developed for a product (single value stream) or for a particular
sector/area of the company?
• What were the benefits achieved?
Based on these questions, the authors want to know when more Lean implemen-
tations occurred, if Lean implementation is global (i.e., is a phenomenon spreading
all over the world), if Lean implementation is transversal (i.e. if it is implemented in
all kinds of industry/services) and, finally, if it was focused in a product (single value
stream) or for an sector/area of the company where several products are produced.
Each collected paper was analysed, codified and interpreted to select the informa-
tion needed: the reference, if it is a case study or a survey, the country (geographical
coverage), the industry/service (transversality), the product/sector (the scope) and
the benefits with main focus in the ones related with environmental wastes.

4 Results Presentation and Analysis

This section presents the results of the literature review of the selected case studies
and surveys. The analysis was developed to achieve this paper’s objectives being
thus aligned with the research questions previously referred.

4.1 Case Studies and Surveys Characterization

Table 1 presents the results of the literature review, organized by chronological order
of the references.
Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management Philosophy… 7

Table 1 Characterization of Lean implementation case studies and surveys

References Country Industry/service Product/sector Case
study/survey
Sohal (1996) Australia Automotive Windscreen Case study
parts wiper systems
Panizzolo (1998) Italy Various Various Multiple case
studies
Bamber and Dale UK Aerospace All Case study
(2000)
Harrison et al. (2002) UK Aerospace All Survey
Cutcher-Gershenfeld USA Aerospace Various Survey
(2003)
Motwani (2003) USA Medium-size N/A Case study
automotive
manufacturing
Swank (2003) USA Life insurance New business Case study
and annuities unit
Emiliani (2004) USA Business Leadership Case study
school courses course
Melton (2005) UK Process Multi-product Case study
industries manufacturing
(chemicals & process
pharmaceuti-
cals)
Doolen and Hacker USA Electronics Various Survey
(2005) manufacturers
Bonavia et al. (2006) Spain Ceramic tile Various Survey
industry
Lee-Mortimer (2006) UK Electronic Various Survey
products—-
manufacturing
operation
Abdulmalek and Kuwait Process sector Steel Case study
Rajgopal (2007) (large
integrated steel
mill)
Álvarez et al. (2008) Spain Automobile Combustible Case study
injection valve
Taj (2008) China Various Various Survey
Farhana and Amir Bangladesh Garment Various Case study
(2009)
Pattanaik and Sharma USA Armory Fuse DA5A Case study
(2009)
Wong et al. (2009) Malaysia Electrical and Various Survey
electronics
(continued)
8 P. Amaro et al.

Table 1 (continued)
References Country Industry/service Product/sector Case
study/survey
Nordin et al. (2010) Malaysian Automotive Various Survey
industry
Waldhausen et al. USA Healthcare Ambulatory Case study
(2010) pediatric
surgery
Yamamoto and Sweden Precision Various Multiple case
Bellgran (2010) casting goods studies
Electrical
products
Carvalho et al. (2011) Portugal Metal Frames Case study
structures
Hodge et al. (2011) USA Textile Various Multiple case
studies
Pool et al. (2011) Netherlands Semi-process Coffee Case study
Romero and Martín Spain Aeronautics A key Case study
(2011) component of
the final
product
Staats and Upton India IT Services Custom Case study
(2011) software
Staats et al. (2011) India Software Various Case study
services
Veža et al. (2011) Croatia Beverage Bottler Case study
Vinodh et al. (2011) India Automotive Valve Case study
valves assembly unit
Bortolotti and Romano Italy Banking Bank counters, Case study
(2012) services back office and
private credit
offices
Bryde and Germany Construction Refurbishment Case study
Schulmeister (2012) projects
Chowdary and George Trinidad and Pharmaceutical Creams and Case study
(2012) Tobago ointments P1
line
Jiménez et al. (2012) Spain Winery Various Case study
Aguado et al. (2013) Spain Forming tube Environmental Case study
company innovation
Faulkner (2013) USA Healthcare Postpartum Case study
hemorrhage
Lešková (2013) Romania Production Modular Case study
assembly
systems
(continued)
Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management Philosophy… 9

Table 1 (continued)
References Country Industry/service Product/sector Case
study/survey
Lyons et al. (2013) UK Process Various Multi-methods
industry including a
survey
Moori et al. (2013) Brazil Various N/A Survey
Netland (2013) Norway & Various Various Multiple case
USA studies
Overboom et al. (2013) UK Logistics Refurbishment Case study
operations of a municipal
building
Rahman and Karim Australia Tile Manufacturing Case study
(2013) manufacturing process
Ribeiro et al. (2013) Portugal Wood furniture Paint line Case study
Sobral et al. (2013) Brazil Automotive Automotive Case study
vehicles
Stadnicka and Antosz Poland Various Various Multiple case
(2013) studies
Sterling and Boxall New Zealand Fast-moving Employee Case study
(2013) consumer learning and
goods job quality
manufacturing
Tanco et al. (2013) Uruguay Seasonal food Nougat Case study
production
process
Warner et al. (2013) USA Healthcare Vascular Case study
surgery
operating
Yu et al. (2013) USA Construction Modular and Case study
manufactured
buildings
Aqlan and Mustafa Ali USA Chemical Manufacturing Case study
(2014) industry
Barbosa et al. (2014) Brazil Aerospace Manufacturing Case study
industry processes
Castillo et al. (2014) Chile Underground Various Case study
mining
Costa et al. (2014) Portugal Metal- Final assembly Case study
mechanic of the elevators
doors
Keitany and Kenya Flour industry Various Case study
Riwo-Abudho (2014)
Kumar and Kumar India Automotive Truck body Case study
(2014) industry assembly line
(continued)
10 P. Amaro et al.

Table 1 (continued)
References Country Industry/service Product/sector Case
study/survey
Powell et al. (2014) Norway, USA ETO Various Case study
& Italy manufacturers:
Construction
technology &
high-tech
products
Resende et al. (2014) Portugal Plastic Various Case study
Sundar et al. (2014) India Various Various Survey
Alves et al. (2015) Portugal Various Various Multiple case
studies
Benfield et al. (2015) USA Healthcare Renal Case study
replacement
therapy
Bevilacqua et al. Italy Automotive Information Case study
(2015) industry management
system
Chlebus et al. (2015) Poland Mining Area machines Case study
industry
Dora and Gellynck Belgium Medium-sized Ginger bread Case study
(2015) confectionary
Hicks et al. (2015) UK Healthcare Healthcare Case study
facilities
Lacerda et al. (2015) Portugal Original Thermoplastic Case study
equipment injection,
manufacturer assembly of
for the components
automotive and fabric
industry bonding
Lamm et al. (2015) USA Healthcare Chemotherapy Case study
Lu and Yang (2015) Taiwan Solar cell and Photovoltaic Case study
module module
manufacturing process
company
Pineda Dávila and Spain Healthcare Rehabilitation Case study
Tinoco González service
(2015)
Sutari (2015) India Wind turbine Manufacturing Case study
manufacturer area
Yang et al. (2015) Taiwan Fishing Fishing net Case study
manufacturing
system
Andrade et al. (2016) Brazil Automotive Automotive Case study
industry
(continued)
Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management Philosophy… 11

Table 1 (continued)
References Country Industry/service Product/sector Case
study/survey
Badgujar et al. (2016) Indian Manufacturing Pump Case study
Ben Fredj-Ben Alaya Tunisian Autmotive Auto parts Case study
(2016) industry
Boscari et al. (2016) Italian Various Various Case study
Garza-Reyes et al. Mexico Logistics Road transport Case study
(2016) operations
Gutierrez-Gutierrez Spain Logistics Electronics Case study
et al. (2016) services company
Haddad et al. (2016) EUA Healthcare Medical care Case study
Kovvuri et al. (2016) Indian Construction Construction Case study
Kowang et al. (2016) Singapore Manufacturing Automotive Case study
Kumar and Kumar Indian Various Various Survey
(2016)
Lameijer et al. (2016) Netherlands Services Financial Case study
services
industry
Mahendran et al. Indian Industry Automobile Case study
(2016) valve
manufacturing
Manfredsson (2016) Sweden Textile Textile Case study
industry
Matos et al. (2016) Portugal Healthcare Hospital Case study
Nallusamy and Manufacturing Automotive Case study
Saravanan (2016) component
Netland (2016) Norway Global Various Survey
chemicals and
vehicle
manufacturer
Nowotarski et al. Poland Construction Office building Case study
(2016)
Pereira et al. (2016) Portugal Manufacturing Operations Case study
Salam and Khan Thailand Service Healthcare Case study
(2016)
Salgin et al. (2016) EUA Healthcare Construction Case study
and demolition
van Eeghen et al. EUA Healthcare Primary care Case study
(2016) practice
Vendramini et al. Brazil Service Public Case study
(2016)
(continued)
12 P. Amaro et al.

Table 1 (continued)
References Country Industry/service Product/sector Case
study/survey
Zahraee (2016) Iran Automotive Various Survey
manufacturing
Zhang et al. (2016) Singapore Logistics Various Survey
industry
Ahmad et al. (2017) Malaysia Service Automotive Survey
service centres
Ainul Azyan et al. Malaysia Industry Printing Case study
(2017)
Albliwi et al. (2017) Saudi Arabian Various Various Survey
Ben Ruben et al. Indian Industry Automotive Case study
(2017a, b) component
manufacturing
Bhutta et al. (2017) Pakistan Industry Various Survey
de Freitas and Costa Brasil Various Various Survey
(2017)
Dondofema et al. South African Various Various Survey
(2017)
Guerrero et al. (2017) EUA Industry Wood Case study
Furniture
Hama Kareem et al. Iraq Industry Iron and steel Case study
(2017)
Helleno et al. (2017) Brasil Industry Various Case study
Lal et al. (2017) Indian Healthcare Hospital Case study
Madsen et al. (2017) Norway Public sector Various Survey
Majava and Ojanperä Finland Manufacturing Paint and Case study
(2017) surface finish
products
Nallusamy and Adil Indian Manufacturing Automotive Case study
Ahamed (2017)
Ramakrishnan and Indian Industry Foundry Case study
Nallusamy (2017)
Ben Ruben et al. Indian Manufacturing Automotive Case study
(2017a, b) component
Seth et al. (2017) Indian Industry Power Case study
transformer
Silva Reyes and Salas Peru Industry Plastic films Case study
Castro (2017) for flexible
packaging
Singh et al. (2017) Indian Industry Scaffold Case study
making
industry
(continued)
Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management Philosophy… 13

Table 1 (continued)
References Country Industry/service Product/sector Case
study/survey
Supriyanto and Indonesia Industry Gas stove Case study
Maftuhah (2017)
Villarreal et al. (2017) Mexico Rewery Road transport Case study
organisation operations
Antony et al. (2018a) UK Education Various Case study
Antony et al. (2018b) Scotland Public sector Policing Case study
services
Baptista et al. (2018) Portugal Industry Machine tool Case study
Belhadi et al. (2018) Morocco Industry Pumps Case study
Dhiravidamani et al. Indian Industry Foundry Case study
(2018) division of an
auto parts
manufacturing
Gijo et al. (2018) Indian Industry Auto ancillary Case study
conglomerate
Jassim (2018) Iraq Public sector Hussein Case study
Educational
Hospital
Kurdve (2018) Sweden Industry Modular Case study
buildings
Lorente Leyva et al. Equador Industry Metalworking Case study
(2018) company
(rolling doors)
Narayanamurthy et al. Various Healthcare Various Case study
(2018)
Oey and Nofrimurti Indonesia Consumer Warehouse Case study
(2018) goods
Saravanan et al. (2018) Africa Industry Pre-assembly Case study
line of gearbox
manufacturing
Shortell et al. (2018) United States Service Healthcare Survey
Vairagde and Hans Indian Industry Improve Case study
(2018) manpower
utilization
14 P. Amaro et al.

The research was based only on case studies and surveys found in indexed journals
and conferences. As can be seen, the number of publications is much larger for case
studies than for surveys (Fig. 1). Case studies highlight detailed contextual analysis
of a limited number of events or circumstances and their associations.
Clearly, the researchers were much more interested on case studies (more than 3/4
of the analysed papers) than in surveys. Surveys are most popular to use in collecting
a large amount of data from a sizeable population in a highly economical manner.
The number of case studies and surveys about Lean implementations has increased
over the last 25 years. This is an expected result as the Lean paradigm has attracted
much attention after the publication of the book The Machine that Changed the
World, corroborating thus the findings of Samuel et al. (2015). Figure 2 shows the
evolution of the number of papers, revealing 2016 and 2017 as the years with more
publications.

Fig. 1 Distribution of the papers by used research methodology

Fig. 2 Distribution of the papers by year of publication

Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management Philosophy… 15

Fig. 3 Lean
implementations by type of
company (industry/services)

4.2 Transversality of Lean Implementations

In a first broad approach to assess the transversality of Lean implementations, the

papers were analysed in order to collect the information exposed in columns “Indus-
try/service” and “Product/sector” of Table 1. Then each paper was carefully classified
according to the type of production/manufacturing: (i) discrete manufacturing, (ii)
process manufacturing or (iii) services. As 28 out of the 129 papers are surveys or
multiple case studies referring several organizations, a detailed analysis was neces-
sary in order to categorize all these organizations according to the aforementioned
classification. For the sake of clarity, it should be noted that some organizations were
classified as process industries (process manufacturing) even if their final products
are discrete units (e.g. beverage and cement organizations) (Fig. 3). The category
“various” include papers that were related mainly with the surveys, referring orga-
nizations of various types.
Clearly, most of the reported Lean implementations occur in industry (66%) while
interventions in the services area represent only 25% of the cases.

4.3 Geographical Coverage of Lean Implementations

The distribution of the 129 papers reviewed and analysed encompasses 41 countries
(Fig. 4), with 21 papers from USA and India. These are followed by Portugal and
UK with 9 and 8 papers, respectively. Fourteen countries are responsible for about
75% of the lean implementations. In more than 50% of these countries, only one
published paper was found.
The extensive literature reviews of Bhamu and Sangwan (2014) and Jasti and
Kodali (2015) involve quite different sample sizes (209 and 546 papers, respectively)
but reveal a similar number of countries with publications about lean implementations
16 P. Amaro et al.

Fig. 4 Distribution of the papers by country

(27 and 30, respectively). Despite the small sized sample inherent to this work (129
papers), the number of countries (41) where lean was implemented is more dispersed.
In the two aforementioned literature reviews, the countries with more published
papers in this area were always the USA and the UK.

4.4 Scope of Lean Implementations

For the analysis related with the scope, the authors only selected the papers classified
as “case studies”. The surveys and the others were not considered because, typically,
the necessary information was not available (due to the large number of involved
scenarios). For each one of the selected papers, it was identified if Lean was applied
to products or product families (i.e. to the whole value stream, as previously defined
in Sect. 2) or just to areas/sectors of the company (i.e. normally considered fraction of
different value streams). In the cases where it was not possible to identify the scope,
the papers were classified as “Non-identifiable”. The results of this classification are
represented in Fig. 5.
Figure 5 shows that more than 50% of the case studies (52%) addressed multiple
value streams, i.e. approaching an area or sector. This is not aligned with the prin-
ciples of Lean Thinking, because first it is necessary to identify the value for the
customer and then the entire value stream. Nevertheless, in 43% of the case studies,
the scope was the analysis/intervention in a value stream. This reveals that many Lean
implementations were like islands in the organizations, i.e. only local improvements
were implemented without looking to the entire value stream.
Lean Thinking: A Transversal and Global Management Philosophy… 17

Fig. 5 Scope of the lean

implementations

4.5 Benefits

All the papers were analysed to identify the benefits reported by case studies. After
collecting the benefits by reference, the words were included in a word cloud software.
The Fig. 6 presents the word cloud generated.

Fig. 6 Word cloud of the benefits collected from the papers analysed
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Oat breakfast foods keep longer than the foods made from wheat
and rice.
There are no malts, or any mixtures in the oat preparations. The
difference between the various oatmeal breakfast foods is in their
manner of preparation. They all contain the entire grain, with the
exception of the husk. They are simply the ground or crushed oat. In
preparing the oats before grinding, the outer hull is removed, the
fuzzy coating of the berry itself is scoured off, the ends of the berry,
particularly the end containing the germ, which is usually the place of
deposit for insect eggs, is scoured, and the bitter tip end of the oat
berry is likewise removed.
Rolled oats consist of the whole berry of the oat, ground into a
coarse meal, either between millstones, or, in the case of the so
called “steel cut” oatmeal, cut with sharp steel knives across the
sections of the whole oat groat.
Quaker Oats consist of the whole groat, which, after steaming in
order to soften, have been passed between hot steel rolls, somewhat
like a mangle in a laundry, and crushed into large, thin, partially
cooked flakes. The oats are then further cooked by an open pan
drying process. This roasting process insures that all germ life is
exterminated, renders the product capable of quicker preparation for
the table and the roasting causes the oil cells to release their
contents, thereby producing what is termed the “nut flavor,” which is
not present in the old fashioned type of oat product.
Both Rolled Oats and Quaker Oats are now partially cooked in
their preparation but the starch cells must be thoroughly broken and
they should be cooked at least forty-five minutes in a double boiler;
or, a good way to prepare the porridge, is to bring it to the boiling
point at night, let it stand covered over night and then cook it twenty
to thirty minutes in the morning. Another method of cooking is to
bring the porridge to the boiling point and then leave it in a fireless
cooker over night.
The great fault in the preparation of any breakfast food is in not
cooking it sufficiently to break the starch cells.
 Puffed Rice is made from a good quality of finished rice. The
process is a peculiar one, the outer covering, or bran, is removed
and then the product is literally “shot from guns;” that is, a quantity of
the rice is placed in metal retorts, revolved slowly in an oven, at high
temperature, until the pressure of steam, as shown by gauge on the
gun, indicates that the steam, generated slowly by the moisture
within the grain itself, has thoroughly softened the starch cells. The
gun retort is pointed into a wire cage and the cap which closes one
end is removed, permitting an inrush of cold air. This cold, on striking
the hot steam, causes expansion, which amounts practically to an
explosion. The expansion of steam within each starch cell
completely shatters the cell, causing the grain to expand to eight
times its original size. It rushes out of the gun and into the cage with
great force, after which it is screened to remove all scorched or
imperfectly puffed grains.
This process dextrinizes a portion of the starch and also very
materially increases the amount of soluble material as against the
original proportion in the grain.

Puffed Wheat is manufactured from Durum, or macaroni wheat, of

the very highest grade. This is a very hard, glutinous grain. It is
pearled in order to thoroughly clean and take off the outer covering
of bran. It then goes through a puffing process, identical with that of
Puffed Rice. The chemical changes are very similar to those of
puffed rice.
Both Puffed Rice and Puffed Wheat are more digestible than in the
original grain state. They are valuable foods for invalids.
 Stale Bread. A food which tastes much like a prepared breakfast
food, but is cheaper, may be made by dipping stale bread into
molasses and water, drying it in the oven for several hours, and then
crushing it. It is then ready to serve with cream. This is a palatable
way to use up stale bread.

Crackers and Milk or Bread and Milk. As noted by above table,

crackers are similar to breakfast foods in nutrient elements, and with
milk make a good food for breakfast, or a good luncheon. Business
men, and others who eat hurriedly and return immediately to work,
will do well to substitute crackers and milk, or bread and milk, for the
piece of pie, which often constitutes a busy man’s lunch.

According to investigations made by the United

Cereal Coffees States Agriculture Experiment Station, cereal
coffees are made of parched grains. A few contain
a little true coffee, but for the most part they are made of parched
wheat, barley, etc., or of grain mixed with wheat middlings, pea hulls,
or corn cobs. There is no objection to any of these mixtures
providing they are clean. The cereal coffees, as seen by the
following table, contain no more nourishment than the true coffee,
but they are probably more easily digested; only a very little of the
soluble starch passes into the water. Coffee and tea are not taken for
their nutrition, but for their stimulating effect upon the nerves; and, if
stimulation is desired, the cereal coffees fall short.
TABLE VII.
Composition of cereal-coffee infusion and other beverages.
Fuel
Value
Kind of Beverage Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates
per
Pound
Commercial cereal coffee (0.5 ounce to 98.2 0.2 1.4 30
1 pint water)
Parched-corn coffee (1.6 ounces to 1
99.5 0.2 .5 13
pint water)
Oatmeal water (1 ounce to 1 pint water) 99.7 0.3 .3 11
Coffee (1 ounce to 1 pint water) 98.9 .2 .7 16
Tea (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water) 99.5 .2 .6 15
Chocolate (0.5 ounce to 1 pint milk) 84.5 3.8 4.7 6.0 365
Cocoa (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water) 97.1 .6 .9 1.1 65
Skimmed milk 88.8 4.0 1.8 5.4 170

By reference to table VII it will be seen that cocoa and skimmed

milk contain much more nutrition than any of the coffees. Their chief
value is that they furnish a warm drink with the meal. They should
not be too hot.
Barley or wheat, mixed with a little molasses, parched in the oven,
and then ground, makes about the same mixture as the cereal
coffee.
The old fashioned crust coffee, made from bread crusts, toasted in
the oven, is just as nutritious as any of the coffees and has the
advantage of being cheaper.
Barley water and oat water, made by boiling the grain thoroughly
and then straining, are nourishing foods for invalids and children.
They are often used as drinks by athletes and manual laborers, as
they have the advantage of both quenching thirst and supplying
energy.
Gruels are made in the same way, only strained through a sieve.
This process allows more of the starch to pass with the water.

The legumes are the seeds of peas, beans,

Legumes lentils and peanuts.
While they are seeds, just as the cereals are, they differ in that
they contain a very much larger proportion of protein and may be
substituted for meat or eggs in a diet. In all vegetarian diets the
legumes should be used freely to replace the meat.
All legumes must be thoroughly cooked and thoroughly
masticated. Because the protein in these foods is more difficult of
digestion than that in meat or eggs, particularly if not thoroughly
masticated, they are better adapted for the use of men doing manual
labor. Soldiers, day laborers, and others, whose work calls for
physical exercise, can digest legumes, when those whose
occupation is more sedentary can not do so.
TABLE VIII.—LEGUMES
Water Fat Ash
Food Protein Carbohydrates Fuel Value per
Per Per Per
Materials Per Cent Per Cent pound Calories
Cent Cent Cent
Dried
Legumes:
Navy beans 12.6 22.5 1.8 59.6 3.5 1,605
Dried Peas 9.5 24.6 1.0 62.0 2.9 1,655
Lentils 8.4 25.7 1.0 59.2 5.7 1,620
Lima beans 10.4 18.1 1.5 65.9 4.1 1,625
Peanuts 9.2 25.8 38.6 24.4 2.0 2,560
Peanut
2.1 29.3 46.5 17.1 5.0 2,825
butter
Fresh
Legumes:
Canned
85.3 3.6 0.2 9.8 1.1 255
peas
Canned
79.5 4.0 0.3 14.6 1.6 360
lima beans
Canned
93.7 1.1 0.1 3.8 1.3 95
string beans
Canned
baked 68.9 6.9 2.5 19.6 2.1 600
beans
String
89.2 2.3 0.3 7.4 0.8 195
beans
Shelled
74.6 7.0 0.5 16.9 1.0 465
peas
 The protein of the legumes is of the same nature as the casein of
milk. It has been called vegetable casein.

Peanuts. While an underground vegetable, grown like potatoes,

peanuts resemble nuts, inasmuch as they contain so much oil. Like
other legumes, they require cooking. They are roasted because this
develops the flavor.
Because of the proportion of the chemical elements in peanuts,
they will sustain life for an indefinite period, without other food, as
they provide rebuilding material, energy and heat. Used alone,
however, there is no counteracting acid, and it is better to add some
fruit, such as apples, or apples and dates.
In eating peanuts it is imperative that they be masticated until they
are a pulp; otherwise they are very difficult of digestion. The pain
which many people experience, after eating peanuts, is probably due
to eating too large a quantity and not fully masticating them,
forgetting that they are a very rich, highly-concentrated food. Both
peanuts and peanut butter contain over twenty-five per cent of
protein and a much larger percentage of fat; therefore they yield
much heat and energy.
Peanut Butter. While peanut butter contains forty-six and one half
per cent fat, it contains only seventeen per cent carbohydrates.
Since sugars and starches are protections to fat, being used for
energy before the fats are consumed, if these sugars and starches
are not supplied in other food, the fats in the peanut butter are
consumed for energy. If starches are consumed in other foods, it is
clear that one who wishes to reduce in flesh should avoid peanut
butter, as well as other fats.
Peanut butter is more easily digested than the baked peanut,
unless the latter is chewed to a pulp. It can be made at home by
grinding the peanuts in a meat grinder and then further mashing with
a rolling pin or a potato masher. A little lemon juice mixed with the
peanut butter makes it not only more palatable, but more easily
digested. A peanut butter sandwich is quite as nourishing as a meat
sandwich.

Shelled Peas. Shelled peas were used in Europe as far back as in

the Middle ages, and there, to-day, the dried or “split” pea is used
quite as extensively as the dried bean. In America, peas are used
almost entirely in the green stage, fresh or canned.
As seen by Table VIII, the green, shelled pea contains seven per
cent protein and sixteen per cent sugar and starch, while the dry or
“split” pea contains over twenty-four and a half per cent protein and
sixty-two per cent sugar and starch, the difference being in the
amount of water in the shelled peas. Canned peas contain even a
larger per cent of water.
A variety of green peas is now being cultivated in which the pod of
the pea is used, just as the pod of the string bean. It is a sweet and
delicious side dish.
Dry Peas are used in this country only by boiling, putting through a
sieve, and serving as pureé.

Beans. Baked navy beans may well be substituted on a menu for

meat, containing, as they do, twenty-two and one half per cent
protein. It is needless to state that beans and lean meat or eggs
should not be served at the same meal. Beans have the advantage
of being cheaper than meat, yet, as stated above, the protein in the
legumes is less easily digested than the protein of meat or eggs.
They must be thoroughly cooked and thoroughly masticated.
There is but a small percentage of fat in dried beans and for this
reason they are usually baked with a piece of pork. They make a
very complete, perhaps the most complete food, containing nutrient
elements in about the proper proportions. Effort has been made to
make a bean cracker for the sustenance of soldiers on a march, thus
giving them a complete food in condensed form.
In baking dried beans or peas, soft or distilled water should be
used, as the lime of hard water makes the shell almost indigestible.
For the same reason salt should be added when the beans are
nearly done. If soft water is not obtainable, add a little baking soda,
in the proportion of a half a teaspoon to two quarts of water.
String Beans. The string bean contains very little nutrient
elements, as shown by Table VIII. The pod and the bean, at this
unripe stage, are nearly ninety per cent water. Their chief value as a
food consists of their appetizing quality to those who are fond of
them, thus stimulating the flow of gastric juice. Like all green
vegetables, they stimulate the action of the kidneys. For this reason
all green vegetables are particularly valuable to those who drink little
water.
Lima Beans. The dry, shelled bean, used during the winter, boiled
and baked is the lima bean.
Kidney Beans contain much water but are more nutritious than the
string bean.
Soy Bean. In China and Japan this bean is used extensively.
Being rich in protein, it makes a well balanced diet with rice.
The soy bean is made into various preparations, one of the most
important being shoyo, now being introduced into other countries. To
make it, the soy bean is cooked and mixed with roasted wheat flour
and salt; into this is put a special ferment. It is then allowed to stand
for years in casks. The result is a thick, brown liquid with a pungent,
agreeable taste. It is very nourishing.
A kind of cheese is also made from boiling the soy bean for
several hours, then wrapping the hot mass in bundles of straw, and
putting it in a tightly closed cellar for twenty-four hours.
 Lentils are not commonly used in this country, but they were one
of the earliest vegetables to be cultivated in Asia and the
Mediterranean countries. They are imported and are found only in
the best markets of large cities. They are used in the menu like dried
peas and are fully as nourishing, but the flavor of the lentil is
pronounced and they are not as agreeable to the average person as
peas or beans.

Nuts are classed with the carbo-nitrogenous

Nuts foods, because of the more nearly equal proportion
of proteins and carbonaceous substances.
TABLE IX.—NUTS
Ash
Food Water Protein Fat Per Carbohydrates Fuel Value per
Per
Materials Per Cent Per Cent Cent Per Cent pound Calories
Cent
Almonds 4.8 21.0 54.90 17.3 2.0 3,030
Brazil nuts 5.3 17.0 66.80 7.0 3.9 3,329
Filberts 3.7 15.6 65.30 13.0 2.4 3,342
Hickory
3.7 15.4 67.40 11.4 2.1 3,495
nuts
Pecans 3.0 16.7 71.20 13.3 1.5 3,633
English
2.8 16.7 64.40 14.8 1.3 3,305
walnuts
Chestnuts,
45.0 6.2 5.40 42.1 1.3 1,125
fresh
Walnuts,
2.5 27.6 56.30 11.7 1.9 3,105
black
Cocoanut,
3.5 6.3 57.30 31.6 1.3 3,125
shredded
Peanuts,
1.6 30.5 49.20 16.2 2.5 3,177
roasted

It will be noted, by reference to the table, that nuts contain a much

larger proportion of fats and less starch than the legumes. Chestnuts
contain the largest amount of starch, pecans the most fat, and
roasted peanuts the most protein.
Nuts are a valuable food, but they should be made a part of a
meal and may well take the place of meat, because of the large
percentage of protein, rather than to be eaten as a dessert. They are
too hearty to eat at the end of a meal, after one has eaten as much
other food as the system requires. In planning a meal, if the dietary
is rich in starches and lacking in protein, a side dish of nuts may be
served.
Too great stress cannot be laid upon the importance of the
thorough mastication of nuts; otherwise they are difficult of digestion.
When thoroughly chewed, however, they are as easily digested as
cereals or legumes. If ground fine in a meat grinder or through a
sieve, they digest more readily, but this grinding does not take the
place of the grinding with the teeth and the mixing with saliva. They
are best ground for salads, cake or croquettes.

Milk is called a complete food. It is a perfect food

Milk for the sustenance of its own species,—the milk of
the cow for the calf, the mother’s milk for the infant;
yet the milk of the cow is not perfect for the child,—it is lacking in the
proper proportion of sugar, and when fed to the child a little sugar is
added.
There has been a tendency among certain classes, to recommend
an all-milk diet, because the proteins, carbohydrates and fats are in
proportion to sustain life indefinitely, but experiments have shown
that healthy, digestive organs do their work better when a part of the
food is solid. Moreover, if an all-milk diet were followed, the adult, in
order to get sufficient nutriment, would be compelled to take a larger
proportion of water than necessary, the proportion of water required
by the system being about sixty-seven per cent, while milk contains
eighty-seven per cent.
 In order for the adult to get the proper quantity of carbohydrates
and fat, from an all-milk diet, it would be necessary to drink from four
to five quarts of milk a day (sixteen to twenty glasses). Therefore,
although an exceedingly valuable food, containing nutriment
elements for repair and to supply heat and energy for an indefinite
time, milk is not a desirable, perfect food for an adult.
If the mother’s milk contains eighty-seven per cent water it seems
not too much for the infant. Young babies, on a milk diet, are almost
always fat. This is not because the fats, sugars and starches are in
too large a proportion to the protein, but it bears out the theory,
which is fully demonstrated in actual experiments of the writer with
over twenty thousand women, that the free drinking of liquid at a
meal aids digestion and a better absorption and assimilation of food.
One advantage of drinking milk with the meal, is that it is not taken
as cold as water and it supplies a portion of actual food.
TABLE X.
Milk and Milk Products.
Food Materials Water Proteins Fats Sugar Salts Lactic Acid
Milk 86.8 4.0 3.7 4.8 0.7 ......
Skimmed milk 88.0 4.0 1.8 5.4 0.8 ......
Buttermilk 90.6 3.8 1.2 3.3 0.6 0.3
Cream 66.0 2.7 26.7 2.8 1.8 ......
Cheese 36.8 33.5 24.3 ...... 5.4 ......
Butter 6.0 0.3 91.0 ...... 2.7 ......

Reference to the above table shows that the thirteen per cent of
organic foods are about equally divided between fat, sugar and
protein. The protein is casein. There is no starch in milk. The
digestive ferment, which acts upon starch, has not developed in the
young babe and the infant cannot digest starch. The salts promote
the growth of bone.
The fat in milk is in small emulsified droplets within a thin
albuminous sheath. When allowed to stand in a cool place it rises to
the top.
 Besides casein, there is a certain amount of albumen in milk,—
about one-seventh of the total amount. This is called lactalbumin.
A part of the digestion of the casein is performed by pepsin in the
stomach and a part by the trypsin of the pancreatic juice.
Digestion of Milk. The larger part of the digestion of the milk sugar
is performed by the pancreatic juice; yet it is partly acted upon by the
saliva. There is little chance for the saliva to act upon the milk sugar
in the mouth, however, as very little saliva is mixed with the milk.
This constitutes another objection to the diet of all milk, and is an
argument in favor of drinking milk slowly and holding it in the mouth
until it is mixed with saliva. It is one reason, also, why children
should be given bread broken in the milk, instead of a piece of bread
and a glass of milk. By swallowing the milk slowly, the curds formed
in the stomach are smaller and the milk is more thoroughly digested.
When the fat (cream) is removed milk digests more readily, so that
in case of delicate stomachs skimmed milk, clabbered milk or
buttermilk are often prescribed instead of sweet milk. Boiled milk is
also more easily digested by some because of the lactalbumin which
is separated and rises to the top in a crinky skum. The casein is also
more readily digested in boiled milk, forming in small flakes in the
stomach instead of in curds.
When one takes from two to three glasses of milk at a meal, less
solid food is needed, because the required nutriment is partially
supplied with the milk. One reason why milk seemingly disagrees
with many people, is because they lose sight of the fact that milk is
an actual food, as well as a beverage and they eat the same quantity
of food in addition to the milk that they eat if drinking water. This is
the reason that milk seems to make some people bilious and causes
constipation. It is due to too much food rather than to any quality in
the milk.
Constipation may be occasioned by drinking milk rapidly so that
large curds are formed by the acids in the stomach, rendering it
difficult of digestion. The constipating effect will be overcome by
lessening the quantity of food and by the addition of limewater to the
milk.
 To prepare limewater put a heaping teaspoon of slaked lime into a
quart of boiled or distilled water; put into a corked bottle and shake
thoroughly two or three times during the first hour. Then allow the
lime to settle, and after twenty-four hours pour or siphon off the clear
fluid.
Barley water or oatmeal water added to milk also prevent the
formation of curds.
In young babes the milk is curdled, or the casein separated from
the water and sugar, not by hydrochloric acid, but by a ferment in the
gastric juice, known as rennin. It is the rennin, or rennet, from the
stomachs of young calves and young pigs, which is used to
coagulate the casein in cheese factories.
Milk is coagulated or curdled by many fruit and vegetable acids, as
the housewife well knows, using milk in pies containing certain acid
fruits, such as lemons, or in soup containing tomatoes. The
hydrochloric acid of the stomach at once causes a similar
coagulation, though the curds are tougher and more leathery. The
milk forms into curds immediately upon entering the stomach. This is
the natural process of milk digestion and is the chief reason why it
should be drunk slowly, otherwise the curds will form in too large
sizes, thus pressing upon the entrance to the stomach and causing
distress. The tough, large curds formed by the hydrochloric acid, are
difficult for invalids or for very delicate stomachs to digest.
If an alkali, such as limewater, is added, to neutralize the acids of
the stomach, the curds do not form, or are re-dissolved, and
digestion is aided. One sixth limewater to five-sixths milk is the
proper proportion.
Milk Tests. In testing the value of milk, or the value of a cow, butter
makers and farmers gauge it by the amount of butter fat in the milk,
while the cheese maker tests the milk for the proportion of protein
(casein). The amount of butter fat depends upon the feed and water,
and upon the breed. The milk from Jersey and Guernsey cows yields
about five per cent butter fat. If the total nutrient elements fall below
twelve per cent, it is safe to assume that the milk has been watered.
 In cheese and butter there is no sugar; it remains in the buttermilk
and the whey, both of which the farmer takes home from the
factories to fatten his hogs.
Preserving Milk. Many forms of bacteria thrive in milk and it is
needless to say that the utmost cleanliness should be observed on
the part of the dairyman in the care and cleanliness of his cows, in
the cleanliness of the milk receptacles, and in the place in which the
milk is allowed to stand over night. Care and cleanliness in the home
is quite as important.
If milk could be kept free from bacteria, it would keep sweet almost
indefinitely. At the Paris Exposition, milk from several American
dairies was kept sweet for two weeks, without any preservative,
except cleanliness and a temperature of about forty degrees. The
United States Bureau of Animal Industry states that milk may be kept
sweet for seven weeks without the use of chemicals.
The best method for the housewife to follow is to keep the milk
clean, cool, and away from other foods.
Pasteurized Milk. In pasteurizing milk the aim is to destroy as
many of the bacteria as possible without causing any chemical
changes or without changing the flavor. One can pasteurize milk at
home by placing it in an air tight bottle, immersing the bottle to the
neck in hot water, heating the water to one hundred and forty-nine
degrees F for a half hour and then quickly cooling the milk to fifty
degrees, by immersing the bottle in cold water. The rapid cooling
lessens the cooked taste. Many of the best dairies pasteurize the
milk in this way before it is marketed.
Sterilized Milk. Milk is sterilized to destroy all bacteria, by boiling it.
It must sometimes be boiled one, two or three successive days.
Sterilized milk remains sweet longer than pasteurized milk, but more
chemical changes are produced and the flavor is changed.
Formerly borax, boric acid, salicylic acid, formalin and salt petre
were used to keep the milk sweet, but this adulteration is now
forbidden by the pure food laws.
 Malted Milk is a dry, soluble food product in powder form, derived
from barley malt, wheat flour and cows milk, with the full amount of
cream.
The process of the extraction from the cereals is conducted at
elevated temperatures so as to allow the active agents (enzymes) of
the barley malt to affect the conversion of the vegetable protein and
starches. The filtered extract, containing the derivatives of the malt,
wheat and the full-cream cows milk, is then evaporated to dryness in
vacuo, the temperature being controlled so as to obviate any
alteration of the natural constituents of the ingredients and so as to
preserve their full physiological values. The strictest precautions are
observed to insure the purity of the product. It contains,
Fats 8.75
Proteins 16.35
Dextrine 18.80
Lactose and Maltose 49.15
(Total Soluble Carbohydrates) 67.95
Inorganic Salts 3.86
Moisture 3.06

It is free from germs, the starches and sugars being converted in

the process of manufacture in maltose, dextrine and lactose. The
fats are in an absorbable condition, and it contains a high
percentage of proteins derived from both the milk and the grains, as
well as a marked percentage of mineral salts. It is readily soluble in
water and is easily digested.
Smierkase, made in the home, is coagulated casein. It contains
thirty-three per cent protein, twenty-four per cent fat and five per cent
salts. The thickening of the milk, or the coagulation of the casein, is
like that produced by lactic acid.
Skimmed Milk, as shown by the table, contains the same amount
of protein as fresh milk, but more sugar and more ash, the difference
consisting almost entirely of less fat, which has been removed in the
cream.
Buttermilk. There is less fat, protein, sugar or ash in buttermilk
than in skimmed milk; it is therefore less nourishing but more easily
digested. The sugar has partially fermented and the free lactic acid
gives the pungent taste. Buttermilk made by lactone tablets and
fresh milk is as nourishing and as desirable as that made in the
process of butter making, and it has the advantage of being fresh.
Clabbered Milk. The casein in clabbered milk coagulates, and, if
kept in a hot place, the coagulation continues until the water, sugar
and salt are separated. This is the whey, which is fed to hogs,—the
sugar fattens them.
Milk Sugar. Sugar made from milk is now a commercial factor; it is
evaporated and compressed into a fine powder. This powder is used
by physicians and druggists in mixing powders, pills, tablets, etc.
Milk Junket. The junket tablets, used in milk junket, are milk
coagulated by rennet. Flavored milk coagulated by rennet, has not
the sour taste of milk coagulated by acid.
Condensed Milk is made by evaporating the water until the milk is
reduced to about one fourth its volume. It is then sterilized and
hermetically sealed. It is convenient for use, wherever fresh milk
cannot be obtained, but the process of evaporation changes its
flavor so that few care for it as a drink. It makes a good substitute for
cream in coffee, and diluted with three times its volume in water, it is
again of the same constituency as before the water was evaporated.

FOOTNOTES:
[7] Charles D. Woods Dr. Sc. in “Cereal Breakfast Foods.”
 BEVERAGES
Tea is made by steeping the leaves of a shrub,
Tea which grows in the tropical regions of Asia and
adjacent islands. The green tea comes from China
and Japan and the darker varieties from India and Ceylon.
It should never be boiled nor allowed to stand longer than a few
minutes, as standing in water causes tannin to be extracted from the
leaves, and this tannin disturbs digestion. It is the tannin extracted
from the bark of trees which toughens animal skins into leather. The
best way to make tea is to pour on boiling water and serve almost
immediately, or at least within five to ten minutes.
Because of the uncertainty as to the length of time tea may be
allowed to steep in hotel kitchens or restaurants, it is a wise custom
to have a ball of tea and a pot of hot water served that the guest may
make the tea at the table.
Tea, as well as coffee, is diuretic—stimulating the action of the
kidneys. It is not a food; it is a stimulant.
Thein, which is the ingredient for which tea is drunk, is chemically
identical with caffein in coffee.

Coffee is a beverage, prepared from the seeds

Coffee of the coffee tree. The best known brands come
from the Island of Java, Mocha, Rio de Janeiro,
and Mexico.
Coffee is not a food. The active principle is caffein. This is an
alkaloid and is a strong stimulant to the central nervous system. It
quickens the heart action, and, unless the heart be weak, one does
not need so strong a stimulant. The stimulating effect is so apparent
with many, that they cannot sleep for several hours after drinking it.
Others drink coffee to quicken mental activity and to keep them
awake.
It must be borne in mind, however, that there is a reactionary
effect from all stimulants, and while coffee is not intoxicating, as
alcohol, it has a similar effect upon the nerves and heart. It is given
to those addicted to liquor, as a milder stimulant, when they are
recovering from a spell of intoxication.
Whether because of the strong stimulant, or because of some
chemical effect of caffein, coffee retards digestion, especially when
the digestive organs are weak. It has the redeeming feature, of
having a pleasing aroma, which, because of the effect upon the
mind, may incite the flow of gastric juice; but, despite the fact that no
morning beverage has quite the same pleasing aroma, or pungency,
as coffee, one is much better without it.
One who knows that coffee disturbs his digestion and yet cannot
break himself from the habit of drinking it, should have sympathy for
the one who is addicted to liquor and finds it difficult to break the
habit of depending upon this so-called stimulant.
Cereal Coffee has been discussed under the heading “Cereals.”

Cocoa and Chocolate are prepared from the

Cocoa and chocolate bean. Cocoa is from the shell of the
Chocolate bean and chocolate from the kernel. As shown by
Table VII, they are more nutritious than the other
beverages; yet the fat in chocolate is not like the fat in other foods. It
is not used as a reserve in animal tissue as are the other fats.
The active principle in cocoa and chocolate is theobromin and is
similar to caffein in its stimulating effect upon the nervous system,
though milder.
 Lemonade and other fruit drinks, particularly
those made from the citrous fruits, slake the thirst
Lemonade more quickly than most drinks.
All fruit drinks are diuretic, and, wherever the action of the kidneys
is sluggish, they are especially desirable.

are made from bottling some drink, and, before

Carbonized sealing, forcing carbon dioxid into the bottle under
Drinks pressure. As soon as the cork is removed the
escape of the gas causes effervescence. These
drinks have no advantage, other than that they slake the thirst.

There is no beverage nor concoction devised by

Water man equal to water. It is to be deplored that it is not
used as freely as Nature demands,—from eight to
ten glasses a day.
The value of water as a food and as an aid to digestion is
discussed on page 41.
 CONDIMENTS
Without doubt, highly spiced foods are undesirable. They tend to
weaken digestion, by calling for an undue secretion of digestive
juices, which, if prolonged, tires out the glands. A reasonable amount
of condiments such as pepper, nutmeg, cloves, allspice, sage,
thyme, ginger, mustard, cinnamon, mace, horseradish, vanilla, dill,
etc., may be used as appetizers, because the pleasing thought of
them may incite the flow of gastric juice; but if one has not cultivated
a taste for them this thought will not be pleasing and they are then
better omitted from the diet. The taste is undoubtedly a cultivated
one, and should not be encouraged in children. The child rarely
cares for condiments and it is better that he continue to relish his
food for its natural flavor.
Condiments are not foods.