Textbook Metallic Materials Properties Development and Standardization Mmpds 11 11Th Edition Federal Aviation Administration Ebook All Chapter PDF

Metallic Materials Properties
Development and Standardization

MMPDS 11 11th Edition Federal
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MMPDS-11 COMPLETE HANDBOOK
Foreword i
Explanation of Numerical Code iii
Registered Trademarks v
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL C1-1
1.1 PURPOSE AND USE OF DOCUMENT C1-1
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION C1-1
1.1.2 SCOPE OF HANDBOOK C1-1
1.2 NOMENCLATURE C1-3
1.2.1 SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS C1-3
1.2.2 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS C1-3
1.3 COMMONLY USED FORMULAS C1-5
1.3.1 GENERAL C1-5
1.3.2 SIMPLE UNIT STRESSES C1-5
1.3.3 COMBINED STRESSES (SEE SECTION 1.5.3.5) C1-5
1.3.4 DEFLECTIONS (AXIAL) C1-5
1.3.5 DEFLECTIONS (BENDING) C1-5
1.3.6 DEFLECTIONS (TORSION) C1-6
1.3.7 BIAXIAL ELASTIC DEFORMATION C1-6
1.3.8 BASIC COLUMN FORMULAS C1-6
1.3.9 INELASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RESPONSE C1-7
1.4 BASIC PRINCIPLES C1-9
1.4.1 GENERAL C1-9
1.4.1.1 Basis C1-9
1.4.1.2 Statistically Calculated Values C1-10
1.4.1.3 Ratioed Values C1-10
1.4.1.4 Choosing Appropriate Allowables C1-10
1.4.2 STRESS C1-10
1.4.3 STRAIN C1-10
1.4.3.1 Poisson’s Ratio Effect C1-11
1.4.3.2 Shear Strain C1-11
1.4.3.3 Strain Rate C1-11
1.4.3.4 Elongation and Reduction of Area C1-11
1.4.4 INTRODUCTION TO STRESS STRAIN CURVES IN MMPDS C1-11
1.4.4.1 The One Parameter Ramberg-Osgood Stress Strain Curve C1-14
1.4.4.2 The Two Parameter Bron Stress Strain Curve C1-16
1.4.4.3 Tensile Properties C1-17
1.4.4.4 Modulus of Elasticity (E) C1-20
1.4.4.5 Tensile Proportional Limit Stress (Ftp) C1-21
1.4.4.6 Tensile Yield Stress (TYS or Fty) C1-22
1.4.4.7 Tensile Ultimate Stress (TUS or Ftu) C1-22
TOC-1
1.4.4.8 Elongation (e) C1-22

1.4.4.9 Reduction of Area (RA) C1-22
1.4.4.10 Design Stress-Strain Curves C1-22
1.4.4.11 Dynamic Modulus (ED) C1-23
1.4.5 COMPRESSIVE PROPERTIES C1-24
1.4.5.1 Compressive Ultimate Stress (Fcu) C1-24
1.4.5.2 Compressive Yield Stress (CYS or Fcy) C1-24
1.4.6 SHEAR PROPERTIES C1-24
1.4.6.1 Modulus of Rigidity (G) C1-24
1.4.6.2 Ultimate and Yield Stresses in Shear (SUS or Fsu) and (SYS or Fsy) C1-25
1.4.7 BEARING PROPERTIES C1-26
1.4.7.1 Bearing Yield (BYS or Fbry) and Ultimate (BUS or Fbru) Stress C1-27
1.4.7.2 Bearing Load Orientation C1-27
1.4.8 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS C1-29
1.4.8.1 Low Temperature C1-29
1.4.8.2 Elevated Temperature C1-29
1.4.9 FATIGUE PROPERTIES C1-31
1.4.9.1 Terminology C1-31
1.4.9.2 Graphical Display of Fatigue Data C1-31
1.4.10 METALLURGICAL INSTABILITY C1-33
1.4.11 BIAXIAL PROPERTIES C1-33
1.4.11.1 Biaxial Modulus of Elasticity C1-34
1.4.11.2 Biaxial Yield Stress C1-35
1.4.11.3 Biaxial Ultimate Stress C1-35
1.4.12 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS C1-35
1.4.12.1 Brittle Fracture C1-36
1.4.12.2 Brittle Fracture Analysis C1-36
1.4.12.3 Critical Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness C1-37
1.4.12.4 Fracture in Plane-Stress and Transitional-Stress States C1-38
1.4.12.5 Apparent Fracture Toughness Values for Plane-Stress and Transitional-Stress States C1-39
1.4.12.6 Crack Resistance (R-Curve) C1-40
1.4.13 FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH C1-44
1.4.13.1 Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Testing C1-44
1.4.13.2 Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis C1-45
1.4.13.3 Fatigue Crack Growth Data Presentation C1-46
1.4.14. Use of Values for Heat Treat by User Materials C1-47
1.5 TYPES OF FAILURES C1-49
1.5.1 GENERAL C1-49
1.5.2 MATERIAL FAILURES C1-49
1.5.2.1 Direct Tension or Compression C1-49
1.5.2.2 Shear C1-49
TOC-2
1.5.2.3 Bearing C1-49

1.5.2.4 Bending C1-49
1.5.2.5 Failure Due to Stress Concentrations C1-50
1.5.2.6 Failure From Combined Stresses C1-50
1.5.3 INSTABILITY FAILURES C1-50
1.5.3.1 Instability Failures Under Compression C1-50
1.5.3.2 Instability Failures Under Bending C1-50
1.5.3.3 Instability Failures Under Torsion C1-50
1.5.3.4 Failure Under Combined Loadings C1-50
1.6 COLUMNS C1-51
1.6.1 GENERAL C1-51
1.6.2 PRIMARY INSTABILITY FAILURES C1-51
1.6.2.1 Columns With Stable Sections C1-51
1.6.2.2 Maximum Column Stress FCO for Stable Cross Sections C1-53
1.6.2.3 Torsional Instability C1-53
1.6.2.4 Other Considerations C1-54
1.6.3 LOCAL INSTABILITY FAILURES C1-54
1.6.3.1 Crippling Stress (Fcc) C1-54
1.6.4 CORRECTION OF COLUMN TEST RESULTS C1-54
1.6.4.1 Nature of “Short Column Curve” C1-54
1.6.4.2 Local Failure C1-54
1.6.4.3 Reduction of Column Test Results on Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys to
Standard Material C1-54

1.6.4.4 Reduction of Column Test Results to Standard Material-Alternate Method C1-60
1.6.5 COMPACT SECTION BUCKLING AND Et ESTIMATES C1-62
1.6.5.1 Column Curve Comparison Criteria C1-64
1.6.5.2 Compressive Stress Strain and Et Figure Footnotes C1-64
1.7 THIN-WALLED AND STIFFENED THIN-WALLED SECTIONS C1-65
1.8 ALLOWABLES-BASED FLOW STRESS FOR NONLINEAR STATIC ANALYSIS C1-67
1.8.2 DETAILED PROCEDURE C1-67
1.8.3 REPORTING REQUIREMENTS C1-70
1.9 ESTIMATION OF AVERAGE TENSILE PROPERTIES FROM A- AND B-BASIS DESIGN
ALLOWABLES C1-71
1.9.2 GENERAL TRENDS C1-71
REFERENCES REF-C1-1
CHAPTER 2 STEEL ALLOYS C2-1
2.1 GENERAL C2-1
2.1.1 ALLOY INDEX C2-1
2.1.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES C2-2
TOC-3
2.1.2.1 Mechanical Properties C2-3

2.1.2.2 Physical Properties C2-6
2.1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS C2-9
2.1.4 OBSOLETE ALLOYS, HEAT TREATMENTS, AND PRODUCT FORMS C2-9
2.2 CARBON STEELS C2-13
2.2.0 COMMENTS ON CARBON STEELS C2-13
2.2.0.1 Metallurgical Considerations C2-13
2.2.0.2 Manufacturing Considerations C2-13
2.2.0.3 Environmental Considerations C2-14
2.2.1 AISI 1025 C2-15
2.2.1.0 Comments and Properties C2-15
2.3 LOW-ALLOY STEELS (AISI GRADES AND PROPRIETARY GRADES) C2-19
2.3.0 COMMENTS ON LOW-ALLOY STEELS (AISI AND PROPRIETARY GRADES) C2-19
2.3.0.2 Manufacturing Conditions C2-19
2.3.1 SPECIFIC ALLOYS C2-23
2.3.1.1 AISI Low-Alloy Steels C2-23
2.3.1.2 AISI 4130 and 8630 Steels C2-23
2.3.1.3 AISI 4340 Steel C2-23
2.3.1.4 300M Steel C2-23
2.3.1.5 D6AC Steel C2-23
2.4 INTERMEDIATE ALLOY STEELS C2-75
2.4.0 Comments on Intermediate Alloy Steels C2-75
2.4.1 5CR-MO-V C2-75
2.4.1.1 Heat-Treated Condition C2-79
2.4.2 9Ni-4Co-0.20C C2-83
2.4.3 9Ni-4Co-0.30C C2-88
2.5 HIGH-ALLOY STEELS C2-99
2.5.0 COMMENTS ON HIGH-ALLOY STEELS C2-99
2.5.1 18 NI MARAGING STEELS C2-101
TOC-4

2.5.1.1 Maraged Condition (aged at 900ºF) C2-101
2.5.2 AF1410 C2-110
2.5.3 AERMET 100 C2-113
2.5.3.1 280-300 ksi Heat-Treated Condition C2-115
2.5.3.2 290-310 ksi Heat-Treated Condition C2-117
2.5.4 FERRIUM S53 C2-119
2.5.4.1 Heat Treated Condition C2-122
2.5.5 FERRIUM M54 C2-131
2.5.5.1 Aged at 960°F Condition C2-134
2.6 PRECIPITATION- AND TRANSFORMATION-HARDENING STEELS (STAINLESS) C2-137
2.6.0 COMMENTS ON PRECIPITATION AND TRANSFORMATION-HARDENING STEELS
(STAINLESS) C2-137
2.6.0.2. Manufacturing Considerations C2-137
2.6.1 AM-350 C2-137
2.6.1.1 SCT 850 Condition C2-140
2.6.2 AM-355 C2-144
2.6.2.1 SCT Condition C2-148
2.6.3 CUSTOM 450 C2-150
2.6.3.1 H900 Condition C2-154
2.6.3.2 H1050 Condition C2-158
2.6.4 CUSTOM 455 C2-162
2.6.4.1 H950 Condition C2-165
2.6.4.2 H1000 Condition C2-170
2.6.5 CUSTOM 465 C2-173
2.6.5.1 H950 and H1000 Condition C2-176
2.6.6 PH13-8Mo C2-179
2.6.6.1 H950 and H1000 Conditions C2-184
2.6.6.2 Extra-High Toughness H1000 Conditions C2-190
TOC-5
2.6.7 15-5PH C2-198

2.6.7.1 Various Heat-Treated Conditions C2-203
2.6.7.2 H1025 Condition C2-206
2.6.7.3 H1150 Condition C2-211
2.6.8 PH15-7Mo C2-212
2.6.8.1 TH1050 Condition C2-215
2.6.9 17-4PH C2-224
2.6.9.1 H900 Condition C2-231
2.6.9.2 Various Heat Treat Conditions C2-236
2.6.9.3 H1000 Condition C2-238
2.6.9.4 H1025 Condition C2-239
2.6.9.5 H1100 Condition C2-240
2.6.9.6 H1150 Condition C2-241
2.6.10 17-7PH C2-242
2.6.10.1 TH1050 Condition C2-245
2.6.11 HSL180 (12.5CR-1.0 NI-15.5CO-2.0MO) C2-249
2.6.11.1 Austenitized and Tempered Condition C2-251
2.6.12 MLX17 C2-256
2.6.12.1 H950 Condition C2-259
2.6.12.2 H1000 Condition C2-262
2.6.13 MLX19 C2-265
2.6.13.1 H950 Condition C2-268
2.7 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS C2-271
2.7.0 COMMENTS ON AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL C2-271
2.7.1 AISI 301 AND RELATED 300 SERIES STAINLESS STEELS C2-273
2.7.1.1 Solution Heat Treated Condition C2-280
2.7.1.2 ¼ Hard Condition C2-282
2.7.1.3 ½ Hard Condition C2-283
2.7.1.4 ¾ Hard Condition C2-286
2.7.1.5 Full-Hard Condition C2-287
TOC-6
2.8 ELEMENT PROPERTIES C2-293

2.8.1 BEAMS C2-293
2.8.1.1 Simple Beams C2-293
2.8.1.2 Built-Up Beams C2-293
2.8.1.3 Thin-Web Beams C2-293
2.8.2 COLUMNS C2-296
2.8.2.1 General C2-296
2.8.2.2 Effects of Welding C2-296
2.8.3 TORSION C2-297
2.8.3.1 General C2-297
2.8.3.2 Torsion Properties C2-297
REFERENCES REF-C2-1
CHAPTER 3 - ALUMINUM ALLOYS C3-1
3.1. GENERAL C3-1
3.1.1. ALUMINUM ALLOY INDEX C3-1
3.1.2. MATERIAL PROPERTIES C3-2
3.1.2.1. Mechanical Properties C3-7
3.1.2.2. Physical Properties C3-34
3.1.2.3. Corrosion Resistance C3-34
3.1.3. MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS C3-42
3.1.3.1. Avoiding Stress Corrosion Cracking C3-42
3.1.3.2. Cold-Formed, Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys C3-42
3.1.3.3. Dimensional Changes C3-42
3.1.3.4. Welding C3-43
3.1.4. OBSOLETE ALLOYS, TEMPERS, AND PRODUCT FORMS. C3-47
3.1.5. STABILIZED SPECIFICATIONS C3-49
3.2. 2000 SERIES WROUGHT ALLOYS C3-51
3.2.1. 2013 ALLOY C3-51
3.2.1.0. Comments and Properties C3-51
3.2.1.1. T6511 Temper C3-53
3.2.2. 2014 ALLOY C3-68
3.2.2.1. T6, T62, T651, T652, T6510, and T6511 Temper C3-78
3.2.3. 2017 ALLOY C3-102
3.2.3.1. T4, T451, and T42 Temper C3-105
3.2.4 2024 ALLOY C3-106
3.2.4.1 T3, T351, T3510, T3511, T4, and T42 Temper C3-126
3.2.4.2 T361 (supersedes T36) Temper C3-162
3.2.4.3 T62 and T72 Temper C3-162
3.2.4.4 T81, T851, T852, T8510, and T8511 Temper C3-169
3.2.4.5 T861 (supersedes T86) Temper C3-182
TOC-7
3.2.5 2025 ALLOY C3-191

3.2.6 2026 ALLOY C3-194
3.2.7 2027 ALLOY C3-196
3.2.7.1 T351 Temper C3-199
3.2.7.2 T3511 Temper C3-203
3.2.8 2050 ALLOY C3-205
3.2.8.1 T84 Temper C3-214
3.2.9 CLAD 2056 ALLOY C3-224
3.2.10 2090 ALLOY C3-230
3.2.10.1 T83 Temper C3-232
3.2.11 2098 ALLOY C3-233
3.2.11.1 T82P Temper C3-237
3.2.12 2099 ALLOY C3-243
3.2.12.1 T86 Temper C3-247
3.2.12.2 T83 Temper C3-249
3.2.12.3 T81 Temper C3-255
3.2.13 2124 ALLOY C3-257
3.2.13.1 T851 Temper C3-259
3.2.14 2195 ALLOY C3-275
3.2.14.1 T8, T82 Temper C3-281
3.2.15 2196 ALLOY C3-286
3.2.15.1 T8511 Temper C3-289
3.2.16 2198 ALLOY C3-291
3.2.16.1 T8 Temper C3-294
3.2.17 2219 ALLOY C3-304
3.2.17.1 T62 Temper C3-311
3.2.17.2 T81 and T851X Tempers C3-314
3.2.17.3 T852 Temper C3-322
3.2.17.4 T87 Temper C3-325
TOC-8
3.2.18 2297 ALLOY C3-330

3.2.18.1 T87 Temper C3-333
3.2.19 2397 ALLOY C3-339
3.2.20 2424 ALLOY C3-342
3.2.21 2519 ALLOY C3-345
3.2.21.1 T87 Temper C3-347
3.2.22 2524 ALLOY C3-348
3.2.22.1 T3 Temper C3-350
3.2.23 2618 ALLOY C3-352
3.2.23.1 T61 Temper C3-356
3.2.24 2624 ALLOY C3-362
3.2.24.1 T39 Temper C3-365
3.2.24.2 T351 Temper C3-368
3.2.25 2055 ALLOY C3-371
3.2.25.1 T84 Temper C3-373
3.2.26 2824 ALLOY C3-379
3.2.26.1 T3511 Temper C3-382
3.2.27 2029 Alloy C3-386
3.2.27.1 T8 Temper C3-389
3.3 3000 SERIES WROUGHT ALLOYS C3-395
3.5.1 5052 ALLOY C3-395
3.5.1.1 O-Temper C3-399
3.5.1.2 H32 Temper C3-401
3.5.1.3 H34 Temper C3-401
3.5.1.4 H36 Temper C3-404
3.5.1.5 H38 Temper C3-404
3.5.2 5083 ALLOY C3-407
3.5.2.1 O Temper C3-412
TOC-9
3.5.3 5086 ALLOY C3-414

3.5.3.1 O Temper C3-417
3.5.3.2 H32 Temper C3-419
3.5.3.3 H34 Temper C3-421
3.5.3.4 H36 Temper C3-423
3.5.3.5 H38 Temper C3-424
3.5.3.6 H111 Temper C3-424
3.5.3.7 H112 Temper C3-424
3.5.4 5454 ALLOY C3-425
3.5.4.1 O Temper C3-428
3.5.4.2 H32 Temper C3-428
3.5.4.3 H34 Temper C3-429
3.5.5 5456 ALLOY C3-431
3.5.5.1 O Temper C3-435
3.5.5.2 H111 Temper C3-436
3.5.5.3 H112 Temper C3-437
3.5.5.4 H321 Temper C3-437
3.6.1 6013 ALLOY C3-439
3.6.1.1 T6 Temper C3-441
3.6.2 6061 ALLOY C3-442
3.6.2.1 T4, T42, T451, T4510, and T4511 Tempers C3-454
3.6.2.2 T6, T62, T651, T652, T6510, and T6511 Tempers C3-454
3.6.3 6151 ALLOY C3-471
3.6.3.1 T6 Temper C3-471
3.6.4 6156 ALLOY C3-474
3.6.4.1 T62 Temper C3-476
3.7.1 7010 ALLOY C3-479
3.7.1.1 T7451 Temper C3-482
3.7.1.2 T7651 Temper C3-485
3.7.2 7037 ALLOY C3-487
3.7.2.1 T7452 Temper C3-490
TOC-10
3.7.3 7040 ALLOY C3-496

3.7.4 7049/7149 ALLOY C3-500
3.7.4.1 T73 and T73511 Tempers C3-505
3.7.5 7050 ALLOY C3-517
3.7.5.1 T73510 and T73511 Tempers C3-528
3.7.5.2 T74, T7451, and T7452 Tempers C3-532
3.7.5.3 T76510 and T76511 Tempers C3-564
3.7.6 7055 ALLOY C3-569
3.7.6.1 T74511 Temper C3-574
3.7.6.2 T76511 Temper C3-581
3.7.6.3 T7751 and T77511 Tempers C3-581
3.7.7 7056 ALLOY C3-584
3.7.7.1 T7651 Temper C3-587
3.7.8 7068 ALLOY C3-591
3.7.8.1 T6511 Temper C3-593
3.7.9 7075 ALLOY C3-598
3.7.9.1 T6, T651, T652, T6510, T6511 Temper C3-620
3.7.9.2 T73, T7351, T7352, T73510, T73511 Tempers C3-656
3.7.10 7085 ALLOY C3-674
3.7.10.1 T7451 Temper C3-682
3.7.10.2 T7651 Temper C3-684
3.7.10.3 T7452 Temper C3-686
3.7.11 7136 ALLOY C3-706
3.7.11.1 T76511 Temper C3-708
3.7.12 7140 ALLOY C3-713
3.7.12.1 T7451 Temper C3-717
3.7.12.2 T7651 Temper C3-720
3.7.13 7150 ALLOY C3-728
3.7.13.1 T6151 and T61511 Tempers C3-734
3.7.13.2 T7751 and T77511 Tempers C3-736
TOC-11
3.7.14 7175 ALLOY C3-741

3.7.14.1 T73511 Temper C3-746
3.7.14.2 T74 and T7452 Tempers C3-751
3.7.15 7249 ALLOY C3-756
3.7.15.1 T7452 Temper C3-760
3.7.15.2 T76511 Temper C3-762
3.7.16 7255 ALLOY C3-764
3.7.16.1 T7751 Temper C3-766
3.7.17 7349 ALLOY C3-768
3.7.17.1 T76511 Temper C3-770
3.7.18 7449 ALLOY C3-772
3.7.18.1 T7651 Temper C3-779
3.7.18.2 T7951 Temper C3-782
3.7.18.3 T79511 Temper C3-785
3.7.19 7475 ALLOY C3-788
3.7.19.1 T61 and T651 Tempers C3-792
3.7.19.2 T7351 Temper C3-801
3.7.19.3 T761 and T7651 Tempers C3-809
3.7.20 7065 ALLOY C3-817
3.7.20.1 T7451 Temper C3-822
3.7.20.2 T7651 Temper C3-829
3.8 200.0 SERIES CAST ALLOYS C3-837
3.8.1 A201.0 ALLOY C3-837
3.8.1.1 T7 Temper C3-840
3.8.2 205/TIB2/3P ALLOY C3-847
3.8.2.1 Investment Casting C3-849
3.8.2.2 Sand Casting C3-854
3.9 300.0 SERIES CAST ALLOYS C3-859
3.9.1 354.0 ALLOY C3-859
3.9.2 355.0 ALLOY C3-861
3.9.3 C355.0 ALLOY C3-864
TOC-12
3.9.4 356.0 ALLOY C3-866

3.9.5 A356.0 ALLOY C3-869
3.9.5.1 T6 Temper C3-872
3.9.6 A357.0/F357.0 ALLOY C3-874
3.9.6.1 T6 Temper C3-877
3.9.7 D357.0/E357.0 ALLOY C3-878
3.9.7.1 T6 Temper C3-881
3.9.8 359.0 ALLOY C3-884
3.10.1 BEAMS C3-886
3.10.2 COLUMNS C3-889
3.10.2.1 Primary Failure C3-889
3.10.2.3 Column Properties C3-889
3.10.3 TORSION C3-891
3.10.3.1 General C3-891
REFERENCES REF-C3-1
TOC-13
CHAPTER 4 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS C4-1

4.1 GENERAL C4-1
4.1.1 ALLOY INDEX C4-1
4.1.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES C4-4
4.1.5 ALLOY AND TEMPER DESIGNATIONS C4-4
4.1.6 JOINING METHODS C4-6
4.1.7 OBSOLETE ALLOYS, TEMPERS, AND PRODUCT FORMS C4-6
4.2 MAGNESIUM-WROUGHT ALLOYS C4-9
4.2.1 AZ31B C4-9
4.2.1.1 AZ31B-O Temper C4-15
4.2.1.2 AZ31B-H24 Temper C4-16
4.2.1.3 AZ31B-H26 Temper C4-19
4.2.1.4 AZ31B-F Temper C4-19
4.2.2 AZ61A C4-21
4.2.3 WE43C (Elektron 43) C4-23
4.2.3.1 WE43C-T5 Temper C4-27
4.2.4 ZK60A C4-35
4.2.4.1 ZK60A-F Temper C4-35
4.2.4.2 ZK60A-T5 Temper C4-39
4.3 MAGNESIUM CAST ALLOYS C4-43
4.3.1 AM100A C4-43
4.3.2 AZ91C/AZ91E C4-45
4.3.2.1 T6 Temper C4-48
4.3.3 AZ92A C4-49
4.3.3.1 AZ92A-T6 Temper C4-52
4.3.4 EV31A (ELEKTRON 21) ALLOY C4-55
TOC-1
4.3.4.1. T6 Temper C4-57

4.3.5 EZ33A C4-61
4.3.5.1 EZ33A-T5 Temper C4-64
4.3.6 QE22A C4-66
4.3.6.1 QE22A-T6 Temper C4-68
4.3.7 ZE41A C4-70
4.3.7.1 T5 Temper C4-73
4.4.1 BEAMS C4-75
4.4.2 COLUMNS C4-75
4.4.2.1 Primary Failure C4-75
4.4.2.3 Column Properties C4-76
4.4.3 TORSION C4-77
4.4.3.1 General C4-77
REFERENCES REF-C4-1
CHAPTER 5 TITANIUM C5-1
5.1 GENERAL C5-1
5.1.1 TITANIUM INDEX C5-1
5.1.3 MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS C5-4
5.2 UNALLOYED TITANIUM C5-7
5.2.1 COMMERCIALLY PURE TITANIUM C5-7
5.2.1.1 Annealed Condition C5-12
5.3 ALPHA AND NEAR-ALPHA TITANIUM ALLOYS C5-17
5.3.1 TI-5AL-2.5SN C5-17
5.3.2 TI-8AL-1MO-1V C5-32
5.3.2.1 Single-Annealed Condition C5-37
TOC-2
5.3.2.2 Duplex-Annealed Condition C5-40

5.3.3 Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo C5-48
5.3.3.1 Single, Duplex, and Triplex Annealed C5-53
5.4 ALPHA-BETA TITANIUM ALLOYS C5-57
5.4.1 TI-6AL-4V C5-57
5.4.1.2 Solution-Treated and Aged Condition C5-104
5.4.2 TI-6AL-6V-2SN C5-122
5.4.3 TI-4.5AL-3V-2FE-2MO C5-139
5.4.4 TI-4AL-2.5V-1.5FE C5-148
5.4.4.1 Cold Rolled Sheet, Annealed Condition C5-154
5.4.4.2 Hot Rolled Sheet and Plate, Annealed Condition C5-162
5.5 BETA, NEAR-BETA, AND METASTABLE-BETA TITANIUM ALLOYS C5-171
5.5.1 TI-13V-11CR-3AL C5-171
5.5.2 TI-15V-3CR-3SN-3AL (TI-15-3) C5-188
5.5.2.0 Comments C5-188
5.5.2.1 Solution-Treated and Aged (1000ºF) Condition C5-191
5.5.3 TI-10V-2FE-3AL (TI-10-2-3) C5-192
5.5.3.1 Solution Treated and Aged (900º to 950ºF) Condition C5-195
5.5.3.2 Solution Treated and Aged (950º to 1000ºF) Condition C5-196
5.6.1 BEAMS C5-197
REFERENCES REF-C5-1
CHAPTER 6 HEAT-RESISTANT ALLOYS C6-1
6.1 GENERAL C6-1
TOC-3
6.2 IRON-CHROMIUM- NICKEL-BASE ALLOYS C6-5

6.2.0 GENERAL COMMENTS C6-5
6.2.1 A-286 C6-5
6.2.2 N-155 C6-16
6.2.2.1 Solution-Treated Condition C6-18
6.3 NICKEL-BASE ALLOYS C6-21
6.3.1 HASTELLOY X C6-23
6.3.1.1 Solution Treated Condition C6-26
6.3.2 INCONEL 600 C6-29
6.3.3 INCONEL 625 C6-36
6.3.4 INCONEL 706 C6-47
6.3.4.1 Solution-Treated and Aged Condition (Creep Rupture Heat Treatment) C6-50
6.3.5 718 ALLOY C6-54
6.3.6 INCONEL X-750 C6-95
6.3.6.1 Annealed and Aged C6-97
6.3.6.2 Equalized and Aged C6-99
6.3.7 RENÉ 41 C6-101
6.3.7.1 Solution Treated at 1975ºF and Aged at 1400ºF Condition C6-104
6.3.8 WASPALOY C6-124
6.3.8.1 Aged Condition C6-126
6.3.9. 230 ALLOY C6-130
TOC-4
6.3.9.1. Annealed Condition C6-134

6.3.10 HR-120 ALLOY C6-143
6.3.11 HAYNES 282 ALLOY C6-149
6.3.11.1 Precipitation Hardened Condition C6-151
6.4 COBALT-BASE ALLOYS C6-163
6.4.0.3 Special Precautions C6-163
6.4.1 L-605 (25 alloy) C6-164
6.4.1.1 Solution Treated Condition C6-167
6.4.2 188 ALLOY C6-187
6.4.2.1 Solution-Treated Condition C6-189
REFERENCES REF-C6-1
CHAPTER 7 MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS AND HYBRID MATERIALS C7-1
7.1 GENERAL C7-1
7.2 BERYLLIUM C7-3
7.2.0 GENERAL C7-3
7.2.1 STANDARD GRADE BERYLLIUM C7-3
7.2.1.0.1 Manufacturing Considerations C7-3
7.2.1.1 Hot-Pressed Condition C7-8
7.2.1.2 HIP'd Condition C7-12
7.3 COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS C7-13
7.3.0 GENERAL C7-13
7.3.1 MANGANESE BRONZES C7-14
7.3.2 COPPER BERYLLIUM C7-17
7.3.2.1 TF00 Temper C7-24
7.3.2.2 TH04 Temper C7-25
7.3.3 COPPER-NICKEL-TIN (SPINODAL ALLOY) C7-26
7.3.3.1 TX00 Temper C7-29
7.3.3.2 TX TS Temper C7-31
7.3.4 ALUMINUM BRONZES C7-34
TOC-5

7.4 MULTIPHASE ALLOYS C7-37
7.4.0 GENERAL C7-37
7.4.1 MP35N ALLOY C7-37
7.4.1.1 Cold Worked and Aged Condition C7-39
7.4.2 MP159 ALLOY C7-42
7.4.2.1 Cold Worked and Aged Condition C7-44
7.5 ALUMINUM ALLOY SHEET LAMINATES C7-47
7.5.0 GENERAL C7-47
7.5.1 2024-T3 ARAMID FIBER REINFORCED SHEET LAMINATE C7-47
7.5.1.1 T3 Temper C7-49
7.5.2 7475-T761 ARAMID FIBER REINFORCED SHEET LAMINATE C7-57
7.5.2.1 T761 Temper C7-59
7.6 ALUMINUM-BERYLLIUM HYBRIDS C7-67
7.6.0 GENERAL C7-67
7.6.1 AL-62BE C7-67
7.6.1.0.1 Manufacturing Considerations C7-67
7.6.1.1 Hot Isostatic Pressed Condition C7-69
REFERENCES REF-C7-1
CHAPTER 8 STRUCTURAL JOINTS C8-1
8.1 MECHANICALLY FASTENED JOINTS C8-3
8.1.1 INTRODUCTION AND FASTENER INDEXES C8-3
8.1.1.1 Data Sources C8-13
8.1.1.2 Fastener Shear Strengths C8-13
8.1.1.3 Edge Distance Requirements C8-13
8.1.2 SOLID RIVETS C8-15
8.1.2.1 Protruding-Head Solid Rivet Joints C8-15
8.1.2.2 Flush-Head Solid Rivet Joints C8-15
8.1.3 BLIND FASTENERS C8-24
8.1.3.1 Protruding-Head Blind Fasteners C8-24
8.1.3.2 Flush-Head Blind Fasteners C8-24
8.1.4 SWAGED COLLAR/UPSET-PIN FASTENERS C8-65
8.1.4.1 Protruding-Head Swaged Collar Fastener Joints C8-65
8.1.4.2 Flush-Head Swaged Collar Fastener Joints C8-66
8.1.5. THREADED FASTENERS C8-76
8.1.5.1 Protruding-Head Threaded Fastener Joints C8-76
8.1.5.2 Flush-Head Threaded Fastener Joints C8-77
TOC-6
8.1.6 SPECIAL FASTENERS C8-83

8.1.6.1 Fastener Sleeves C8-83
8.1.6.2 Sleeve Bolts C8-83
8.1.7. Historical - Non-Confirmed Sunset Fastener Tables C8-86
8.2 METALLURGICAL JOINTS C8-99
8.2.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS C8-99
8.2.2 WELDED JOINTS C8-99
8.2.2.1 Fusion Welding—Arc and Gas C8-100
8.2.2.2 Flash and Pressure Welding C8-101
8.2.2.3 Spot and Seam Welding C8-101
8.3 BEARINGS, PULLEYS, AND WIRE ROPE C8-121
REFERENCES REF-C8-1
CHAPTER 9 GUIDELINES FOR THE PRESENTATION OF DATA C9-1
9.1 GENERAL INFORMATION C9-1
9.1.2 CROSS INDEX C9-1
9.1.3 APPLICABILITY C9-1
9.1.4 APPROVAL PROCEDURES C9-1
9.1.5 DOCUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS C9-1
9.1.6 SUMMARY C9-4
9.1.7 DATA BASIS C9-6
9.1.7.1 Data Basis for Mechanical Properties (Chapters 2-7) C9-6
9.1.7.2 Data Basis for Mechanically Fastened Joint Allowables (Chapters 8) C9-8
9.1.8 ROUNDING PROCEDURES C9-9
9.1.9 APPLICABLE ANALYSISMETHODS C9-9
9.2 MATERIAL, SPECIFICATION, TESTING, AND DATA REQUIREMENTS C9-11
9.2.1 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS C9-11
9.2.2 SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS C9-11
9.2.2.1 Requirements for Products Controlled by Material Specifications Not Listed in 9.2.2 C9-11
9.2.3 REQUIRED TEST METHODS/PROCEDURES C9-12
9.2.3.1 Mechanical- Property Terms C9-15
9.2.3.2 Testing Direction and Specimen Location C9-15
9.2.3.3 Tension, Compression, Shear and Bearing C9-17
9.2.3.4 Other Static Properties C9-17
9.2.3.5 Required Test Methods to Determine Dynamic and Time Dependent Properties C9-18
9.2.3.6 Mechanically Fastened Joints C9-24
9.2.3.7 Fusion-Welded Joints C9-25
9.2.4 DATA REQUIREMENTS C9-26
9.2.4.1 S-Basis Values C9-26
9.2.4.2 A- and B-Basis Values C9-27
TOC-7
9.2.4.3 Derived Property Values C9-32

9.2.4.4 Other Static Properties C9-33
9.2.4.5 Data Requirements for Determination of Dynamic and Time Dependent Properties C9-37
9.2.4.6 Mechanically Fastened Joints C9-41
9.2.4.7 Fastener Strength Table Sunset Clause C9-45
9.2.5 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN C9-51
9.2.5.1 Uniformity of Sample Size across Thickness Range C9-51
9.2.5.2 Fatigue C9-52
9.2.5.3 Creep-Rupture C9-58
9.3 SUBMISSION OF DATA C9-63
9.3.1 RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES C9-63
9.3.2 COMPUTER SOFTWARE C9-63
9.3.3 INTRODUCTORY SECTION C9-63
9.3.4 GENERAL DATA FORMATS C9-63
9.3.4.1 Data Format for the Computation of T99 and T90 Values C9-64
9.3.4.2 Data Format for Derived Properties C9-64
9.3.4.3 Data Format for the Construction of Typical Stress-Strain Curves C9-68
9.3.4.4 Data Format for Fasteners C9-68
9.3.4.5 Data Format for Other Properties C9-69
9.4 SUBSTANTIATION OF PROPERTIES C9-73
9.4.1 S-BASIS MINIMUM PROPERTIES C9-73
9.4.2 VALIDATING DESIGN PROPERTIES FOR EXISTING MATERIALS (WHEN A CHANGE
IN PROCESSING HAS OCCURRED) C9-74
9.4.3 CONFIRMATION OF DESIGN PROPERTIES FOR LEGACY ALLOYS C9-76
9.4.3.1 Initial Steps and Analysis C9-76
9.4.3.2 Increase in Design Properties C9-77
9.4.3.3 Decrease in Design Properties C9-77
9.4.3.4 Derived Properties C9-78
9.5 ANALYSIS PROCEDURES FOR STATISTICALLY COMPUTED MINIMUM
STATIC PROPERTIES C9-83
9.5.1 SPECIFYING THE POPULATION C9-83
9.5.1.1 Deciding Between Direct and Indirect Computation C9-83
9.5.1.2 Testing for Regression Effects and Homogeneity C9-86
9.5.1.3 Data Transformation C9-90
9.5.2 REGRESSION ANALYSIS C9-98
9.5.2.1 Linear Regression C9-98
9.5.2.2 Quadratic Regression C9-100
9.5.2.3 Tests for Adequacy of a Regression C9-103
9.5.2.4 Testing for Equality of Several Regressions C9-105
TOC-8
9.5.3 COMBINABILITY OF DATA C9-108

9.5.3.1 The k-Sample Anderson-Darling Test C9-108
9.5.3.2 The F Test C9-110
9.5.3.3 The t Test C9-111
9.5.4 DETERMINING THE FORM OF DISTRIBUTION C9-113
9.5.4.1 “Anderson-Darling” Test for Normality C9-113
9.5.4.2 Normal Probability Plot C9-114
9.5.4.3 Three-Parameter Weibull Acceptability Test C9-114
9.5.4.4 Modified Anderson-Darling Test for Pearsonality C9-116
9.5.4.5 The Pearson Backoff Option C9-117
9.5.4.6 Pearson Probability Plot C9-117
9.5.4.7 Modified “Anderson-Darling” Test for Weibullness C9-120
9.5.4.8 The Weibull Backoff Option C9-122
9.5.4.9 Weibull Probability Plots C9-123
9.5.4.10 Detection of Lower-Tail Truncation C9-125
9.5.5 DIRECT COMPUTATION WITHOUT REGRESSION C9-127
9.5.5.1 Sequential Pearson Procedure C9-132
9.5.5.2. Sequential Weibull Procedure C9-133
9.5.5.3 Nonparametric Procedure C9-134
9.5.5.4 Censored Normal Procedure C9-135
9.5.6 DIRECT COMPUTATION BY REGRESSION ANALYSIS C9-136
9.5.6.1 Performing the Regression C9-136
9.5.7 INDIRECT COMPUTATION WITHOUT REGRESSION (REDUCED RATIOS/
DERIVED PROPERTIES C9-137
9.5.7.1 Treatment of Grain Direction C9-138
9.5.7.2 Treatment of Test Specimen Location C9-139
9.5.7.3 Treatment of Clad Aluminum Alloy Plate C9-139
9.5.7.4 Computational Procedure C9-140
9.5.8 INDIRECT COMPUTATION USING REGRESSION C9-141
9.5.9 HANDLING OF DERIVED PROPERTY TEST RESULTS BELOW ESTIMATED
DESIGN ALLOWABLE C9-142
9.5.10 INDIRECT COMPUTATION OF EDGEWISE BEARING REDUCTIONS C9-144
9.6 ANALYSIS PROCEDURES FOR DYNAMIC AND TIME DEPENDENT PROPERTIES C9-145
9.6.1 LOAD AND STRAIN CONTROL FATIGUE DATA C9-145
9.6.1.1 Data Collection and Interpretation C9-148
9.6.1.2 Analysis of Data C9-149
9.6.1.3 Fatigue Life Models C9-150
9.6.1.4 Evaluation of Mean Stress and Strain Effects C9-152
9.6.1.5 Estimation of Fatigue-Life Model Parameters C9-153
9.6.1.6 Treatment of Outliers C9-159
9.6.1.7 Assessment of the Fatigue Life Model C9-160
9.6.1.8 Data Set Combination C9-162
9.6.1.9 Treatment of Runouts C9-163
TOC-9
9.6.1.10 Recognition of Time Dependent Effects C9-164

9.6.1.11 Estimation of Lower Tolerance Bounds for Fatigue Data C9-165
9.6.2 FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH DATA C9-166
9.6.3 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS DATA C9-169
9.6.3.1 Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness Data C9-169
9.6.3.2 Plane Stress and Transitional Fracture Toughness C9-170
9.6.3.3 Crack Resistance (R-Curve) C9-171
9.6.4 CREEP AND CREEP-RUPTURE DATA C9-177
9.6.4.2 Analysis of Data C9-179
9.7 ANALYSIS PROCEDURES FOR STRUCTURAL JOINT PROPERTIES C9-183
9.7.1 MECHANICALLY FASTENED JOINTS C9-183
9.7.1.1 Definitions C9-184
9.7.1.2 Yield Load Determination C9-185
9.7.1.3 Shear Strength of Fastener C9-190
9.7.1.4 Sheet Critical and Transition Critical Strengths C9-193
9.7.1.5 Calculation of Allowable Loads C9-212
9.7.2 FUSION-WELDED JOINT DATA C9-213
9.7.2.2 Data Analysis C9-216
9.8 EXAMPLES OF DATA ANALYSIS AND DATA PRESENTATION FOR STATIC PROPERTIES C9-217
9.8.1 DIRECT ANALYSES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES C9-217
9.8.2 INDIRECT ANALYSES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES C9-230
9.8.3 TABULAR DATA PRESENTATION C9-234
9.8.3.2 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio C9-239
9.8.4 ROOM TEMPERATURE GRAPHICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTY DATA C9-240
9.8.4.1 Typical Stress-Strain C9-240
9.8.4.2 Compression-Tangent-Modulus Curves C9-252
9.8.4.3 Full Range Tensile Stress-Strain Curves C9-258
9.8.4.4 Minimum Stress-Strain and Stress Tangent-Modulus Curves C9-264
9.8.4.5 Biaxial Stress-Strain Behavior C9-264
9.8.4.6 Mathematical Representation of Stress-Strain Curves C9-264
9.8.5 ELEVATED TEMPERATURE GRAPHICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES C9-267
9.8.5.1 Strength Properties C9-267
9.8.5.2 Elongation and Reduction of Area C9-278
9.8.5.3 Modulus of Elasticity C9-278
9.8.5.5 Effect of Thermal Exposure on Room Temperature Strength C9-281
TOC-10
9.8.5.6 Effect of Thermal Exposure on Elevated Temperature Strength C9-282

9.8.5.7 Simple Exposure C9-282
9.8.5.8 Complex Exposure C9-283
9.9 EXAMPLES OF DATA FOR DYNAMIC AND TIME DEPENDANT PROPERTIES C9-287
9.9.1 FATIGUE C9-287
9.9.1.1 Load Control C9-294
9.9.1.2 Strain Control C9-301
9.9.2 FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH C9-304
9.9.3 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS C9-310
9.9.3.1 Plane Strain C9-310
9.9.3.2 Plane Stress C9-310
9.9.4 CREEP AND CREEP RUPTURE C9-311
9.9.4.1 Creep-Rupture Example Problem C9-312
9.9.5 MECHANICALLY FASTENED JOINTS C9-318
9.9.5.1 Example Analysis Problem for Three Diameter Blind Fastener Dataset C9-324
9.9.6 FUSION - WELDED JOINTS C9-361
9.9.6.1 Additional Information C9-361
9.9.6.2 Room-Temperature Properties C9-361
9.9.6.3 Data on Effect of Temperature C9-362
9.9.6.4 Use of Design Data C9-363
9.10 STATISTICAL TABLES C9-365
REFERENCES REF-C9-1
11-APPENDICES A-1
11-Appendix A - Glossary A-1
A.1 Abbreviations A-1
A.2 Symbols A-5
A.3 Definitions A-5
A.4 Conversion of U.S. Units of Measure Used in MMPDS to SI Units A-17
11-Appendix B - Alloy Index B-1
11-Appendix C - Specification Index C-1
11-Appendix D - Testing Standards D-1
11-Appendix E - Incomplete- SUBJECT Index E-1
TOC-11
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PRESERVATION OF FOODS
All food for preservation should be kept in a clean, cool, dry, dark
place. Reduction in temperature to near freezing, and removal of
moisture and air stop bacterial development.
Drying, cooking, and sealing from the air will preserve some meats
and fruits, while others require such preservatives as sugar, vinegar
and salt. The preservative in vinegar is acetic acid.
All preservatives which are actual foods, such as sugar, salt and
vinegar, are to be recommended, but the use of antiseptic
preservatives, such as salicylic acid, formaldehyd, boracic acid,
alum, sulphur and benzonate of soda, all of which have been used
by many canning merchants, is frought with danger. The United
States Department of Agriculture holds, that by the use of such
preservatives, unscrupulous dealers may use fruits and vegetables
not in good condition.
There can be no doubt that, wherever possible, the best method
for the housewife to preserve food is to do her own drying, canning,
preserving and pickling of fruits and vegetables, which she knows
are fresh, putting up her own preserves, jams, jellies, pickles, syrups,
grape juice, etc.
Since economy in food lies in the least amount of money for the
greatest amount of nutriment, the preparation of simple foods in the
home, with a care that no more is furnished for consumption than the
system requires, is the truest economy in health and in doctor’s bills.
It is not more brands of prepared food which are needed, but
purity of elements in their natural state. A dish of wholesome, clean
oat meal has more nourishment and more fuel value than the
average prepared food.
In the effort to emphasize the importance of pure food in
amount and quality, pure air and pure water must not be
overlooked. Much infection is carried by these two
elements. Pure air, containing a normal amount of oxygen,
is absolutely necessary that the system may digest and
assimilate the foods consumed.
COOKING
The cooking of food is as important as its selection, because the
manner of cooking makes it easier or more difficult of digestion. The
question of the proper selection and cooking of food is so vital to the
health and resultant happiness of every family, and to the strength
and well being of a nation, that every woman, to whom the cooking
for a family is entrusted, should have special preparation for her
work, and every girl should be given practical and theoretical training
in Dietetics in our public schools. The study is as dignified as the
study of music and art. Indeed it can be made an art in the highest
conception of the term. Surely the education of every girl in the
vocation, in which she sooner or later must engage, either actively or
by directing others, means more than education in music and
drawing. We must all eat two and three times every day; there are
few things which we do so regularly and which are so vital; yet in the
past we have given this subject less study than any common branch
in our schools. When the dignity of the profession of dietetics is
realized, the servant problem will be largely solved.
In cooking any food, heat and moisture are necessary, the time
varying from thirty minutes to several hours, according to different
foods. Baked beans and meats containing much connective tissue,
as boiling and roasting cuts, require the longest time.
The purposes in the cooking of foods are: the development of the
flavor, which makes the food appetizing, thus encouraging the flow of
gastric juice; the sterilization, thereby killing all parasites and micro-
organisms, such as the tape worm in beef, pork, and mutton, and the
trichinae in pork; the conversion of the nutrients into a more
digestible form, by partially or wholly converting the connective
tissue into gelatin.
The fundamental principle to be observed in the
cooking of meat concerns the retention of the
Cooking of
Meats
juices, since these contain a large part of the
nutrition. The heat develops the flavor, and the
moisture, together with the heat, dissolves the connective tissue and
makes it tender.
A choice piece of meat may be toughened and made difficult of
digestion, or a tough piece may be made tender and easy to digest,
by the manner of cooking.
Soups. To make meat soups, the connective tissue, bone and

muscle should be put into cold water, brought slowly to the boiling
point and allowed to simmer for hours. It must be remembered that
the gelatin from this connective tissue does not contain the tissue
building elements of the albuminoids. These are retained in what
meat may be about the bones of the boiling piece and in the blood.
The albumin of meat is largely in the blood and it is the coagulated
blood which forms the scum on soup, if heated above a certain point;
the cook should boil the soup slowly, or much of the nutrition is lost
in the coagulated blood, or skum.
Roasting. The flavor and juice of the meat is best retained by

roasting. If it is put into a hot oven, with a little suet over the top, so
as to sear the meat with hot fat, and no water is put in the pan, it will
retain the juice and the flavor. Water draws out the extractives.
It is important to remember that the smaller the cut to be roasted,
the hotter should be the fire. An intensely hot fire coagulates the
exterior and prevents the drying up of the meat juice. After the
surface is coagulated and seared it should cook slowly.
Unless the oven is sufficiently hot to sear the surface, the
moisture, or juice, will escape into the roasting pan and the
connective tissue will be toughened. A roast should be cooked in a
covered roaster to retain the moisture.
The roast should be turned as soon as one side is seared and just
sufficient water put into the pan to keep it from burning.
Frequent basting of a roast, with the fat, juice, and water in the
roasting pan, still further sears the surface, so that the juices do not
seep through and keeps the air in the pan moist; the heated moisture
materially assists in gelatinizing the connective tissue,—roasting
pans are now made which are self-basting.
Broiling. The same principle applies to broiling as to roasting. The

meat is put over a very hot flame and turned so as to quickly sear
both sides, to prevent the juice from oozing out. In fact, the best
broiled steaks are turned just as soon as the juice begins to drip, so
as to retain all juice in the meat.
Meat containing much connective tissue is not adapted to broiling,
because it takes too long for this tissue to become gelatinized.
Steak broiled in a skillet, especially round steak which has been
pounded to assist in breaking the connective tissue, is often first
dipped in seasoned flour, which is rubbed well into it. The flour
absorbs the meat juices so that none of them are lost. All meats
broiled in skillets should be put into a very hot skillet and one surface
seared, then should be turned so as to sear the other side. The
skillet should be kept covered so as to retain the moisture.
Boiling. In boiling meat, where the object is to eat the tissue itself,
it should be put into hot water, that the albumin on the surface may
be immediately coagulated and prevent the escape of the nutrients
into the water. It is impossible to make a rich broth and to have a
juicy, highly flavored piece of boiled meat at the same time. Meat is
best roasted or broiled when the meat tissue is to be eaten.
The boiling cuts contain more connective tissue, therefore they
require a much longer time to cook in order to gelatinize this tissue.
They are not as rich in protein as the steaks.
Meat soups, bouillons and broths contain very little nutriment, but
they do contain the extractives, and the flavors increase the flow of
digestive juices and stimulate the appetite. It is for this reason that
soups are served before a meal rather than for a dessert; they insure
a copious flow of gastric juice and saliva to act upon the crackers or
toast eaten with the soup. Many mistake the extractives and flavor
for nourishment, feeling that the soups are an easy method of taking
food, but the best part of the nutriment remains in the meat or
vegetables making the soup.
Pot Roasts. In the case of a pot roast, or roast in a kettle, where it

is desirable to use both the fibre of the meat and the juice, or gravy,
it should be put into a little cold water and raised to about 180
degrees F., where it should be kept for some hours. The juices of the
meat seep out in the gravy. The extractives are simmered down and
are again poured over the meat in the rich gravy.
Frying. This is the least desirable method of cooking. Food

cooked by putting a little grease into a frying pan, such as fried
potatoes, mush, eggs, french toast, and griddle cakes, are more
difficult of digestion than foods cooked by any other means,
particularly where the fat is allowed to smoke. The fat is
superheated; if a lighted match is placed near the smoke it will catch
fire, showing that it is volatilizing, or being reduced to a vapor.
The extreme heat liberates fatty acids. This acrid fat soaks into the
food and renders it difficult of digestion. It is wise not to employ this
method of cooking.
The objection to frying does not hold so strongly in the case of
vegetables, such as potatoes, if fried slowly in fat, that is not over
heated, or to griddle cakes cooked slowly without smoke, or to foods
immersed in grease (such as saratoga chips, doughnuts, french fried
potatoes, etc.), as the large amount of fat does not permit it to get so
heated. It does apply, however, if the fat is sufficiently heated to
smoke.
The coating of vegetables and cereals with the hot fat prevents the
necessary action of saliva upon the starch globules. As previously
stated, most of the starches are digested in the mouth and the
stomach, while the fats are not emulsified until they reach the
intestines.
The starch globules in cereals and vegetables are in the form of
cells, the covering of these cells being composed largely of
nitrogenous matter. The protein is not acted upon by the saliva, and
the nitrogenous matter is largely digested in the stomach. It is more
easily dissolved if it is broken or softened by cooking, so that the
carbohydrates can come in contact with the saliva, but if encased in
fried fat, the gastric juices cannot digest the protein covering and the
saliva cannot reach the starch until the fat is emulsified in the
intestines. This means that wherever starch globules are surrounded
with fat, the digestive ferments reach these globules with difficulty
and fried foods must be digested mostly in the intestines.
Fats are readily absorbed in their natural condition, but when
subject to extreme heat, as in frying, they are irritants. For this
reason, eggs, poached, boiled or baked are more easily digested
than fried.
Boiling, broiling and roasting are preferable to foods cooked in
fats.
One safe rule for the cook is, that it is better to
Cooking of cook most foods too much than too little;
Cereals overcooking is uncommon and harmless, while
undercooked foods are common and difficult of
digestion.
In partially cooked cereals, one does not know how much of the
cooking has been done, but it is safe to cook all such foods at least
as long as specified in the directions.
One reason why breakfast foods, such as rolled oats, are partially
cooked, is because they keep longer.
As has been stated, the nutrients of the grain are found inside the
starch-bearing and other cells, and the walls of these cells are made
of crude fiber, on which the digestive juices have little effect. Unless
the cell walls are broken down, the nutrients can not come under the
influence of the digestive juices until the digestive organs have
expended material and energy in trying to get at them. Crushing the
grain in mills, and making it still finer by thorough mastication breaks
many of the cell walls, and the action of the saliva and other
digestive juices also disintegrates them more or less, but the heat of
cooking accomplishes the object much more thoroughly. The
invisible moisture in the cells expands under the action of heat, and
the cell walls burst. The water added in cooking also plays an
important part in softening and rupturing them. Then, too, the
cellulose itself may be changed by heat to more soluble form. Heat
also makes the starch in the cells at least partially soluble, especially
when water is present. The solubility of the protein is probably, as a
rule, somewhat lessened by cooking, especially at higher
temperatures. Long, slow cooking is therefore better, as it breaks
down the crude fiber and changes the starch to soluble form without
materially decreasing the solubility of the protein.
“In experiments made with rolled oats at the Minnesota
Experiment Station, it appeared that cooking (four hours) did not
make the starch much more soluble. However, it so changed the
physical structure of the grains that a given amount of digestive
ferment could render much more of it soluble in a given time than
when it was cooked for only half an hour.
“On the basis of the results obtained, the difficulty commonly
experienced in digesting imperfectly cooked oatmeal was attributed
to the large amounts of glutinous material which surrounds the
starch grains and prevent their disintegration. When thoroughly
cooked the protecting action of the mucilaginous protein is
overcome, and the compound starch granules are sufficiently
disintegrated to allow the digestive juices to act. In other words, the
increased digestibility of the thoroughly cooked cereal is supposed to
be largely due to a physical change in the carbohydrates, which
renders them more susceptible to the action of digestive juices.”
Pastry. Pastry owes its harmful character to the interference of fat

as shown on page 198, with the proper solution of the starch,—at
least such pastry as requires the mixing of flour with fat; the coating
of these granules with fat prevents them from coming in contact with
liquids; the cells cannot absorb water, swell and burst so that they
may dissolve. The fat does not furnish sufficient water for this and so
coats the starch granules as to prevent the absorption of water in
mixing, or of the saliva in mastication. This coating of fat is not
relieved until late in the process of digestion, or until the food
reaches the intestines. This same objection applies to rich gravies,
unless the flour be dissolved in water and heated before being mixed
with the fats. The objection, therefore, is to such pastry as is made
by mixing flour with fat, as in pie crust; it does not apply to most
puddings.
Heat, in cooking, causes a combustion of the carbonic acid gas
and the effort of this gas to escape, as well as the steam occasioned
by the water in the food, causes the bubbles. When beaten eggs are
used, the albuminoids in the bubbles expand the walls, which stiffen
with the heat and cause the substances containing eggs to be
porous.
Since the root vegetables contain a large
Cooking of proportion of carbohydrates, they should be well
Vegetables cooked, in order that the cells may be fully
dissolved, and the crude fibre broken.
Vegetables are best cooked in soft water, as lime or magnesia, the
chemical ingredients which make water “hard”, make the vegetables
less soluble.
Vegetables and fruits become contaminated with the eggs of
numerous parasites from the fertilizers used; hence they should be
thoroughly washed.
The objection to frying meats are equally strong in regard to
vegetables. The coating of vegetables with the hot fat retards
digestion, as shown on page 198.
“In different countries opinions differ markedly

Cooking of Fruit regarding the relative wholesomeness of raw and
cooked fruit. The Germans use comparatively little
raw fruit and consider it far less wholesome than cooked fruit. On the
other hand, in the United States raw fruit of good quality is
considered extremely wholesome, and is used in very large
quantities, being as much relished as cooked fruit, if indeed it is not
preferred to it. It has been suggested that the European prejudice
against raw fruit may be an unconscious protest against unsanitary
methods of marketing or handling and the recognition of cooking as
a practical method of preventing the spread of disease by fruit,
accidentally soiled with fertilizers in the fields or with street dust.
“As in the case with all vegetable foods, the heat of cooking
breaks down the carbohydrate walls of the cells which make up the
fruit flesh, either because the moisture or other cell contents expand
and rupture the walls or because the cell wall is itself softened or
dissolved. Texture, appearance, and flavor of fruit are materially
modified by cooking, and, if thorough, it insures sterilization, as in the
case of all other foods. The change in texture often has a practical
advantage, since it implies the softening of the fruit flesh so that it is
more palatable and may be more readily acted upon by the digestive
juices. This is obviously of more importance with the fruits like the
quince, which is so hard that it is unpalatable raw, than it is with soft
fruits like strawberries. When fruits are cooked without the addition of
water or other material, as is often the case in baking apples, there is
a loss of weight, owing to the evaporation of water, and the juice as it
runs out carries some carbohydrates and other soluble constituents
with it, but under ordinary household conditions this does not imply
waste, as the juice which cooks out from fruits is usually eaten as
well as the pulp. Cooking in water extracts so little of the nutritive
material present that such removal of nutrition is of no practical
importance.
“The idea is quite generally held that cooking fruit changes its acid
content, acid being sometimes increased and sometimes decreased
by the cooking process. Kelhofer showed that when gooseberries
were cooked with sugar, the acid content was not materially
changed, these results being in accord with his conclusions reached
in earlier studies with other fruits. The sweeter taste of the cooked
product he believed to be simply due to the fact that sugar masks the
flavor of the acid.
“It is often noted that cooked fruits, such as plums, seem much
sourer than the raw fruit, and it has been suggested that either the
acid was increased or the sugar was decreased by the cooking
process. This problem was studied by Sutherst, and, in his opinion,
the increased acid flavor is due to the fact that cooked fruit
(gooseberries, currants, plums, etc.) usually contains the skin, which
is commonly rejected if the fruit is eaten raw. The skin is more acid
than the simpler carbohydrates united to form a complex
carbohydrate. In some fruits, like the apple, where the jelly-yielding
material must be extracted with hot water, the pectin is apparently
united with cellulose as a part of the solid pulp. As shown by the
investigations of Bigelow and Gore at the Bureau of Chemistry, 40
per cent of the solid material of apple pulp may be thus extracted
with hot water, and consists of two carbohydrates, one of which is
closely related to gum arabic. That such carbohydrates as these
should yield a jelly is not surprising when we remember that they are
similar to starch in their chemical nature, and, as every one knows,
starch, though insoluble in cold water, yields when cooked with hot
water a large proportion of paste, which jellies on cooling.
“When fruits are used for making pies, puddings, etc., the nutritive
value of the dish is, of course, increased by the addition of flour,
sugar, etc., and the dish as a whole may constitute a better balanced
food than the fruit alone.”[8]
FOOTNOTES:
[8] C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D.—In charge of Nutritive
Investigations of the United States Experiment Station.
DIETS
As previously stated, the object of foods is to supply the needs of
the body in building new tissue in the growing child; in repairing
tissue which the catabolic activity of the body is constantly tearing
down and eliminating; and in supplying heat and energy. This heat
and energy is not alone for muscular activity in exercise or
movement; it must be borne in mind that the body is a busy work-
shop, or chemical laboratory, and heat and energy are needed in the
constant metabolism of tearing down and rebuilding tissue and in the
work of digestion and elimination.
In this chapter, a few points given in the preceding pages are
repeated for emphasis. The proteins, represented in purest form in
lean meat, build tissue and the carbonaceous foods, starches,
sugars and fats, supply the heat and energy. An excess of proteins,
that is more than is needed for building and repair, is also used for
heat and energy; the waste products of the nitrogenous foods are
broken down into carbon dioxid, sulphates, phosphates, and other
nitrogenous compounds and excreted through the kidneys, skin, and
the bile, while the waste product of carbonaceous foods is carbon
dioxid alone and is excreted mostly through the lungs.
Since the foods richest in protein are the most expensive, those
who wish to keep down the cost of living, should provide, at most, no
more protein than the system requires. The expensive meat may be
eliminated and proteins be supplied by eggs, milk, legumes, nuts
and cereals.
The most fundamental thing is to decide upon the amount of
protein—two to four ounces, nearly a quarter of a pound a day—and
then select a dietary which shall provide this and also supply heat
and energy sufficient for the day. If the diet is to include meat, a
goodly proportion of protein will be furnished in the lean meat. This
will vary greatly with the different cuts of meat as shown on Table IV,
page 128. If, as often happens, one does not care for fats, then the
starches and sugars must provide the heat. If one craves sweets,
less starches and fats are needed.
The normally healthy individual is more liable to supply too much
protein than too little, even though he abstain from meat. Yet, as will
be shown later, our strongest races, who have lent most to the
progress of the world, live upon a mixed diet.
If the diet is to include meat, it will consist of less bulk, because
the protein is more condensed; for the same reason, if it includes
animal products of eggs and milk and a fair proportion of legumes, it
will be less bulky than a vegetable diet. This point is important for
busy people, who eat their meals in a hurry and proceed at once to
active, mental work. Those who engage in physical labor are much
more likely to take a complete rest for a half hour, to an hour, after
eating. The thinkers seldom rest, at least after a midday meal, and
those who worry seldom relax the mental force during any waking
hours.
Where the system shows an excess of uric acid, the chances are
that the individual has not been living on a diet with too large a
proportion of protein, but that he has been eating more than he
requires of all kinds of foodstuffs. His system thus becomes
weakened and he does not breathe deeply nor exercise sufficiently
to oxidize and throw off the waste. Let it be recalled here that the
theory that rheumatism is caused by an excess of uric acid is
disputed by the highest authorities. It is accompanied by uric acid,
but not supposed to be caused by it.
Every housewife, to intelligently select the daily menus for her
family, needs a thorough knowledge of dietetics. She must
understand the chemistry of food that she may know food values.
The difficulty which confronts the housewife, is to provide one meal
suited to the needs, tastes, or idiosyncracies of various members of
her household. Peculiarities of taste, unless these peculiarities have
been intelligently acquired, may result in digestive disturbances. As
an illustration: one may cultivate a dislike for meat, milk, or eggs, as
is often the case, and the proteins for the family being largely
supplied by these, the individual is eating too much of starches and
sugars and not sufficient protein,—legumes, nuts, etc., not being
provided for one member. Such an one’s blood becomes
impoverished and she becomes anaemic.
The relief lies in cultivating a taste for blood building foods. Foods
which are forced down, with a mind arrayed against them, do not
digest as readily, because the displeasure does not incite the flow of
gastric juices. One fortunate provision of nature lies in the ability to
cultivate a taste for any food. Likes and dislikes are largely mental.
There are certain foods which continuously disagree and they should
be avoided; but many abstain from wholesome food because it has
disagreed a few times. It may be that it was not the particular food
but the weakness of the stomach at this time. Any food fails of
prompt digestion when the nerves controlling the stomach are weak.
Many foods disagree at certain times because of the particular
conditions regulating the secretion of digestive juices. Where this
condition has continued for some time it becomes chronic and a
special diet is required, together with special exercises to bring a
better blood supply to stomach and intestines and to regulate the
nerves controlling them.
Dr. W. S. Hall estimates that the average man at light work
requires, each day,
106.8 grams of protein[9]
57.97 grams of fat
398.84 grams of carbohydrates
These elements, in proper proportions, may be gained through
many food combinations. He gives the following:
Bread 1 lb.
Lean Meat ½ lb.
Oysters ½ lb.
Cocoa 1 oz.
Milk 4 oz.
Sugar 1 oz.
Butter ½ oz.
A medium sized man at out of door work, fully oxidizes all waste of
the system and he requires a higher protein diet,—125 grams. In
such event he does not require so much starch and sugar. If on the
other hand he were to take but 106.8 grams of protein, as above, he
would require more carbohydrates. One working, or exercising in the
fresh air, breathes more deeply and oxidizes and eliminates more
waste, hence he has a better appetite, which is simply the call of
nature for a re-supply of the waste.
In active work, one also liberates more heat, thus more fat,
starches, and sugar are required for the re-supply. If one has an
excess of starch (glycogen) stored in the liver, or an excess of fat
about the tissues, this excess is called upon to supply the heat and
energy when the fats and carbohydrates daily consumed are not
sufficient for the day’s demand. This is the principle of reduction of
flesh.
It is interesting to note that habits of combining foods are
unconsciously based upon dietetic principles. Meats rich in protein
are served with potatoes, or with rice, both of which are rich in
starch. Bread, containing little fat, is served with butter. Beans,
containing little fat, are cooked with pork. Starchy foods of all kinds
are served with butter or cream. Macaroni, which is rich in starch,
makes a well balanced food cooked with cheese.
Pork and beans,
bread and butter,
bread and milk,
chicken and rice,
macaroni and cheese,
poached eggs on toast, and
custards, form balanced dishes.
A knowledge of such combinations is important when one must
eat a hasty luncheon and wishes to supply the demands of the body
in the least time, giving the least thought to the selection; but hasty
luncheons, with the mind concentrated upon other things, are to be
strongly condemned. The mind must be relaxed and directed to
pleasant themes during a meal or the nerves to the vital organs will
be held too tense to permit a free secretion of digestive juices.
Chronic indigestion is sure to result from this practice. Dinner, or the
hearty meal at night, rather than at noon, is preferable for the
business or professional man or woman, because the cares of the
day are over and the brain force relaxes. The vital forces are not
detracted from the work of digestion.
Experiments in the quantity of food actually required for body
needs, made by Prof. R. H. Chittenden of the Sheffield Scientific
School, Yale University, have established, beyond doubt, the fact
that the average individual consumes very much more food than the
system requires. In fact, most tables of food requirements, in
previous books on dietetics, have been heavy.
Prof. Chittenden especially established the fact that the average
person consumes more protein than is necessary to maintain a
nitrogenous balance. It was formerly held that the average daily
metabolism and excretion of nitrogen through the kidneys was 16
grams, or about 100 grams of protein or albuminoid food. Prof.
Chittenden’s tests, covering a period of six months, show an average
daily excretion of 5.86 grams of nitrogen, or a little less than one-
third of that formerly accepted as necessary; 5.86 grams of nitrogen
corresponds to 36.62 grams of protein or albuminoid food.
Prof. Chittenden’s experiments of the foodstuffs actually required
by three groups of men, one group of United States soldiers, a group
from the Yale College athletic team, and a group of college
professors, all showed that the men retained full strength, with a
higher degree of physical and mental efficiency, when the body was
not supplied with more protein than was liberated by metabolic
activity, and when the quantity of carbonaceous food was regulated
to the actual requirement to retain body heat and furnish energy.
It may be well to call attention here to the fact that the food
elements, called upon for work, are not from those foods just
consumed or digested, but from those eaten a day or two previous,
which have been assimilated in the muscular tissues.
In selecting a diet, the individual must be considered as to age,
sex and physical condition, also whether active in indoor or outdoor
work, and whether he or she breathes deeply, so as to take plenty of
fresh air into the lungs.
The following tables, published through the courtesy of Dr. W. S.
Hall, give the rations for different conditions.
TABLE XI.
Rations for Different Conditions.
Proteins Carbohydrates
Energy in
Conditions Low High Fats Low High
Calories
Man at light indoor work 60 100 60 390 450 2764
Man at light outdoor work 60 100 100 400 460 2940
Man at moderate outdoor work 75 125 125 450 500 3475
Man at hard outdoor work 100 150 150 500 550 4000
Man at very hard outdoor winter
125 180 200 600 650 4592
work
U. S. Army rations 64 106 280 460 540 4896-5032
U. S. Navy rations 143 292 557 5545
Football team (old regime) 181 292 557 5697
College football team (new) 125 125 125 500 3675
TABLE XII.
Rations Varied for Sex and Age.
Proteins Carbohydrates
Variations of Sex and Age Low High Fats Low High Energy in Calories
Children, two to six 36 70 40 250 325 1520-1956
Children, six to fifteen 50 75 45 325 350 1923-2123
Women, with light exercise 50 80 80 300 330 2272
Women, at moderate work 60 92 80 400 432 2720
Aged women 50 80 50 270 300 1870
Aged men 50 100 400 300 350 2258
The unit of measurement for the calories of energy is the amount

of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of energy
to 1° centigrade.
In estimating the number of calories of energy given off by the
different foods, Dr. Hall represents
1 gram of carbohydrates as 4.0 calories
” ” ” fats ” 9.4 ”
” ” ” proteins ” 4.0 ”
To determine the relative energy which a food represents, it is only
necessary to multiply the number of grams of protein in that food by
4, the fat by 9.4 and the carbohydrates by 4, and add the results.
Thus according to the food required for the average man at light
work given on page 211.
106.8 grams of proteins × 4 = 427.20 calories of energy
57.97 ” ” fat × 9.4 = 544.94 ” ” ”
398.84 ” ” carbohydrates × 4 = 1595.36 ” ” ”
= the calories of energy required
2567.51
for the average man at light work.
Dr. Chittenden’s experiments show that a man leading a very

active life, and above the average in body weight, can maintain his
body in equilibrium indefinitely with a daily intake of 36 to 40 grams
of protein, or albuminoid food, and with a total fuel value of 1600
calories. Authorities, however differ upon the amount of food
required.
Dr. Hall suggests 106 grams of protein
Ranke suggests 100 grams of protein
Hultgren and Landergren suggests 134 grams of protein
Schmidt suggests 105 grams of protein
Forster and Moleschott suggests 130 grams of protein
Atwater suggests 125 grams of protein
In order to bring oneself to as limited a diet as Prof. Chittenden’s

men followed, however, it would be necessary to have all food
weighed so as to be sure of the correct proportions; otherwise the
actual needs would not be supplied and the body would suffer. A
wise provision of nature enables the body to throw off an excess of
food above the body needs without injury, within limitations; but, as
stated, there is no doubt that the average person exceeds these
limits, exhausting the digestive organs and loading the system with
more than it can eliminate; the capacity for mental work is restricted,
and the whole system suffers.
Prof. Chittenden’s experiments have been a wonderful revelation
to dietitians and scientists. They have demonstrated beyond doubt
that the average person eats much more than the system requires
and thus overworks the digestive organs.
From the fact that only from two to four ounces
Mixed Diet of nitrogenous food is required to rebuild daily
versus a tissue waste, it is apparent that this amount can
Vegetable Diet readily be supplied from the vegetable kingdom,
since nuts, legumes, and cereals are rich in
proteins; yet there is a question whether a purely vegetable diet is
productive of the highest physical and mental development. Natives
of tropical climates live upon vegetables, fruits, and nuts, and it may
be purely accidental or be due to climatic or other conditions, that
these nations have not been those who have made the greatest
progress in the world. Neither have the Eskimos, who live almost
entirely upon meat, attained the highest development. The greatest
progress and development, both as nations and as individuals, have
been made by inhabitants of temperate climates, who have lived
upon a mixed diet of meat, eggs, milk, grains, vegetables, fruits, and
nuts. They have shown more creative force, which means reserve
strength.
The Eskimo has demonstrated, however, that an entire meat diet
supplies all physical needs; the meat tissue providing growth and
repair and the fat supplying all of the carbonaceous elements. The
fat, as previously stated, yields more heat than starches and sugars,
and Nature provides this heat for climates where most warmth is
required. It may be the natural reason why natives of warm climates
have formed the habit of using vegetables and grains for their heat
and energy rather than meat. It is also a natural reason why man, in
temperate climates, eats more meat in winter than in summer.
An unperverted, natural instinct will always be found to have a
sound physiological basis. For example,—if, by reason of some
digestive disturbance, one has become emaciated, all of the fat
having been consumed, and the cause of the disturbance is
removed by an operation or otherwise, one is seized with an almost
insatiable desire for fat, often eating large chunks of the fat of meat

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Metallic Materials Properties

Development and Standardization

Metallic Materials Properties Development and

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9.2.4.3 Derived Property Values C9-32

9.5.3 COMBINABILITY OF DATA C9-108

9.6.1.10 Recognition of Time Dependent Effects C9-164

9.8.5.6 Effect of Thermal Exposure on Elevated Temperature Strength C9-282

Soups. To make meat soups, the connective tissue, bone and

Roasting. The flavor and juice of the meat is best retained by

Broiling. The same principle applies to broiling as to roasting. The

Pot Roasts. In the case of a pot roast, or roast in a kettle, where it

Frying. This is the least desirable method of cooking. Food

Pastry. Pastry owes its harmful character to the interference of fat

“In different countries opinions differ markedly

The unit of measurement for the calories of energy is the amount

Dr. Chittenden’s experiments show that a man leading a very

In order to bring oneself to as limited a diet as Prof. Chittenden’s

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