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 Additional praise for
Migrant, Refugee, Smuggler, Savior

“Eminently readable and fascinating … Migrant, Refugee, Smuggler, Savior

does much more than just leave the reader with a colorful impression.
It also unpacks close details of how the industry actually operates, how
sophisticated networks have emerged to meet rising demand, and how
certain rules and practices govern the business.”—African Arguments
“Tinti and Reitano’s book brings to life the tragic dimensions of the
current refugee crisis and the smugglers who are an indispensable element
in the refugees’ mobility. Grounded in a deep knowledge of the economics,
politics and corruption behind this business, the authors present an
account that is both readable but contains profound insights.”—Louise
Shelley, Director,Terrorism,Transnational Crime and Corruption Center,
George Mason University
“Migration is one of today’s game-changers and this book, rich in detail
and well documented, excels in reminding the reader that migration
reflects a basic human aspiration—the desire for dignity and security,
but more particular, that for a better life. If this sounds familiar, it
should—and no law is to change this.”—Jean-Luc Lemahieu, Director
Policy Analysis and Public Affairs, United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime (UNODC)
“Tinti and Reitano offer a vivid virtual reality tour of the present-day
odysseys of irregular migrants, from Aleppo and Agadez to Austria and
the Arctic. Through their expert interpretation, we discover just how
poorly our rigid labels capture the complexities of these informal
political economies—and just how easily criminalization can feed the
smuggling industry it is meant to undermine.”—James Cockayne,
Head of Office at the UN, UN University, and author of Hidden Power:
The Strategic Logic of Organised Crime
“Powerful analysis, groundbreaking research, vividly and journalisti-
cally expressed. This is a must-read for policy makers—and anyone
who wants a more truthful approach to a defining story of our age.”
—New Internationalist
“A compelling and fresh perspective on migration, the business of
smuggling and the risks people are willing to take for a chance at a
better life. Reitano and Tinti have set the bar on empirical research
interwoven with the often tragic stories of migrants and smugglers. A
must read.”—Anton du Plessis, Executive Director, Institute for
Security Studies
MIGRANT, REFUGEE, SMUGGLER, SAVIOR
 MIGRANT,

REFUGEE,
SMUGGLER,
SAVIOR
PETER TINTI AND TUESDAY REITANO
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America

© P. Tinti and T. Reitano 2017

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stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
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You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

Names: Tinti, Peter, author. | Reitano, Tuesday, author.

Title: Migrant, refugee, smuggler, savior / Peter Tinti and Tuesday Reitano.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2017. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016049649| ISBN 9780190668594 (hardcover : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780190668617 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Human smuggling. | Refugees—Europe.
Classification: LCC K5299 .T56 2017 | DDC 364.1/37—dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016049649

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Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments vii
Select Acronyms xi
Authors’ Note xiii
Introduction: Smugglers and Saviors 1
PART 1
1. Smugglers Needed 11
Options in Exile 21
Seeking Asylum: Rights and Privileges 26
Smuggler or Savior 31
2. Smugglers Inc. 35
A Transnational Crime 36
The Business Model of Human Smuggling 40
3. Structure and Design 55
In on the Ground Floor 59
The Logisticians 60
Moving Money 66
Forging a New Identity 75
4. Routes 83
Central Mediterranean Route 90
Aegean Route through Turkey 95
PART 2
5. Libya: Out of Africa 103
Criminal Economies in Libya and the Greater Sahara 105

v
 CONTENTS
Syrian Dollars on Libyan Shores 112
Mare Nostrum Changes the Game 119
Extortion and Abuse 123
6. Egypt: The North Coast 127
The Long Trip to Italy 133
Cooperation and Complicity 141
7. Desert Highway: Agadez and the Sahel 145
Understanding the Sahel 148
Niger, Agadez, and theWest 154
New Masters 164
Everybody Is Eating 176
8. Turkey: The Crossroads 183
Izmir 185
The Mob: Criminal Market Consolidation 199
The $6 Billion Question 210
9. Schengen and Beyond 217
Cracks in the Fortress 218
Greek Tragedy 231
Balkan Odyssey 236
Dead Ends of Europe 243
Conclusion 249
The World We Live In 249
Postcards from the Front 253
Wider Ramifications 258
Closing an Industry: Supply and Demand 263
Messaging to the Market 264
Diplomatic Solutions 270
Vested Interests 272
On the Demand Side 275
Notes 281
Bibliography 303
Index 319

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is a privilege to have had the opportunity to write this book. Not only
does it provide a rare window into the workings of an illicit industry that
is both difficult to research and understand, it shares the fragile hopes of
hundreds of people during their personal quests for safety and a better
future.To gain these insights which we share with you, we have the gener-
osity, empathy, dedication, and tolerance of so many people to thank. Our
own efforts in transcribing this narrative pales in comparison to theirs.
We are deeply indebted to those dedicated researchers, journalists,
and translators in Lebanon, Libya, Niger, Egypt, Turkey, Greece,
Germany, Italy, Sweden, and across the Balkans, who sat down with us
to speak to migrants about their experiences. A number of these peo-
ple showed tremendous courage, using their connections to help us to
speak to smugglers themselves about their work in this illicit industry.
They include, but are not limited to, Juan Akkash, Muhammad
H. Al-Kashef, Manu Abdo, Ibrahim Manzo Diallo, Angeliki Dimitriadi,
Frederica Dolente, Nahla El-Nemr, Ombretta Ingrasci, Karl Lallerstedt,
Maria Fausta Marino, Johannes Meerwald, Mark Micallef, Paola
Monzini, Nour Nasr, Umberto Rondi, David Sarges, David Senarath,
Nour Youssef, and Tom Westcott. This book would not have been pos-
sible without them.
 Secondly, we wholeheartedly thank colleagues, friends, and
donors who have supported, advised, and inspired us along the way.
Our research draws from many years of fieldwork, but it was fund-
ing from projects commissioned by the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), the Institute for Security
Studies (ISS), the Hanns Siedl Foundation (HSF), and our own organi-

vii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
zation, the Global Initiative against Transnational Organised Crime,
that allowed us to dig deep into this current phenomenon and get
close to the ground on the migrant trail. Within these organiza-
tions, we must particularly express our gratitude to Anton du
Plessis, Alessandra Fontana, Jessica Gerken, Wolf Krug, Ottilia
Maunganidze, Iris Oustinoff, Adam Rodriquez, and Mark Shaw.
We are grateful to Michael Dwyer and Jon de Peyer at Hurst
Publishing for giving our ideas an intellectual home and a space in
print, and for all their patient guidance along the way. Thanks to
Sebastian Ballard and Sharon Wilson for their inspired work on the
maps and graphics, and to our editor, Mary Starkey.
Peter Tinti: I would like to thank my co-author, Tuesday Reitano. This
book is hers just as much as it is mine. I am in awe of your intellectual
alacrity and so grateful for your professional support. I would also like to
thank my parents, Aldo and Mary, and my sister, Mary, for quite literally
everything. I could not have asked for a better family or a more loving
home. Most importantly, I would like to thank my wife, Molly, for her
love and patience.You are my inspiration and I am so lucky to have you
as a life partner. Lastly, I would like to thank those who, for reasons I will
never understand, took the time to speak with me as they embarked
upon their impossible journeys. To those still wandering, may they find
peace. To those who were lost along the way, may they rest in peace.
Tuesday Reitano: I would like to thank Peter, my co-author. It has been
a fun collaboration, and his story-telling gifts are unparalleled. May this
be the first book of many that you write. I’d also like to thank Mark
Shaw, my mentor and friend, for the years of partnership, idea sharing,
effort, and inspiration. Much of what I am most proud of now is because
of him. To my parents, Helen and Nigel, and my brother Edward, who
are probably as surprised as I am that I would write a book, I am grate-
ful for their lifelong love and investments. It has not been easy to carve
the time to write a book around an intense full-time job with a hectic
travel schedule, and those who lost out in the process were my friends
and family. In particular, my infinitely patient, wise, and tolerant hus-
band, partner, and best friend, Carlo, and my two amazing, loving, and
dynamic children, Giorgio and Valentina. There are not profound
enough words with which to express my love and gratitude. They come
last here, but they should come first.

viii
In memoriam, Guiseppina (Pinin) Cavalli Reitano,
our much loved Nonna.
—TR
 SELECT ACRONYMS

AQIM Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb

ATT Former Malian President Amadou Toumani Touré
CBP Customs and Border Protection (US)
CSDP Common Security and Defence Policy (EU)
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
EU European Union
FDI Foreign direct investment
FIU Financial Intelligence Unit
GAMM Global Approach to Migration and Mobility (EU)
HALCIA French acronym for Niger’s anti-corruption agency
IOM International Organization for Migration
MNJ Niger Movement for Justice (French)
MNLA National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (French)
MSF Médecins Sans Frontières/Doctors Without Borders
MUJAO Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa
NCA National Crime Agency (UK)
UN United Nations
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
UNTOC United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime

xi
 AUTHORS’ NOTE

This book is an equal collaboration by two authors, Peter Tinti and

Tuesday Reitano. Over the last several years we have both carried out
research and reporting on migrant-smuggling networks on several dif-
ferent continents, in several different capacities, on behalf of several
different organizations, and in several different contexts. This was truly
a joint effort, and we are pleased to have the opportunity both to col-
laborate and to share our knowledge and experience, which we feel is
stronger due to the combination of our diverse perspectives.
As with any collaborative effort, especially one that seeks to analyze
a fast-changing phenomenon within the context of a new paradigm, the
authors have made several editorial choices for the sake of clarity and
transparency.
 Portions of this book, for example, are written in the first-person
singular in cases where one of the authors was present. For the sake of
narrative coherence we decided not to devote space to clarifying which
of the authors is present at a particular scene.
We decided to use the first person in certain chapters where it pro-
vides the reader with a sense of place and facilitates a more elegant
narrative. From an editorial perspective, it reinforces the fact that this
book is informed by on-the-ground reporting in addition to extensive
secondary research. The authors would like to make clear, however,
that “I” is only used in cases where one of the authors was actually pres-
ent. Some passages presented in the third person are also based on
first-hand observation, but blended with secondary research or second-
hand testimony. In these cases, rather than switch back and forth

xiii
 AUTHORS’ NOTE
between first and third person, the text is presented in the third per-
son, again, for the sake of clarity.
Which brings us to methodology and the subject matter at hand.
This book is the product of several years of research, informed by
fieldwork in over 20 countries and more than 400 interviews with
government officials, experts, academics, migrants, interlocutors, and,
of course, migrant smugglers. Though the authors conducted the vast
majority of the interviews that led to the final product, many inter-
views were conducted by colleagues who have been credited in the
acknowledgments section. Other colleagues preferred to remain
anonymous due to the sensitive nature of the subject. This book could
not have been written without them.
Gathering information on illicit economies and organized crime
poses its own challenges. For obvious reasons, those partaking in
migrant smuggling and human trafficking have good reason to keep
their activities hidden. This includes both migrants and refugees who
are technically breaking the law in their quest to find safety and oppor-
tunity, as well as the migrant smugglers who enable them and traffick-
ers who exploit them.
 In order to obtain accurate information on migrant-smuggling net-
works, the authors used an array of research methods and reporting
techniques. Some interviews were arranged on the condition of ano-
nymity. Others took place in contexts in which the authors did not
identify themselves as a journalist or researcher, and even posed as
migrants seeking smuggler services. As a result, the authors have
changed the names of certain individuals in cases where using their real
names could complicate their asylum procedures or put them in dan-
ger, as well as in cases in which the individuals were unable or unwill-
ing to respond to accusations lodged against them. In each of these
cases we have placed an asterisk before their name the first time it
appears in the text.
 The goal of this book is to impart knowledge about the migrant-
smuggling networks enabling the unprecedented flow of migrants and
refugees into Europe, and to place their ascendency and development
within the broader context of international peace and security.
We argue that the ways in which analysts, scholars, policymakers,
governments, and the general public thinks about these networks needs

xiv
 AUTHORS’ NOTE
to be updated as it is triggering counter-productive responses, and we
hope that this book plays a role in facilitating clearer thinking on the
subject. We realize that some of the editorial decisions outlined above
place the final product somewhere between a work of journalism and
social science, but without technically being either. We are confident
that these choices have enabled us to present information in a manner
that is accurate, truthful, and, most importantly, ethical.

Peter Tinti and Tuesday Reitano

xv
 INTRODUCTION
SMUGGLERS AND SAVIORS

It is 8 a.m. and Ibrahim is chain-smoking in a clandestine flophouse

with his new business partners of convenience, Adam, Ahmed, Barka,
and Sidi. All but Adam are in their mid-twenties. They sit on a cheap
plastic mat that does little to soften the cracked concrete below it. As
soon as one of them finishes a cigarette, another tosses the communal
pack of American Legend in his direction. When one carton is kicked,
a new one is taken from the stack in the corner and ripped open with-
out hesitation. Breakfast on this morning appears to be sugar biscuits,
nicotine, and caffeine. The near-constant fidgeting suggests that some
members of the crew might have something stronger coursing through
their bloodstreams.
Ibrahim is not the leader of this impromptu team of entrepreneurs,
he is just the most talkative, and the one who seems most interested in
having people understand the extent to which his story is a modern
parable of our times. He grew up in southern Libya, where he attended
university in Kufra. After earning his degree in agricultural engineering
he landed a job at a large-scale farm. He liked his life there, living
comfortably off his salary and even saving enough to start a side busi-
ness, a shop that sold canned goods, bottled drinks, and groceries.
But on this stifling Thursday morning in April 2014, Ibrahim is in the
darkest corner of a filthy room in a grubby ghetto of Agadez in Niger,
1,600 kilometers across the Sahara from Kufra, and a world away from
the comforts of his previous life in Libya.

1
 Migrant, Refugee, Smuggler, Savior
Ibrahim and his cohort are smugglers who specialize in the transport
of a very specific commodity: humans. They move migrants who have
come to Agadez from all over West Africa into southern Libya. From
there these migrants, who are fleeing everything from war to political
persecution to grinding poverty, will pay for the chance to be crammed
onto an unseaworthy vessel that, purportedly, is destined for Europe.
Some of them won’t even make it to the coast. They might fall from the
back of an overfilled truck and be left for dead in the Sahara, or they
might be kidnapped and held for ransom by criminal gangs and Islamist
militants. Others might be forced into unpaid labor, which for the
women making the journey often means sexual exploitation.
Across the Sahara, 1,850 kilometers north of where Ibrahim oper-
ates, *Mansour watches a boat full of migrants launch out to sea from
the confines of a half-built beachfront villa several kilometers outside
the Libyan capital, Tripoli. Some of the people on board—Nigerians,
Gambians, Senegalese, Malians, and other nationals from West Africa—
may have reached Libya courtesy of the services provided by Ibrahim
and his colleagues. But the vast majority of those on Mansour’s ship are
from Eritrea and Somalia, which means that their trips to Libya were
most probably facilitated by similar networks operating out of the
Horn of Africa, which for decades have specialized in moving and
extorting migrants throughout the region.
In 2013, when Mansour first got into the business of smuggling
people, he was loading boats with Syrians who paid a premium for
his services. Occasionally he would fill the remaining space on a ship
with sub-Saharan Africans, padding his profit margin by packing those
who paid less into the hold. Now, in 2015, with Syrians preferring
alternate routes to Europe, Mansour’s business is predicated on vol-
ume, and he loads any vessel he can get his hands on with as many
Africans as he can find.
In Athens, 1,100 kilometers north-east of where Mansour watches
his boat full of migrants disappear over the pre-dawn horizon, Tony
waits for a bus. Only days before, Tony was in Latakia in Syria, with his
wife and daughter. He paid a Syrian smuggler $500 to facilitate his pas-
sage through ISIS-controlled northern Syria and into Turkey. Once
there, he meandered his way across Turkey to the coastal city of Izmir,
where he paid $800 to a Syrian man who works for a Turkish smuggler

2
 INTRODUCTION: SMUGGLERS AND SAVIORs
to board an overcrowded dinghy. Under the cover of darkness, Tony and
his fellow travelers managed to navigate the Aegean Sea courtesy of an
unreliably cheap Chinese motor affixed to the back of their rubber
contraption. They steered their boat towards a light in the distance, and,
just before sunrise, they washed ashore on the Greek island of Kos.
Tony now waits in Athens alongside a hairless pre-teen from Syria
who suffers from cancer. They both have dreams of reaching Sweden;
but before they do they will board an unmarked bus leaving from a
nondescript intersection in the heart of the city. If anyone asks the
sketchy owner of the quasi-legitimate bus company, they are headed to
the northern city of Thessaloniki. But everyone knows this bus is full
exclusively of Syrians and is going directly to the village of Idomeni, on
the Macedonian border. From there, Tony will try to join the unim-
peded flow of migrants heading for Germany, but if Hungary decides
to make good on its threats to build a wall and block anyone, including
Syrians, from entering, Tony will seek out the services of another
smuggler and enter into a succession of shadowy arrangements with
men he has never met but has no choice to trust. “Anywhere but Syria,”
Tony says, in the broken English he learned from watching movies.
While Tony waits for his bus, *Ahmed, his wife, and his two children
are traveling in style. The owner of a chain of bookshops, Ahmed stub-
bornly maintained his life in Damascus even as the ongoing civil war
was consuming every aspect of it. In the second year of the conflict
Ahmed lost his summer home. First, it was commandeered by the
army; then it was overrun by insurgent groups, who ransacked the
place and sold off family heirlooms that stretched back generations. In
the third year he sent his daughter to Beirut so she could continue her
studies. Ahmed has barely seen her since Lebanon closed its borders
with Syria. The next year, *Roula, Ahmed’s wife, stopped leaving the
house, paralyzed by the fear of constant gunfire and explosions, and
suffering from heart palpitations as she nervously waited for her two
adolescent sons to arrive home from school each day.
Ahmed had clung to the business that his grandfather built. He had
long hoped to pass it on to his children one day. But, as the war dragged
on, it became increasingly difficult to maintain the fiction that things
would ever return to normal, and so Ahmed did what he had promised
himself he would never do. He unfolded a creased piece of paper he had

3
 Migrant, Refugee, Smuggler, Savior
kept in his wallet for several years, and called the number scribbled on
it. A few hours later, the deal was done: $36,000—$10,000 each for
him and Roula, $8,000 for each of the boys. His daughter would stay in
Beirut and finish her studies, and perhaps join them later. The fake
European passports and air tickets were ready in two weeks. They hope
that Sweden, their final destination, will offer them peace, stability, the
right to work, study, rebuild their lives as permanent residents.
Ahmed drives to Beirut and boards a plane with his family. Casting
his eyes to the midnight sky, despite all he has lost, he offers thanks to
the smugglers that made it all possible, the criminal heroes who allow
him to start his life anew in Europe.
* * *
Ibrahim, Mansour, Tony, and Ahmed are all active participants in the
biggest mass migration Europe has seen since the Second World War in
what has come to be known as the “migrant crisis.”
There is a natural impulse—among scholars, journalists, politicians,
activists, and concerned citizens—to frame their stories within a
broader human rights narrative. They remind us of the unfairness of the
world and the injustice of global inequality. They remind us that people
who live happy, fulfilling lives can suddenly find themselves facing a
future more bleak, cruel, and violent than they could have ever ima­
gined. They remind us of the desperation with which people will risk
what little they have for the chance of having something only margin-
ally better.
But this book is not about the plight of refugees or the stories of
those who yearn for a better life in Europe. Rather, it is about the
smugglers, traffickers, and networks of criminals that make their nar-
ratives possible.
These networks, tens of thousands of people strong, are facilitat-
ing an unprecedented surge of migration from Africa, the Middle
East, Central Asia, and South Asia into Europe. Although the drivers
of the current “crisis” are many—including but not limited to the
concentric phenomena of conflict, climate change, global inequality,
political persecution, and globalization—the actualization of the crisis is
enabled and actively encouraged by an increasingly professional set
of criminal groups and opportunistic individuals that is generating
profits in the billions.

4
 INTRODUCTION: SMUGGLERS AND SAVIORs
Some smugglers are revered by the people they transport, hailed as
saviors due to their willingness to deliver men, women, and children
to safety and opportunity when no legal alternatives will offer them
either. In a neoliberal world where the fates of individuals are couched
in anodyne policy-speak, it is often the criminals who help the most
desperate among us escape the inadequacy, hypocrisy, and immorality
that run through our current international system. It is certainly true
that smugglers profit from the desperation of others, but it is also true
that in many cases smugglers save lives, create possibilities, and redress
global inequalities.
Other smugglers carry out their activities without any regard for
human rights, treating the lives of those they smuggle as disposable com-
modities in a broader quest to maximize profits. For all too many
migrants and refugees, smugglers prove unable to deliver, exposing their
clients to serious injury or even death. Even worse, some smugglers turn
out to be traffickers, who, after luring unsuspecting clients with false
promises of a better life, subject them to exploitation and abuse.
Meanwhile, efforts by European policymakers and their allies to
stem the flow of migrants into Europe are pushing smuggling networks
deeper underground and putting migrants more at risk, while at the
same time doing little to address the root causes of mass migration. In
lieu of safe, legal paths to seeking refuge and opportunity, new barriers
are forcing migrants to pursue more dangerous journeys and seek the
services of more established mafias and criminal organizations. These
groups have developed expertise in trafficking drugs, weapons, stolen
goods, and people, and were uniquely qualified to add migrant smug-
gling to their business portfolios.
The result has been a manifold increase in human insecurity, not
only in the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea crossings, which have
received considerable attention in the international media, but also
along the overland smuggling routes that cross the Sahara and the
Central Asian Silk Road, penetrate deep into the Balkans, and continue
into the grimiest corners of Europe’s trendiest capitals.
What was once a loose network of freelancers and ad hoc facilitators
has blossomed into professional, transnational organised criminal net-
works devoted to migrant smuggling. The size and scope of their opera-
tions is unprecedented. Shadowy new figures have emerged, existing

5
 Migrant, Refugee, Smuggler, Savior
crime syndicates have moved in, and a range of enterprising opportunists
have come forward, together forming a dynamic, multi-level criminal
industry that has shown an extraordinary ability to innovate and adapt.
â•… Analysts have sought to explain the migrant crisis in Europe through
traditional frameworks of push and pull factors, war, conflict, and
underdevelopment, but these explanations are no longer sufficient.
What we are witnessing is not just the story of traditional migrant
smuggling on a larger scale. Rather, we are witnessing a paradigm shift
in which the unprecedented profits associated with migrant smuggling
are altering long-standing political arrangements, transforming econo-
mies and challenging security structures in ways that could potentially
have a profound impact on global order.
â•… Furthermore, the consolidation and codification of these networks
also means that smuggling networks now seek to create contexts in
which demand for their services will thrive. They have become a vector
for global migration, quick to identify loopholes, exploit new areas of
insecurity, and target vulnerable populations whom they see as pro-
spective clients. They no longer simply respond to demand for smug-
gler services: they actively generate it.
â•… This book is the culmination of over three years of research and
reporting from the frontlines of the “migrant crisis” everywhere from the
borders of Syria, to remote Saharan outposts, to the shores of North
Africa, to the beaches of Turkey and Greece, to seedy cafés in Europe. It
aims to explain how these networks function, their evolution, the role
they play for their clients, and what they mean for international peace
and security in the future. It is neither a call to action nor a work of
moral outrage (though both are in order). Rather, this book is an inves-
tigation into one of the most important yet heretofore under-examined
aspects of the unfolding migrant crisis: the smugglers.
â•… To that end, we have divided the book into two main sections. The
first section examines why demand for smuggler services has increased
so dramatically in recent years; the nature of the migrant–smuggler
relationship; the structure of the migrant smuggling industry; and the
means by which smuggling networks operate. It posits that if we are to
get beyond the facile and counterproductive narratives of villains and
victims, we must start by examining smugglers dispassionately for what
they are: service providers in an era of unprecedented demand.

6
 INTRODUCTION: SMUGGLERS AND SAVIORs
Armed with the frameworks established in Part 1, Part 2 will take
readers to the key hubs where migrant-smuggling networks are operat-
ing in the context of the current crisis. In each of these locations we
offer insights, through first-person observations and interviews with
those directly involved, into the inner workings of migrant-smuggling
operations and the ways in which local economies, political structures,
military balances of power, and criminal organizations are being trans-
formed by the profits associated with migrant smuggling.
We conclude with some thoughts on what the future might hold,
and what policies might succeed in combating smuggling networks and
promote a constructive approach to migration. The stakes are incred-
ibly high—for migrants, for refugees, and for the rest of us.

7
PART 1
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Romer, 155

Romert Wagenaer, 269

Romke, 132, 233

Romke Holtsnyder, 269

Romkes, 236

Romkje, 208, 217, 227, 234, 250

Rommert, Rombrecht, 233

Ronse, 73, 77

de Roo, 141

Roodbierdrinkers van Harelbeke, Roodbierdrynckers van Haerlebeke, 7, 51, 72,

77

Roodjes van Schagen, 63

Rooibaaitjie, 83

Rooinek, 83

Room-eters van Moerbeke, 77, 79

Roosje, 132

Ropeinen van Ooster-Littens, 36

Ropke, Robke, Robbert, Rodbrecht, 274

Rotten van Midlum, 34

Rotten van Stiens, 35

Rotterdam, 66, 67

de Rottevalle, 36

Rothger Schriver, 269

Rotsaert, 144

Rottumeroog, 98

de Rouck, 143

Rouke Scroer, 266

Roulaert, 144

Rousquebrune, 118

Rousselare, 78

Roverke, 191

Roverke Juttensoen van Bakel, 185

Rovert, Rodfred, 191

Royaert, 144

Roymans, 193

de Rudder, 140

Rudekikkers van Genemuiden, 59

Rudhart, 233

Rudolf, 233

Ruelken, 191

Ruelken dien Scoemeker Lambrecht Ruelkenssoen, 179, 191

Ruetens, 155

Ruisbroek, 72

Ruit, 155

Ruitema, 155
Ruiten, 155

Ruitenhuizen, 155

Ruitenveen, 155

Ruitinga, Ruitenga, 155

Ruitje, 155

Ruminghem, 97

Ruschebrune, 118

de Russcher, 141

Rut, Ruth, 155

Rút, Rute, 155

Rutenbeck, Rutenbecke, 155

Rutenbroek, 155

Rutens, 155

Rutesheim, 155

Rutger, 155

Ruting, 155

Rutje, 155

Rutjens, 155

Rutsaert, 144

Rutse, 155

Rútsje, 155

Rutske, 155
Rutskema, 155

Rutskema-sate, 155

Rutten, 155

Ruttens, 155

Ruurd, 233

Ruurle, 77

Ruusvorens van Genemuiden, 59

Ruutse, 155

de Ruysscher, 141

Ruyten, 155

de Ruyter, 140

Ruytinckx, Ruytinck, Ruytincx, Ruytinx, 146, 154, 155

Ruytse, 155

de Ruywe, 134

Ryckaert, 100, 132

de Rycke, 142

Ryken, Rikwin, 201

Rykle, 221

Rymbout, 189

Rymbout Henrixsoen van den Berge, 175, 189

Ryngaert, 134

Rynths, 252
Rynths Sypt Unama wedue, 265

Rynthye, 273

Ryoerdt Smidt, 267

Ryperd, 274

Ryssel, 76

Saaiwevers van Hondschoten, Saeywevers van Hontscote, 71, 77, 78

Sack Dekennaister, 270

Saco, Sake, Sakele, 229, 230

Saeckle, 273

de Saegher, 139

Saepke (Saapke), 220

Salverda, Salwerd, 236

Samaritanen van Suameer, 36, 46

Sanctingeveld, 120

Sandgate, 128

Sangatte, 119, 128

Sape Bakster, 270

Sapskuhle, 289, 291

Sasko op de Dick, 273

Sassenheim, 108

Sassetot, 110

Saudeniers van Grevelynghe, 77

Sauwert, 56

Scalle, Scalrewoghe, 120 [321]

Scapshout, 120

Scardic, 121

Scelto, 230

Schaafsma, 237, 238, 243, 245

Schaapdefe van Sengwarden, 57

Schaapstra, 245

Schaepelinck, 146

Schagen, 63

van Schaik, van Schayck, van Schayk, 169

Schalk, 169

Schalken van ’t Ameland, 27, 88

Schalkesteeg, 169

Schalkwijk, Schaik, 169

Schapekoppen van Lier, 72

Schapen van Wieringen, 63, 83

Schauwvlieger, 141

Schavotbranders van Middelburg, 67

de Scheemaecker, 139

Scheepma, 240

Scheewei-eters van Winkel-Sint-Kruis, 71, 73

de Scheirder, 140

ter Schelling, Schellingerland, 89

Schelte, 230, 239

Scheltinga, 239

Schepens, 146

de Schepper, 139

Schermerhorn, 6, 63

Scherp, Scharp, Scarp, 179

Schiedam, 66, 67

Schiermonnikoog, 88

Schijndel, 67

Schijters van Gierle, 71, 72

Schink-eters van Sinaai, 73

Schipgaernemaeckers van Oudenburgh, 77

de Schodt, 134

de Schoenmaker, 140

Schokkers van Hauwert, 63

Schollaert, 144

Schoondijke, 86

Schoonheere, 134

Schortens, 57

Schotsaert, 144
Schotten van Douay, 76

Schraagsma, 237, 238, 245

Schrijfsma, 245

de Schrijver, 140

Schuermans, 182

Schuurman, Schuurmans, 194

de Schuyter, 141

Scipheeren van der Sluus, 81

Scipper Eeme, 270

Scipper Hommo, 270

Scipper Oenthie, 270

Scipper Sybren, 270

Seakele, 221, 229, 230

Seegersma, 159

de Seeldraeyer, 140

Seerp, 202

Sefke, 210

Segaert, 144, 145

Segehard, Sieghart, 145

Seger, 159

Segerik, Zegerijk, 204

Segers, 159
Segersma, 159

Segertje, 159

Segher, 158

Seghers, 146, 158

Sengwarden, 57

Serbruyns, 147

Serdobbel, 147

Sergeant, 140

Sergeys, 147

Sergiewevers van Zele, 73

Serniclaes, 147

Serreyns, 163

Servaes, 147

’s-Gravenhage, 193

’s-Heerenberg, 193

Sherrington, 103

’s-Hertogenbosch, 193

Sibbe, 230

Sibbel, 274

Sibbele, Sibble, 214, 221, 227, 230

Sibbeltsje (Sibbeltje), 207, 210, 217, 250

Sibe, Sibo, 210, 229, 231, 235, 253

Sibet Kistemaker, 269

Sibinga, Sibenga, 235

Sibout, Sigbald, 201

Sibrand, Sigebrand, Sigbrand, 201, 210, 233, 235

Sibrechta, Sigbrechta, 233

Sibrechtje, 250

Sibren, Sybren, Sigbern, 201, 202, 233, 249, 251, 252, 253

Sibrich, Sigburg, 203, 277

Sibrichje, 203, 250

Sieger, Siger, 159

Siegerke, 159

Siegersdiep, 159

Siegersleben, 159

Siegersma, 159

Siegerswâlde (Siegerswoude), 159

Siegfert, Segevert, 206

Siegfried, 206

Siegrich, 204

Sierk, Sjirk, Sigrik, 133, 202, 204, 226, 233

Sieuwertsz, 206, 209

Sievert, Sieuwert, 206

Siewerts, Siewertz, 206, 209

Siger, Sieger, 159

Sigera, 159

Sigera-state, 159

Sigerik, 133, 204

Sigurd, 206, 233

Sigurda, 206, 233

Sigwald, 160

Siike ierdapels van Koudum, 37

Sijmen van Neele Kee’n Pieters Dirk, 176

Sikken van Moerzeke, 73

Sillenstede, 57

Simoens, 146, 147

Sinaai, 73

Sine, 235

Sinia, Sininga, 235

Sinjoren van Antwerpen, 5, 72

Sint-Amands, 73

Sint-Anna-Parochie, 36

Sint-Anna ter Mude, 77

Sint-Anthonius, 73 [322]

Sint-Bonifacius-bron, -fontein, 290

Sinte-Orsele-kleaster, -poel, 281, 282

Sint-Gilles, 73

Sint-Jacobi-Parochie, 36

Sint-Jans Steen, 77

Sint-Maartensmannen van Utrecht, 62

Sint-Marie-kerke, 116

Sint-Nicolaas, 73

Sint-Oeden Rode, 67

Sint-Quintens Lennik, 73

Sint-Winoks Bergen, 6, 95

Sippe, Sipke, 220, 230

Sirck, Zierck, Syrick (Sierk, Sjirk), 274

Site, 241

Sittard, 67

Siudts, 209

Siurtz, 209

Siut, 207

Siuts, Siutz, 209

Siwrdesma, Siwrdisma, Siwrdsma, 209

Sjaard, 205, 233

Sjef, 150

Sjerp, 226

Sjoerd, Sigurd, 202, 226, 233, 265

Sjoerda, 209

Sjoerdema, 209

Sjoerdina, 208, 227

Sjoerdinga, 209

Sjoerds, 207, 209

Sjoerdsma, 209

Sjoerdtsje (Sjoerdtje, Sjoerdje, Sjoertje), 205, 208, 217, 226, 227, 233

Sjoers, 209

Sjolle, 212

Sjoorda, 209

Sjouke, 215

Sjoukje, Sjouk, 184, 220, 250

Sjuk, 202, 273

Sjûrd, 207

Sjutte, Sjutsje, Sjuttsje, Sjute, 208, 217, 233

Skepen van Wieringen 63, 83

Skermestic, 120

Skiepebingels van Hyum, 35, 37

Skiepekoppen van Birdaard, 36, 49

Skiepeloarten van Warns, 8, 37

Skierroeken van Balk, 36, 37

Skilingen, 89
Skraerder Hol, Scraerdera Hol, 287

Skytstoelen van Akkrum, 36, 42

Slapers van Veurne, Slaepers van Vuerne, 76

Sleedingen, Sleidinge, 81

Sleepsloffen van Dronrijp, 36

Sleeswijk, 271

Slekkentrekkers van Ronse, 73, 79

Sleuteldragers van Leiden, 66

Slijkneuzen van Weert in Klein-Brabant, 73

Slooten, 32

de Sloover, 141

Slotsma, 245

Sluis, Sluus, in Vlaanderen, 67, 81

Smalruggen van Grijpskerk, 56

Smedema, 237

Smeerkoek-eters van Moerbeke, 71, 73, 79

de Smedt, de Smet, 139

Smertens, 193

Smeuninckx, 193

de Smidt, 134

Smolders, 140

Smousen van West-Malle, 73

Smulders, 193

de Smyttere, 134

Sneek, 7, 8, 14, 15

Snirt van de Rijp, 63

Snoeck, 143

Snoeken van de Rijp, 63

Snoek-eters van Aksel, Snouck-eters van Acxele, 77, 78

Soepweikers van Mol, 72

Soepzakken van Hever, 73

Soetaert, 144

Solke, Solco, 215, 231

Sondel, Sendel, Sindel, 285

Sophie van Geldorp Dircs Sjoncheren soens dochter, 184, 194

Span, 102

Spanga, 102

Spanghem, 97, 101

Spanheim, 102

Spanhemius, 102

Spanjaarden van Assendelft, 63

Spanninga, 102

Spannum, 36, 102

Spanoghe, 141
Spans, 102

Speeckaert, 144

Speelman, 140

Speelmakkers van Benningbroek, 63

Speelzakken van Hoogstraten, 73

Speerebrekers van Ryssel, 76

Speknekken van Leeuwarden, 8

de Spiegelaere, 140

Spillemaker, 134

Spinsekken van Winsum, 36, 37

Spikeroog, 88

Spreeuwen van Winkel, 63

Staelens, 146

de Staercke, 141

Stallinga, 240

Stampaert, 144

Stapele, 121

Stappaert, 144

Stark, Sterk, Sterck, 182

Statema, 239, 246

de Staute, 141

Stavart, 122
Staveren, 14, 30

Steenbeek, Steenbeke, 118

Steengooiers van Wormer, 63

Steenekwakkers van Alkmaar, 63

Steenkoopers van Zierikzee, 67 [323]

Steenuffel, 73

Steenvoorde, 95

Stekene, 71, 77

Sterks, Sterckx, Sterken, 182

Steuren, Steurvangers van Kampen, 5, 59, 60

Stevens, 146, 147

Steyaert, 144

Stienrokkes, 121, 124

Stiens, 35

Stienstraet, 120

Stienvelt, 120

Stiermans van Wendune, 77, 78

Stijfkoppen (Friesche), 83

Stippers van Lollum, 36, 46

Stoffels, 146

Stokvisschen van Deventer, 59

Strânjutten van Makkum, 36, 44

Stridaker, 120

Stridland, 120

Stripe, 121

Strobbel, 134

Strontboeren van Hoboken, 72

Stroobossen van de Zijp, 63

Stroobranders van Sint-Quintens-Lennik, 73

Strooplikkers van Zaamslag, 67

Stroppedragers van Gent, 72

Struiven van Brecht, 73

Stuurlieden van Wenduine, 78

de Stuynder, 134

Styn Reinerts wedue, 264

Suameer, 36, 46

Suffridus, Suffried, 207, 265

de Surgeloose, 141

Suster Ansck, 265

Swaantina, 228

Swaantje, 227

Swaentje, 132

Swanelt, 201

Swanhilde, 190, 201

de Swarte, 134

Swenelt, 183, 190, 201

Swenelt wilen Henrics Mortels dochter, 183, 190

Sweitse, 220, 223, 224

Swithburga, 201

Swobke, 220

Swobkje, 223, 224

Swyngedauw, 134

Syard upper Wasa, Sjaerd oppe Weaze, 261

Sybe van Hallum, 271

Sybet Wagener, 269

Sybilla, 207

Sybillus, 227

Sybout, Sibout, 224

Sybrand, Sibrand, 227

Sybren, 212

Sybren Wever, 267

Sybren Wielmaker, 269

Sybrichje, 233

Syds Wybez, 258

Sygersma, 159

Symen, Sigman, 201

Symon Lambrechts Langsmeedssoen, 179

Symon Zweertslager, Symon Swertfeger, 268

Syoucke, 273

Syoucke Metzeler, 266

Sypt Unama, Sibalt Oenama, 265

Syrick Scomaker, 267

Systelmans, 193

Sytse, 215, 221, 223, 224, 241

Sytsema, Sytsma, 236, 241

Sytske, 220, 227

Sywert Molner, 269

Sywert van Holwert, 271

Syword Scutemaker, 267

Sywrd Sickez, 258

Sywrd, Syord, Syword, 274

Taartebakkers van Meenen, 74

Taco, 227

Tade, Tado, 230

de Taeye, 141

Take Tymerman, 266

Tamme, 212

Tancmar, 201, 202