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The Anthropocene: Politik–Economics–Society–Science

David Curran

More than
Fighting
for Peace?
Conflict Resolution,
UN Peacekeeping, and the Role of
Training Military Personnel
The Anthropocene: Politik—Economics—
Society—Science

Volume 8

Series editor
Hans Günter Brauch, Mosbach, Germany
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15232
http://www.afes-press-books.de/html/APESS.htm
http://www.afes-press-books.de/html/APESS_08.htm
David Curran

More than Fighting

for Peace?
Conflict Resolution, UN Peacekeeping,
and the Role of Training Military Personnel

123
David Curran
Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations
Coventry University
Coventry
UK

ISSN 2367-4024 ISSN 2367-4032 (electronic)

The Anthropocene: Politik—Economics—Society—Science
ISBN 978-3-319-46303-2 ISBN 978-3-319-46305-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-46305-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016952003

© The Author(s) 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Cover photo: © Mr. Narongrit Vannarat, Bangkok, Thailand who painted and photographed the cover
photo and granted the permission to use it for this book cover. The paintings of this Thai painter are at:
https://www.facebook.com/narongrit.n.vannarat and he is at: nop2.17@gmail.com.
Internal title page photo: Mongolian peacekeepers on patrol interacting with children in Leer County,
South Sudan, January 5, 2016 (Leer, South Sudan).
Credit: UN Photo/Zenebe Teklewold

More on this book is at: http://www.afes-press-books.de/html/APESS_08.htm

Copyediting: PD Dr. Hans Günter Brauch, AFES-PRESS e.V., Mosbach, Germany

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgements

This book has benefited greatly from the support of a number of people.
First, I would like to extend my gratitude to Professor Tom Woodhouse, whose
considerable contribution to the conflict resolution field has been a driving factor in
shaping my understanding of the potential role of peacekeeping (and peacekeepers)
in conflict resolution processes. Thank you to my colleagues at the Centre for Trust,
Peace and Social Relations (Coventry University) for the support, encouragement
and time to bring this book together. To work on a daily basis with such a diverse
and fascinating group of people is a privilege. Many thanks to the series editor,
Hans Günter Brauch, for his interest in the topic, excellent support in putting the
book together and for the advice in refining the text. My gratitude as well as to the
anonymous reviewers who helped shape the latter drafts.
I would like to thank staff from the Defence Forces, Ireland who have been
welcoming, candid and open to discussing the practicalities of United Nations
peacekeeping. In particular Colonel (Dr.) Brendan O’Shea, who has been most
helpful in assisting me in getting access to courses and course material at the UN
Training School Ireland, and has offered fascinating insights into the challenges
of the civil-military dimensions of peacekeeping activities. I extend my gratitude to
staff at the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (and wider UN family—
Secretariat, Diplomats, and NGOs) who have assisted me in developing my ideas
regarding the development of UN policy. Amidst the many substantial challenges
that UN peacekeeping faces, it is heartening to know that the ‘system’ contains
diligent, hard working people who do their very best to ensure it goes some way to
meeting the enormous expectations placed upon it.
Furthermore, I would like to thank my family for their support and encour-
agement throughout this process. From the initial interest in pursuing academic
studies through to the present day, their support has been invaluable.

v
vi Acknowledgements

Finally, but most importantly, thanks to Lena who has been amazing in many
ways. Thank you for offering your views and opinions in helping shape my ideas,
your organisational help, and for keeping me sane with tea, coffee, cake, gardening
and cycling (a quality combination). Danke schön.

Coventry, UK David Curran

August 2016
Abbreviations

AU African Union
BATNA Best Alternative to a Negotiated Settlement
CIMIC Civil-Military Cooperation (NATO Definition)
CMCOORD Civil-Military Coordination (UN Office of the High Representative
of Humanitarian Affairs Definition)
CPTM Core Pre-Deployment Training Materials
CSDP Common European Security and Defence Policy
DFS Department of Field Support (United Nations)
DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations (United Nations)
EU European Union
FIB Force Intervention Brigade
FPU Formed Police Unit
IAPTC International Association of Peacekeeping Training Centres
IASC Inter Agency Standing Committee (of the UN)
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ITS Integrated Training Service (United Nations)
MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti
MONUC United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
(Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unites en République
démocratique du Congo)
MONUSCO UN Organisation Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo (Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour la
Stabilisation en République démocratique du Congo)
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
OASEA Office for Addressing Sexual Abuse and Exploitation
OSCE Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe
PKTI Peacekeeping Training Institute
POTI Peace Operations Training Institute
QIP Quick Impact Project

vii
viii Abbreviations

RMAS Royal Military Academy Sandhurst

SEA Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
SGTM Standard Generic Training Materials
SHIRBRIG Standard High Readiness Brigade
SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary General (UN)
STM Specialised Training Material (United Nations)
TCC Troop Contributing Country
TNA Training Needs Analysis (United Nations)
UN United Nations
UNAMSIL United Nations Assistance Mission for Sierra Leone,
UN-CIMIC UN-Civil-Military Cooperation (UNDPKO Definition)
UNEF United Nations Emergency Force (Middle East)
UNEPS United Nations Emergency Peace Service
UNHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees
UNIF I Phase 1 UN Intervention Force
UNIFIL United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon
UNMEE United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
UNMIL United Nations Mission in Liberia
UNMIL* United Nations Mission in Leinster: a fictitious UN peacekeeping
mission to assist course participants at the UN Training School,
Ireland
UNMIS United Nations Mission in Sudan
UNOCI United Nations Operation in Cote d’Ivoire
UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force
UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution
UNTSI United Nations Training School Ireland
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Part I Trends in Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeper Training

2 Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, and the Role of Training . . . . . . . 17
3 The Development of Training Structures in the United Nations . . . . 37

Part II Specific Areas of Engagement

4 Negotiation Training for Military Peacekeepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5 Civil-Military Relations Training for Military Peacekeepers . . . . . . . 83

Part III Looking Ahead

6 Towards the Military Conflict Resolution Practitioner? . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
About this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

ix
Chapter 1
Introduction

At the beginning of 2016, over 90,000 military personnel from 124 countries were
serving in United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operations (UN 2016a, b). They
were—and will continue to be—deployed into challenging post-conflict environ-
ments where the likelihood of violence remains high. Moreover, these personnel are
deployed as part of a peace process, and are thus situated as an anchor point in the
transition from war to peace. This dimension of their work therefore means that a
range of skills and techniques are relied upon, which come not only from traditional
military training, but also from other, non-traditional fields.
It is here where the academic field of conflict resolution has made a valuable
contribution to understanding international peacekeeping. Since the 1970s, studies
have sought to understand international peacekeeping as a necessary stage in
conflict de-escalation, and ultimately transformation (Galtung 1976). From this,
there is a history of engagement including studies which seek to understand the
skills peacekeepers may need to assist them in their day to day activities (such as
approaches to negotiation, mediation, and cultural awareness), and the role that
international peacekeeping plays in wider projects of conflict resolution. However,
a gap exists insofar that there are few extensive studies on the training needs of
military peacekeepers, and the role that the conflict resolution field can play in
addressing such needs. It is into this nexus where this book provides a contribution.
It demonstrates linkages between conflict resolution and peacekeeping through the
lens of training of military peacekeepers.
This book therefore offers a multi-layered synthesis of how conflict resolution
theory and skills interact with pre-deployment training programmes for military
personnel embarking on peacekeeping operations. This incorporates theoretical
approaches to conflict resolution and peacebuilding, through to UN initiatives
designed to equip military personnel with the ability to deal constructively with
violence. With peacekeeping operations—particularly those sanctioned by the
UN—continuing to be a highly used means to attempt to manage and resolve
international conflict, the requirements for military personnel to understand how to
carry out their work in a more proficient manner, and also contribute to the
© The Author(s) 2017 1
D. Curran, More than Fighting for Peace?, The Anthropocene:
Politik—Economics—Society—Science 8, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-46305-6_1
2 1 Introduction

transformation of conflict zones into ones where positive peace can flourish, is
paramount.
By looking through the lens of training programmes for military peacekeepers,
the main question that guides this book is what role does conflict resolution theory
and practice play in peacekeeping? In this, the book will look at two broad areas of
training for peacekeeping. Firstly it will examine training programmes which aim to
impart skills in negotiation, and cultural awareness. These skills have been high-
lighted as being necessary in giving military peacekeepers creative, non-violent
solutions to potentially violent situations. Secondly, the book will look at
civil-military relations. This area reflects the increasing role that peacekeepers play
in early-stage peacebuilding, as well as the impact that the field of conflict reso-
lution has had in informing training programmes to understand new dimensions in
the civil-military relationship.

1.1 Aims

The aim of this book is twofold. Firstly to contribute to the practice of training
peacekeepers and; secondly, to make a contribution to the field of conflict
resolution.
Taking the first point, the book makes a contribution to the practice of training
military personnel for peacekeeping operations. At a strategic level, the book
examines the training frameworks that have been developed at the UN, as well as
looking at broad thematic approaches that the UN has taken to conflict and its
resolution. This will incorporate the institutionalisation of ‘early stage peace-
building’ as a formal activity of UN peacekeeping operations, as well as cross
cutting resolutions on Women Peace and Security, Protection of Civilians, and
Children in Armed Conflict.
At an operational level, it seeks to examine how these initiatives have been
implemented into training regimes for military peacekeepers. In particular, the
development of UN Core Pre-deployment Training Materials (CPTMs), in areas
such as civil-military relations, cultural awareness, and negotiation will be exam-
ined, as will the role of peacekeeping training centres. Here, the UN Training
School, Ireland (UNTSI) will be looked at specifically as an example of a training
school which has sought to distil developments at a strategic level into modules for
personnel at a pre-deployment stage.
At a tactical level, the book identifies how peacekeeper training has looked to
inform the ‘routine duties’ of military personnel when they are deployed on UN
peacekeeping operations. Typical duties in peacekeeping environments identified in
this book (negotiation, communication, civil-military relations) arguably do not
1.1 Aims 3

come naturally to conventional military personnel, thereby requiring considerable

‘shifts in traditional or conventional military culture toward a culture or psychology
suitable for peacekeeping’ (Woodhouse 1998: 163).
This change in culture has been aptly illustrated by Tom Woodhouse, who
suggests that peacekeeping asks military personnel to understand that instead of
destroying an enemy, a soldier may have to negotiate with them, and instead of
blowing a door off its hinges in a search and cordon operation, the military may
have to learn to knock on it (Woodhouse 1998: 163). A broader understanding of
the change necessary is offered by Tillet, who argues that peacekeeping involves:
the psychological change from an adversary to a pacific role; from confrontation to third
party imposition. In peacekeeping there is no enemy: the object is to avoid hostilities, to
improve communication between the parties, and to advance the process of reconciliation.
This necessitates a full understanding of the causes of the conflict—political, military and
economic—as well as the social and cultural environment. It demands a fair-minded and
impartial approach while operating in an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion among the
protagonists, often under difficult and provocative circumstances (Tillett 1996: 3).

The requirement to understand the necessity to develop an expanded skillset for

peacekeeping is not new: the 1984 International Peace Academy Publication, the
Peacekeeper’s Handbook, outlines what it terms to be the ‘necessary skills required
for effective peacekeepers’. They are outlined in Box 1.1 below. Importantly, this
contains a range of tasks which seem specific to peacekeeping and less so to
standard military training. Of course, there is crossover in certain skills, but the
range of non-violent actions indicates that peacekeeping operations have been for
some time considered an alternative activity to standard military activities. Nor is it
confined to academic texts on peacekeeping. In 2006, a journalist noted the range of
new techniques after a chance meeting with a group of soldiers on a Pan-African
training course for a UN Observer Missions in Mali:
What was more interesting for me, as a former English language training specialist, was the
focus on communication skills and the types of activity I was familiar with: team-work,
role-play, dealing with the unexpected, how to behave in difficult encounters with inter-
locutors from different cultures. It all made sense: from paralinguistics (how to recognise
danger - the tone of voice, the facial expression, and how these give signs of suspicion, fear,
aggression…), to response (how to show peaceful intentions, submission, hold up your
hands, step back, back down…) (Daniel 2006).

However, analysis of training this wider skillset into peacekeepers is, and will
continue to be necessary. Peacekeeping operations evolve, with broadening man-
dates tasking peacekeepers to have awareness of a range of military and
non-military issues. Additionally, personnel are deployed into highly volatile
post-conflict environments, where the actions of interveners can have significant
effects. In seeking to explore how conflict resolution theory and practice has
engaged with training programmes for peacekeeping, the book makes a valuable
contribution to assisting those who undertake training (both trainers and recipients).
4 1 Introduction

Box 1.1: List of soldier’s qualities as outlined in the Peacekeepers

Handbook. Source: International Peace Academy (1984: 272–278).
The handbook offers a list of the ‘main credentials a peacekeeper requires’.
(a) Patience. ‘A peacekeeper or a peacemaker needs to have infinite patience.
Never should he expect quick results or solutions but rather he should
evaluate repeatedly his achievement in the context of his aim.’
(b) Restraint. ‘Because of the special relationship between the third party and
the parties to the dispute, any display of emotion on the part of the former
can disadvantageously affect his credibility as a negotiator or pacifier.’
(c) Advocacy. ‘Since the third party’s weapon is not a self-loading rifle but
his ability without force or threats to persuade both sides to avoid vio-
lence and settle their differences by peaceful means, it is basic to his role
that he cultivates an attitude and approach founded on his own person-
ality and understanding. The advocacy that he is called upon to undertake
is (1) Negotiation, (2) mediation, (3) conciliation, and sometimes
(4) arbitration.’
(d) Personality. ‘He has to combine an approachable, understanding and
tactful manner with fairness and firmness. The unapproachable and
tactless are resented and often ignored, while the weak are put upon
and exploited.’
(e) Persuasion and influence. ‘The degree of persuasion called for is more a
matter of quiet reasoning than direct pressurising, while influence should
take the form of indirect suggestion rather than action manipulation.’
(f) Perspective. ‘If a third party peacekeeper is to be effective and avoid
making misjudgements he has to keep the conflict, his part in it, and the
reactions of all concerned, in proper proportion. A clear understanding of
the motivations and ethnic and cultural structures of the respective dis-
putants is all important to the peacekeeper in the exercise of his third
party role.’
(g) Attitude and Approach. ‘It is reasonable to demand a high level of
objectivity from the members of a peacekeeping Force in their assess-
ment, evaluation and in their reporting of actions taken by the respective
sides in a dispute. Given this fundamental principle, the peacekeeper,
maker and builder must strive not to pre-judge any issue or controversy
but, as has already been pointed out, to consider each and every case on
its merits alone, bearing in mind the antecedents and the factors affecting
the reactions and motivations of those responsible for the particular case
problem.’
(h) Flexibility and Speed.
1.1 Aims 5

(i) Humour. ‘Good humour makes for good working relations, because a
man of good humour is accessible and approachable—a quality of con-
siderable importance in a peacekeeper when negotiating with the
respective parties to a dispute.’
(j) Vigilance and Alertness. ‘The two human factors most important in a
soldier’s mentality make up.’

This book also makes a theoretical contribution, particularly to the field of

conflict resolution research, a field guided by the normative aim of ‘transforming
actual or potential violent conflict into non-violent processes of social, political and
other forms of change’ (Ramsbotham et al. 2016: 10). Approaches to conflict
resolution include a range of short, medium and long-term strategies undertaken by
a range of actors which aim to minimize violence, overcome antagonism between
adversaries, find mutually acceptable outcomes, with the hope of facilitating
enduring settlements (Kriesberg 2001: 408). Work specifically examining the role
of training for military peacekeepers forms a small part of the wider literature
towards peacekeeping from the conflict resolution field, with notable works being
provided by Betts Fetherston, and Deborah Goodwin, both of whom the book will
draw on.
Additionally, it will contribute to what Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, and Miall
have termed as ‘cosmopolitan conflict resolution’. Taking a cue from cosmopolitan
theorists who have advocated forms of cosmopolitan democratic governance at
local, regional and international level (Archibugi 1995; Held 1995), Cosmopolitan
approaches are based on the understanding that conflict exists in a hybrid context,
linking global, regional and local dynamics. Such ‘transnational conflict’ therefore
requires ‘constructive means of handling conflict at local through to global levels in
the interests of humanity’ (Ramsbotham et al. 2011: 265). This inclusive effort
notes that approaches to conflict resolution are not situated within one particular
state, society, or established centre of power, but one which has sources and
approaches at multiple levels. As the book will demonstrate in its forthcoming
chapters (particularly Chap. 2), there is an identified role for peacekeeping opera-
tions under UN auspices within this framework. Cosmopolitan approaches have
been deemed ‘the number one priority as ensuring that conflict resolution is indeed
truly international’ (Ramsbotham et al. 2011: 425). Through investigating whether
current military training for peacekeeping reflects an emerging cosmopolitan
dimension in international forms of conflict resolution, the book offers a contri-
bution to the broader field.
There are two further areas where this book contributes. Firstly is that it outlines
an updated account of the skillset necessary for peacekeeping operations, and where
conflict resolution theory and skills may offer an input. This incorporates studies
undertaken into peacekeeping operations in the 2000s—a period which has seen
advances in what is expected of peacekeepers in a multitude of areas. Secondly, it
6 1 Introduction

will incorporate studies which examine peacekeeping interventions from the per-
spective of the ‘peacekept’: those who live in the areas where peacekeepers are
deployed. These studies reflect the range of perspectives of peacekeepers and UN
peacekeeping, and offer a critical lens of the work of the UN. This links to the final
area where the book contributes to theoretical approaches to peacekeeping and
conflict resolution: how peacekeepers are trained. Through exploring John Paul
Lederach’s elicitive approach to training, the book examines an approach drawn
from the conflict resolution field which asks practitioners to reflect on their role
within conflict, and how they can use their own individual approaches to better
influence wider conflict resolution processes. By examining this area of ‘how’
peacekeepers are trained, the book will advance the discussion as to how conflict
resolution theory can play a valuable role in the activity of military peacekeeping.

1.2 Defining ‘Peacekeeping’ and Peacebuilding?

1.2.1 Peacekeeping

The UN Charter offers no definition of peacekeeping; therefore meaning that those

who drive peacekeeping policy forward often attempt to find a definition to best
reflects on-going activities. As peacekeeping falls between Chapter VI and
Chapter VII of the UN Charter, this means that the scope for what is defined as
‘peacekeeping’ can be broad.
Early, or ‘traditional’ peacekeeping operations deployed during the Cold War
(though there were notable exceptions) were widely seen to be an activity which
involved lightly armed, UN sanctioned, soldiers, ‘generally deployed in linear
buffer zones between belligerents’ who used military force ‘only in a passive
manner’ (Hillen 2000: 79). The formal approach taken by peacekeeping during this
time was characterised by the Hammarskjold/Pearson Model of peacekeeping,
which relied heavily upon five key principles (Ramsbotham/Woodhouse 1999:
93–94).
i. The principle of consent from the combating parties for the establishment of
the mission;
ii. The non-use of force by the peacekeeping mission except for in circumstances
of self defence;
iii. The principle of voluntary contributions from small, neutral countries to
participate in the force;
iv. The principle of an impartial peacekeeping force; and
v. The principle of peacekeeping operations being controlled by the Secretary
General.
As peacekeeping has developed, the five key principles have reduced, and now
peacekeeping is guided by a ‘holy trinity’ (Bellamy et al. 2010: 174) of consent,
1.2 Defining ‘Peacekeeping’ and Peacebuilding? 7

impartiality, and the non-use of force apart from self defence and defence of the
mandate. Moreover, the tasks asked of peacekeepers has broadened, particularly as
a result of multifaceted deployments in the 1990s, where UN peacekeeping oper-
ations became involved in nation building (Jett 1999: 28). Such operations—and
the complex nature these tasks involved—resulted in military peacekeepers being
asked to liaise with a much wider number of civilian organisations, as well as learn
to negotiate with local armed groups and facilitate agreements over ceasefires, aid
delivery, and the return of refugees (Stewart 1993). Additionally, doctrinal devel-
opments from troop contributors (MOD 1995; JDDC 1998) brought in more formal
approaches to managing different levels of consent amongst parties to the conflict,
using increased force in peacekeeping operations, and engaging in early-stage
peacebuilding.
The most recent iteration of the UN’s approach to peacekeeping is outlined in
the 2008 UN publication ‘Principles and Guidelines of United Nations
Peacekeeping’. The UN’s definition of peacekeeping forms part of a larger spec-
trum of ‘peace operations’, which incorporate differing levels of coercive capacity
(robust peacekeeping and peace enforcement), as well as engagement in peace-
building processes. The definitions are outlined in Box 1.2.

Box 1.2: How the UN Principles and Guidelines Define Peace operations.
Source: UN (2008: 17–18, 99)
Peacekeeping is a technique designed to preserve the peace, however fragile,
where fighting has been halted, and to assist in implementing agreements
achieved by the peacemakers… peacekeeping has evolved from a primarily
military model of observing cease-fires and the separation of forces after
inter-state wars, to incorporate a complex model of many elements—military,
police and civilian—working together to help lay the foundations for sus-
tainable peace.
Robust Peacekeeping: The use of force by a United Nations peacekeeping
operation at the tactical level, with the authorization of the Security Council,
to defend its mandate against spoilers whose activities pose a threat to
civilians or risk undermining the peace process.
Peace enforcement involves the application, with the authorization of the
Security Council, of a range of coercive measures, including the use of
military force. Such actions are authorized to restore international peace and
security in situations where the Security Council has determined the existence
of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression. The Security
Council may utilize, where appropriate, regional organizations and agencies
for enforcement action under its authority.
Peacebuilding involves a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of
lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities at all
levels for conflict management, and to lay the foundation for sustainable
peace and development. Peacebuilding is a complex, long-term process of
8 1 Introduction

creating the necessary conditions for sustainable peace. It works by

addressing the deep-rooted, structural causes of violent conflict in a com-
prehensive manner. Peacebuilding measures address core issues that effect the
functioning of society and the State, and seek to enhance the capacity of the
State to effectively and legitimately carry out its core functions.

As can be seen, UN definitions expect that those involved in a peacekeeping

operation will be operating under mixed identities. Every activity—be it peace-
keeping, robust peacekeeping, or peacebuilding—operates in a fluid environment.
This means that pinning down an exact definition of peacekeeping differs from
mission to mission. The UN’s definition therefore attempts to maintain the flexi-
bility to operate across missions.
Peacekeeping can also be a robust activity, and the overlap between
consent-based peacekeeping, robust peacekeeping, and peace enforcement is one
which also challenges the definitional solidity of the activity. Under the narrowest
form of ‘robust’ peacekeeping, peacekeepers are mandated, under Chapter VII of
the UN Charter, to use force at a tactical level to provide freedom of manoeuvre for
the peacekeepers, and to protect the mandate. That is, according to Thierry Tardy,
to ‘prevent situations where the implementation of the mandate, or more broadly the
peace process, is ‘taken hostage’ by spoilers’ (Tardy 2011: 152).
Furthermore, as the Chap. 3 will demonstrate, peacekeeping operations have also
developed in such a way that mandates which guide missions cover a range of
important ‘cross cutting’ issues. These issues—Protection of Civilians, Women
Peace and Security, and Children and Armed Conflict—bring new challenges and
opportunities to the activity of peacekeeping.
This being a book about UN peacekeeping, and the development of training
programmes for duties under the UN flag, it is appropriate that the definitions of
peacekeeping as outlined by the UN are used. This is predominantly as the book
starts from the point of agreement with Ramsbotham, Woodhouse and Miall’s
assertion that that the central aim of UN peacekeepers has not been to defeat a
national enemy, but to ‘support peace processes, protect civilians and fulfil legiti-
mate international mandates’ (Ramsbotham et al. 2011: 170). Therefore peace-
keeping operations have a ‘vital’ conflict resolution role to play in the most intense
periods of destructive conflict (Ramsbotham et al. 2011: 147). The UN’s own
definition of this activity—‘a technique designed to preserve the peace, however
fragile, where fighting has been halted, and to assist in implementing agreements
achieved by the peacemakers’ (UN 2008: 18)—links to this, and provides a positive
illustration of the nexus between the military activity of peacekeeping, and the role
of conflict resolution theory.
1.2 Defining ‘Peacekeeping’ and Peacebuilding? 9

1.2.2 Peacebuilding

Likewise, with the book focusing on UN operations, it is appropriate that the book
utilizes the UN’s definitions of peacebuilding, as outlined in Box 1.2. The UN has
since expanded on this by stressing that peacekeeping activities should be con-
ducted in a manner that facilitates post-conflict peacebuilding, help to prevent a
relapse into conflict, and assist progress towards sustainable peace and develop-
ment. This means UN peacekeepers are ideally to be understood as early peace-
builders (UN 2010: 2).
On a wider level, peacebuilding has been described as the ‘institutionalisation of
peace’ (Aggestam/Bjorkdahl 2013: 8). As David Last argues, the challenge of
countries where the UN deploys operations is far beyond controlling violence, and
incorporates the rebuilding of government, civil society, and the ‘public space’ for
debate (Last 2000: 87). Peacebuilding projects therefore seek to complement the
provision of security that military forms of peacekeeping ideally provides, through
utilizing a range of non-military actors (both local and international) to facilitate the
transition towards peaceful societies.
Yet, defining peacebuilding—particularly on a macro-level—is a difficult chal-
lenge, with differing actors, perceptions, timeframes, and intentions all contributing
to a substantially broad field. Macro-level Studies of peacebuilding have often
looked to the broad process of political projects of democratization, economic
reform, and security sector reform in post-conflict societies. These are often argued
as being in line with liberal democratic values (Newman et al. 2009: 6), and stem
from Boutros Ghali’s approach of a ‘comprehensive approach’ to peace outlined in
the 1992 Agenda for Peace (Ghali 1992), which posited the links between conflict
prevention, peacemaking, peacekeeping, and peacebuilding. The political nature of
post conflict peacebuilding is thus brought into question, as is the actions and
intention of interveners (Pugh et al. 2008: 3). Moreover, there are differences
between technical approaches based on the capacities of international organisations
(known as deductive approaches), and the requirements of context specific situa-
tions (inductive processes) (Cousins/Kumar 2001: 5–10).
This particular study however will look towards micro-level approaches to how
military personnel deployed on peacekeeping operations undertake local level
peacebuilding tasks. Betts Fetherston’s work (which in many ways has been fun-
damental to providing linkages between peacekeeping and conflict resolution the-
ory), outlined three ways in which peacebuilding functions at a micro-level. Firstly
an activity which builds economic and/or political infrastructure; second, an activity
‘targeted specifically a reconciliation’ or restoring severed interactions; third, the
provision of humanitarian aid (Fetherston 1994: 138). More recent studies of
peacebuilding outline more characteristics of what informs the activity, with
Schrich offering seven principles (Schrich 2013: 8). Peacebuilding in this context is:
• Informed by robust participatory, on-going conflict assessment
• Informed by conflict sensitivity that reduces the possibility of unintentional
harms that could increase the risk of actual violence or social divisions
10 1 Introduction

• Designed to address drivers and mitigators of conflict

• Built on local capacities to manage and resolve conflict peacefully
• Driven by local ownership
• Informed by social dialogue to build consensus and trust
• Inclusive of all relevant stakeholders throughout programming and
implementations.
Through their daily activities, military peacekeepers can facilitate each of these
processes. As Chap. 3 will outline, the UN has identified particular roles that
peacekeepers at this micro-level in the development of peacebuilding programmes.
Moreover, in Chap. 5, which examines civil-military relations, aspects of these
micro-level approaches to peacebuilding will be evident.

1.2.3 The Training Framework

When reading this book, it is important to bear in mind that the peacekeeping
training architecture is slightly amorphous. Although the UN is the body which
military peacekeepers are ultimately serving under, the responsibility of training of
such peacekeepers falls to the member states who contribute them (known as Troop
Contributing Countries, or TCCs). The UN (through the Department of
Peacekeeping Operations, or DPKO) has a role (as shall be seen), in providing
standardised training materials through what are known as the Core
Pre-Deployment Training Materials, but the very size of peacekeeping contribu-
tions, and demands that are placed on the DPKO means that the body relies on a
decentralized structure to train peacekeepers. This is where organisations such as
the UN Training School, Ireland (UNTSI) are important. As shall be seen in
Chap. 5, UNTSI is an example of a national UN training school which incorporates
UN training materials, but undertakes the training itself.1
Nevertheless, the focus on this book is how the UN approaches training for
military peacekeepers. There is great worth in examining the UN. On a policy level,
The UN is effectively the anchor point of efforts to coordinate peacekeeping policy
and practice: UN Security Council Resolutions create missions, the UN DPKO
looks to inform and guide these resolutions, as well as support missions, and the
UN General Assembly looks to offer a forum for all troop contributors in the
oversight and development of peacekeeping policy.
This links both to conflict resolution and cosmopolitan scholars, who understand
the role of the UN as a legitimate third party intervener in conflict. Scholarship from
the conflict resolution field identifies the UN as the ‘essential’ global institutional
framework for the realisation of conflict resolution goals, for its ‘unique reservoir’
of legitimacy, or integrative power. Furthermore, it is hoped that the UN can
continue to be the only ‘genuinely global institution capable of delivering

1
A wider discussion about the training architecture will be provided in the concluding chapter.
1.2 Defining ‘Peacekeeping’ and Peacebuilding? 11

authoritative endorsement of fundamental international values, and of conferring

legitimacy on the most difficult international undertakings’ (Ramsbotham et al.
2011: 327).
This book will focus on pre-deployment training of military personnel preparing
to undertake peacekeeping deployments. The UN defines pre-deployment training
as ‘generic, specialized, and, where appropriate, mission-specific peacekeeping
training that is based on UN standards and takes place prior to deployment to a
DPKO-led mission’ (UN 2016a, b). Pre-deployment training is delivered by
member states to military personnel in their country of origin, and is also delivered
through the UN’s Integrated Training Service. Although pre-deployment training is
complemented by ‘induction training’, and ‘on-going training’, these are outside the
scope of this book.
Additionally, it focuses on ‘collective training’, defined as approaches which
‘builds the attitudes, skills and knowledge required to assemble an effective team’
(Arbuckle 2006: 151), and ‘professional advancement training’, where ‘individual
potential is built and tested, not for the present job but for future employment,
thereby building collective capacities on the enhanced potential of individuals’
(Arbuckle 2006: 151). Peacekeeping is not at the core of military training: it is an
addition to the central military skills. Where this addition is incorporated is an area
for debate, as in some cases it is incorporated at an earlier stage than others.
However, this book does not aim to examine the holistic cycle of military training,
and where peacekeeping training fits into it; instead, the focus is on what the
training encompasses insofar as the requirements of specific peacekeeping skills.
The book’s conclusions offer thoughts on the wider implications of peacekeeping
training.
The peacekeeping field is exceptionally large, with a high number of soldiers,
training organisations, and training regimes. This makes it difficult to gain a
grounded idea in how training is carried out, and what influences it. Although not
wishing to sell itself as a ‘definitive account’ of training, this book provides a
valuable contribution to the literature through offering a selection of peacekeeping
training models, and investigating to what extent conflict resolution influences and
informs the training regimes on offer.

1.3 On the Structure of the Book

The chapters of the book are divided into three parts. Part I of the book provides the
platform to understand trends in conflict resolution concerning peacekeeping and
peacekeeper training. This incorporates Chap. 2, which is an overview of the
conflict resolution field, and how this relates specifically to peacekeeping opera-
tions. The chapter begins by offering an overview of where conflict resolution
theory identifies a role for UN peacekeepers, including the development of cos-
mopolitan models of peacekeeping. It then drills down, firstly into studies which
have examined the activities of deployed peacekeepers, and how they have utilised
12 1 Introduction

conflict resolution skills. It then looks specifically at the training dimension, in

particular the role of elicitive approaches, and how such approaches can link to UN
peacekeeping. Following on from this, Chap. 3 outlines policy developments that
have been made at the UN level. This takes at its starting point the changes brought
in as a result of the 1999 ‘Brahimi report’. Since then, bureaucratic changes have
been made to the UN’s training structures, as has there been significant develop-
ment on a thematic level, most notably through the linking of peacekeeping to early
stage peacebuilding. It then examines how training programmes have been updated
to reflect these developments, and how peacekeepers themselves are playing a
greater role in reflecting on the training they receive.
Part II of the book looks specifically at two areas of peacekeeper training where
conflict resolution theory and skills have gained traction. Chapter 4 examines
negotiation and cultural awareness training for peacekeeping operations. This
includes an outline of where negotiation contexts have been identified at the tactical
level of a peacekeeping operation, and how peacekeepers have specifically used
negotiation as a means to provide creative non-violent solutions to potentially
violent situations. The chapter outlines strategies which are used to engage military
personnel in negotiation skills, drawing on the extensive work undertaken by
Deborah Goodwin, whose work at the Royal Military Training Academy Sandhurst
has developed negotiation skills for the British military. Taking the lead from
Goodwin’s work, the chapter will also examine the utility of ‘interest-based
negotiation’ in formulating training programmes for UN peacekeepers. Chapter 5
looks at civil-military relations. This broad topic area incorporates the relationship
between military personnel and civilian partners. These civilian partners may be
international interveners (such as NGO’s or UN agencies), but also those who live
in the deployment zone and are affected by the everyday activities of a UN
peacekeeping operation. It is here where guidance towards civil-military relations
has been developed to incorporate the role of a broader awareness of what con-
stitutes ‘civil’. Additionally, through examining a training exercise at the UN
Training School, Ireland, the chapter focuses on the importance of
relationship-building this area, and the utility of John Paul Lederach’s elicitive
approach to addressing conflict and its resolution.
Part III looks ahead, and asks what opportunities exist for further engagement
between the fields of peacekeeping and conflict resolution, but also outlines the
current challenges regarding the training dimension. Chapter 6 engages in the
opportunities, focussing specifically on the emergence of a ‘type’ of military
peacekeeper which has a higher understanding of concepts drawn from the conflict
resolution field, aligned with a more elicitive decision making framework. This type
of soldier also resonates with cosmopolitan scholarship, which has for some time
investigated the role of military personnel in upholding cosmopolitan values. The
chapter then asks what this may mean for future cosmopolitan peacekeeping
commitments, and incorporates ideas behind a standing UN peacekeeping force.
Chapter 7 concludes the book, by outlining key challenges for the training of UN
peacekeepers. In this chapter, three main challenges are outlined: the development
of robust peacekeeping; the relatively loose training architecture and; questions as
1.3 On the Structure of the Book 13

to whether training is effective. These challenges are both short-term, encompassing

missions that are currently on going, and long-term, bringing in questions about the
broader interaction of conflict resolution and military peacekeeping.

References

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Arbuckle, J. V. (2006). Military Forces in 21st Century Peace Operations: No Job for a Soldier?
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Archibugi, D. (1995). From the United Nations to Cosmopolitan Democracy. Cosmopolitan
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Bellamy, A. J., Williams, P. D., Griffin, S. (2010). Understanding Peacekeeping. Cambridge,
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Cousins, E. M., Kumar, C. (2001). Peacebuilding as Politics: Cultivating Peace in Fragile
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Fetherston, A. B. (1994). Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping. Basingstoke,
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Joint Headquarters, Ministry of Defence.
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Challenges of Managing International Conflict. C. A. Crocker, F. O. Hampson and Pamela
Aal. Washington, USIP. 407–426.
Last, D. (2000). Organising for Effective Peacebuilding. Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution.
T. Woodhouse and O. Ramsbotham. London, Frank Cass. 80–96.
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Edition). Cambridge, Polity Press.
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Edition). Cambridge, Polity Press.
14 1 Introduction

Schrich, L. (2013). Conflict Assessment and Peaceuilding Planning: Toward a Participatory

Approach Towards Human Security. Boulder, Kumarian Press.
Stewart, B. L. C. (1993). Broken Lives: A Personal View of the Bosnian Conflict. London, Harper
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 Part I
Trends in Conflict Resolution and
Peacekeeper Training
Chapter 2
Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution,
and the Role of Training

As the introductory chapter outlined, this book aims to understand the role conflict
resolution plays in training programmes for military peacekeepers, and the ways in
which training of military peacekeepers represents a further manifestation of the
links between the two fields. In order to gain a solid conceptual base, this chapter
examines where academic texts have noted the need for training in peacekeeping
operations. What is drawn from such a survey is the first step towards a
multi-levelled synthesis in order to locate where the call for increased conflict
resolution training for peacekeepers is coming from, which is complemented by a
survey of the ‘policy literature’ in United Nations documentation and practice, and
practitioner and academic understandings of civil-military relations, negotiation and
cultural awareness.
The military role in what is arguably a conflict resolution process has not always
been welcomed. Gordenker and Weiss’s 1991 study of peacekeepers in disaster
zones argues that ‘in the best of all worlds, use of the military should probably be
avoided in disasters’. This is because, in their view, militaries care little about
undermining local cultures and values, they do not make maximum use of available
local infrastructures for managing and distributing aid, they increase dependence
from the local population on external sources of assistance, thy do not harmonize
with local development efforts, and ultimately do not contribute to the resolution of
conflicts (Gordenker/Weiss 1991: 10).
Moskos’ 1976 study of military peacekeepers in the UN force in Cyprus
(UNFICYP) is also sceptical, but comes from the angle that militaries (or at least
those he studied) already have sufficient training to intervene as third party peace-
keepers (indeed, Gordenker and Weiss could actually look towards these arguments
as justification of their scepticism about military involvement). Moskos’ research
leads him to the conclusion that the level of training that military contingents receive
makes little difference to their performance as peacekeepers, and notes that for the
UNFICYP operation, each different nationality received a different level of training,
from the most in depth (such as Canada and Sweden), to virtually no training at all

© The Author(s) 2017 17

D. Curran, More than Fighting for Peace?, The Anthropocene:
Politik—Economics—Society—Science 8, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-46305-6_2
18 2 Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, and the Role of Training

(such as the United Kingdom). However, this training had a minimal impact when
compared with the learning process of the troops once deployed. Moskos adds:
It is important to stress the generalization that the constabulary ethic was primarily
engendered by on-duty, in-the-field peacekeeping experiences. This is also to say that
informal learning arising out of the field situation was a more determining factor in forging
the constabulary ethic than was peacekeeping training prior to arrival in Cyprus (Moskos
Jnr 1976: 96–97).

If anything, Moskos argues, the formulation of pre-deployment training for

peacekeeping operations may ‘retard’ the emergence of a constabulary ethic
amongst soldiers, and that it could lead to peacekeepers operating under false
expectations of how they are accepted by the local population, or will lead troops to
‘believe the peacekeeping force will be fully efficacious in realizing permanent
solutions’ (Moskos Jnr 1976: 134). Possibly this view can be understood in the
context in which it was written: the UNFICYP case study was (and still is) a largely
benign operation, and many of the tasks bestowed upon peacekeepers were in fact
to keep belligerents apart along a designated ceasefire line. However, the ‘con-
stabulary ethic’ that Moskos speaks about is still very much apparent in peace-
keeping operations, so this argument must not be thrown away as a ‘dated logic’.
Nevertheless, linkages between the field of conflict resolution and the activity of
peacekeeping have been well established, and the role of training military peace-
keepers in the necessary skills for conflict resolution activities has been advocated by
scholars. This chapter outlines this through looking firstly at the strategic level:
where studies seek to outline where peacekeeping fits into the academic theory of
conflict resolution. Here, work by Galtung, Fetherston, and Woodhouse and
Ramsbotham will be outlined. It then examines how scholarship from the conflict
resolution field has sought to reflect this engagement in the day-to-day activities of
peacekeepers, particularly with regards to the skillset required for peacekeeping
operations. Next, the chapter focuses specifically on where training in conflict res-
olution skills has been defined as a necessity in preparation of peacekeepers. Finally
the chapter looks to how peacekeepers could be trained in such skills, utilising John
Paul Lederach’s elicitive approach to training conflict resolution practitioners.

2.1 Wider Theoretical Approaches

To start, we look at where conflict resolution theory has interacted with peace-
keeping operations on a theoretical level. Both initially conceptualised and devel-
oped in the decades following the Second World War, conflict resolution
scholarship has increasingly investigated what role peacekeeping can play in wider
theoretical frameworks.
Johan Galtung’s 1976 study looks to the incorporation of peacekeeping into more
radical conceptions of peace. Galtung’s research considers that a basic dilemma for
peacekeeping is distinguishing between, and reacting to, different types of violent
2.1 Wider Theoretical Approaches 19

conflict. Peacekeeping, for example, can work effectively to deal with horizontal
conflicts, which he defines as conflict between ‘equals with no element of dominance’
(i.e. between two states). However in conflicts where both parties are not equal
(i.e. a conflict between the centre and periphery within a state), peacekeeping runs the
danger of preserving a status quo as a result of intervening. Through containing the
conflict and maintaining the status quo, the peacekeeping force is actually taking a
side in the conflict (Galtung 1976a, b: 284). To illustrate this, Galtung outlines three
ways which peacekeeping is conceptualised in the context of how it should react to
vertical conflict (conflict between a strong centre and weaker periphery):
1. The formalistic stand (third party intervention which will handle any war in the
same way);
2. The let-it-work-itself-out stand (with no third party intervention);
3. The use-peacekeeping-on-the-side-of-peace stand (where third party interven-
tion seeks to remove both direct and structural violence).
Galtung rejects the first two approaches outright, and chooses to explore
the third strand. Although he outlines problems in it, Galtung advocates the
use-peacekeeping-on-the-side-of-peace approach, arguing that doctrines of
non-intervention in the affairs of a state must be rejected, and that through rejecting
these doctrines, peacekeeping operations would ‘unequivocally… break through
these artificial walls called regions and states mankind has built around itself’
(Galtung 1976a, b: 286). He goes on to argue that:
A peacekeeping operation in a vertical conflict should be more like a one-way wall,
permitting the freedom fighters out to expand the liberated territory, but preventing the
oppressors from getting in (Galtung 1976a, b: 288).

Though set in the Cold War context, Galtung’s early attempts to conceptualise
peacekeeping, and the possible role the activity could play in projects of peace, did
establish a working understanding that the two fields could be interlinked.
Betts Fetherston’s 1994 study ‘Towards a Theory of United Nations
Peacekeeping’, takes a more instrumental approach, linking UN operations to theo-
retical work on contingency and complementarity models in conflict resolution.
Fetherston suggests that existing definitions of peacekeeping were ‘inadequate’
because they ‘have not been placed within a larger framework’. From this, Fetherston
attempts to offer a theoretical framework to ‘analyze the utility of peacekeeping as a
third party intervention and as a tool of conflict management’ (Fetherston 1994a, b:
139–140). She further argues that:
It is not enough to send a force into the field with a vague notion that they should be
impartial and help to facilitate settlement. To act as a third party in a protracted violent,
polarized conflict is an extremely difficult and delicate task. Diplomats, academics and
others who have acted in the capacity of a third party are generally well trained, highly
experienced individuals with a good base of knowledge about the particular conflict. On the
whole, peacekeepers have limited preparation and experience (Fetherston 1994a, b: 140).

Noting that peacekeeping operations represent a form of third party intervention

(incorporating both conflict resolution and conflict settlement strategies), and that
20 2 Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, and the Role of Training

there exists no framework for understanding when to intervene, (and how inter-
ventions can be effective), Fetherston links peacekeeping to Fisher and Keashly’s
contingency model. Arguing that it ‘seems to offer the best possibility for a more
effective management of conflict’ (Fetherston 1994a, b: 123), Fetherston uses this
contingency approach as it offers a suitable ‘middle ground’ between those highly
empirical forms of conflict analysis, and the school of thought which argues against
any formulated analysis of intervention.
The contingency model, as outlined in Fisher and Keashly’s 1990 research, is a
model devised to match third party intervention to certain characteristics of the
conflict. Fisher and Keashly’s research outlines four main stages of a conflict:
(1) Discussion, (2) Polarization, (3) Segregation, and (4) Destruction. From this,
they match third party strategies to each stage. Stage 4 of this (destruction) is where
peacekeeping is the strategy of choice, to ‘assist in the separation of the parties and
the control of violence’. This is the first stage of intervention at the most destructive
level, which aims to give space for other forms of third party intervention
(Fisher/Keashly 1991). Fisher follows this up in his 1994 research which espouses
the important role of peacebuilding as a bridge between peacekeeping and peace-
making. Fisher’s diagram (in Box 2.1) helps to illustrate this

Box 2.1: Approaches to Peace in a contingency model. Source: Fisher

(1993: 258)

STAGE OF SEQUENCE OF OUTCOMES FOR

ESCALATION INTERVENTIONS DE-ESCALATION

Destruction Peacekeeping Control Violence

Peacebuilding

Segregation Peacepushing De-escalate or

control hostility
Peacebuilding

Polarization Peacebuilding Meet basic needs

improve relationship
Peacemaking

Discussion Peacemaking Settle interests

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
very little more effort than is required to paddle it. The use of the pole
necessitates a standing position, but this is neither risky nor difficult
for any canoeist who understands the knack of balancing a canoe,
and none but an experienced canoeist has any business in swift,
white water. The setting pole is gripped with the left hand near the
top, with the right hand held stationary about 2 ft. lower, and as the
canoe travels past the pole, firmly planted on the river bottom, the
poler leans forward and makes use of his weight and strength to give
a quick push. The pole is again shoved forward as quickly as
possible, that the craft may lose as little headway as possible, and a
new grip secured for the next push. After a little experience with the
pole, the canoeist will find it an easy matter to swing his craft across
the current and avoid rocks and other obstructions as easily as when
paddling. When contemplating a long trip up a stream where the
water is heavy and the current swift, the use of two poles will make
the work easier. Both persons should pole from the same side, the
man in the bow doing the steering while the stern man adds his
straight-ahead push to force the canoe upstream.
 Shifting the Paddle from One Side of the Canoe to The Other

The Track Line

The average wilderness stream of the North has enough “tight”

places which judgment tells the traveler to avoid by making a detour
by land rather than risk a capsize and a possible loss of the outfit. To
“tote” the outfit overland means more or less hard work, and as
every canoeist will avoid portaging if there is a fair chance of getting
the canoe through a bad stretch of water, the tracking line will come
in handy very often. The usual ring in the bow of the canoe is far too
flimsy for hauling the loaded craft, and sufficient length of stout rope
should be carried along to pass through the painter eye, and then
carried aft and half-hitched to the first and second thwarts. One man
can pull the canoe up a swift stream by walking along the bank while
his partner takes up the opposite side and steers the craft away from
rocks by using a stern line. With a heavily loaded canoe in very swift
and shallow water, both men must often wade, and a tump line
rigged up as a breast or shoulder strap will make it easier work for
the man at the bow line.

Paddling a Canoe Single-Handed

The open, or Canadian-model, canoe is, of course, handled more

easily and with better speed with two paddlers but there are
occasions when the canoe is used single-handed. When out for a
few hours’ paddle, the canoeist usually balances the craft by sitting
on the bow seat—or kneels on the bottom with his back against the
bow-seat brace—and using the stern for the bow. This brings the
paddler’s weight nearer the center and keeps the canoe better
balanced than when paddling from the stern with the bow high in the
air. However, when the canoe is loaded, many canoeists stow their
camp duffle forward and paddle from the stern, the weight of the
outfit keeping the craft on an even keel. This answers well enough
for smooth-water going, but when the water is rough, or a stretch of
rapids is run single-handed, the stern position is by no means a good
one since the craft is more difficult to control, and much more
strength is required to drive it forward. The Indian manner of
paddling a canoe alone is the only correct one, for he always sits
amidships—kneeling in the center—and if a load is carried, it is
placed in front and back of him so that the craft is balanced on an
even keel. Consequently the canoe draws less water and can be
paddled faster with the same effort, while the paddler has the craft
under perfect control. But the experienced line paddler does not
kneel in the center, he moves out until his body is close to the
gunwale. This makes the craft heel at a decided angle, it is true, but
this position makes for better speed because it enables the paddle to
be held almost vertical, and the more nearly perpendicular the
paddle is swung the more efficient will be the stroke.
 In using the double blade, the paddler dips first on one side, then
on the other, and to make the blades travel through the air with the
least resistance, it is customary to set them at right angles to each
other. The motion is really a push and pull, the shaft of the paddle
being rotated in the hands so that the blade will enter the water with
the full breadth facing the canoeist. Rubber cups, to catch the drip as
the paddle rises in the air when making the stroke, are sometimes
used by novices, but these are unnecessary if the paddles are set at
right angles, and the paddler will bend his wrist a trifle to throw the
drip ahead and to one side. At the beginning, the novice will very
likely throw a little water in the canoe, but a little practice will soon
master the knack.

Care and Repair of the Canoe

The canvas-covered cedar canoe will stand a vast amount of hard

service, but it should not be dragged over the ground or over the
boarding of the landing float, neither should it be so placed that any
strain will come amidships while the ends are well supported. When
storing for the winter, keep it under cover, resting bottom side down
on a floor, or turn it bottom side up and support it with boxes, or other
standards, at the center as well as at the ends. While unused at the
camp, turn it bottom side up on the bank. Birch bark must be kept
out of the sun, and the paint of canvas-covered canoes will last
longer if kept in the shade. When the paint becomes rough,
sandpaper it down smooth, and give it a couple of coats of canoe
paint. When the paint is worn off and exposes the canvas, give the
bare cloth a couple of coats of shellac before painting.
 Paddling should be Done on the Knees When Traveling Where High Winds
and Seas are Encountered

A repair kit should be taken along on all long trips, consisting of a

small can of white lead, a can of orange shellac, and a sheet of oiled
silk. For small cuts in the canvas, a coat or two of shellac will suffice,
but for bad gashes, cut off the loose threads of canvas and rub on a
little white lead under the raised portion near the hole and on the
surface, cut a patch of the oiled silk to cover it, and paste it in
position. When the lead is dry, give it a couple of coats of shellac.
For making quick repairs, a roll of electrician’s tape will come in
handy. The birch canoe is quickly repaired in the same manner as
suggested for the canvas-covered craft, and as the shellac is
waterproof and dries quickly, all ordinary repairs may be made by the
stream side with but little loss of time.
 Oiling Tool for Clocks
Jewelers use a little tool for oiling clocks and watches that could
be used profitably by others for the same and similar work. It
consists of a steel wire, bluntly pointed on the end and set into a
wood handle. Very often the only thing that is the matter with a clock
which does not keep good time, is that it is dirty and dry. If this is the
case, any person handy with tools can fix it at practically no cost.
Remove the works, which are usually held with four screws, from the
case, immerse them in kerosene and allow them to stand for a few
minutes, then remove and drain. This will clean out the dirt.

The Tool will Pick Up a Drop of Oil and Deposit It Where Wanted

The oiling tool is dipped in light oil and a drop applied to each
bearing. Replace the works in the case and the job is finished. A
reliable jeweler will charge very little for this work, but the more crafty
ones may ask a good price for this “mysterious” process. If the works
are not dirty, apply the oil with the tool. Anyone who has tried to oil a
clock with an ordinary spout oilcan knows the futility of the attempt.
The object of the tool is to pick up and carry a drop of oil and deposit
it where wanted. A can, a feather, or a match will do, but any one of
them is apt to carry dirt, flood the dry part, or smear up nonmoving
parts.
Easily Constructed Wall Shelves
 Shelves for Books Supported with Picture-Frame Wire to the Wall

All that is necessary to make and support the simple set of wall
shelves, shown in the illustration, is lumber for the shelves, four
screw eyes, four screw hooks, sufficient picture-frame wire to form
the braces and supports, and wood screws for attaching the wire. On
the top side of the upper shelf are fastened the four screw eyes, two
near the wall edge and the others near the outer edge. To support
the upper shelf four screw hooks are used; two placed in the wall
and spaced to match the set of screw eyes nearest the wall, the
others being placed above the first and connected to the outer set of
screw eyes with the wire, thereby forming strong inclined supports.
The remaining shelves can be hung to suit by the supporting wires,
which are fastened with screws to the end of each shelf.
 Showing the Strength of a Giant
This trick is not so well known as it might be, although for a while it
was quite a popular drawing attraction for circus side shows and
other amusement places. It is one of the favorite Hindu tricks. The
performer passes for examination two pieces of rope 10 ft. long. In
one end of each rope a large ring is fastened. Taking a ring in each
hand the performer commands three or four men at each end of the
rope to take hold of it and at a signal they pull as hard as possible.
They pull until they are exhausted as in a tug of war, but the
performer only appears a trifle exerted and finds no difficulty in
holding the men.

The Performer Seems to Hold the Ones Pulling on the Ropes without Any
Effort, Producing an Effect That cannot be Readily Understood, and Making
an Excellent Trick for the Lawn Party

The secret is in the use of a piece of flexible wire, which passes up

the right sleeve of the performer, across the back and down the left
sleeve, lying just inside of the coat sleeve. At the ends of the wire
are small hooks. When about to perform this trick the performer puts
on a pair of gloves. The gloves are slit in the palms to allow the
hooks to pass through. The hooks are covered with cloth, colored to
match the gloves. An essential point to remember in performing the
trick is to keep the fingers well around the rings to prevent the ropes
from dropping in case of a slack-up on the tension.
 The Tricks of Camping Out
By STILLMAN TAYLOR

PART I—The Camping Outfit

Toouter
enjoy a vacation in the woods thoroughly, it is essential that the
be provided with the right kind of an outfit. The
inexperienced are likely to carry too much rather than too little to the
woods; to include many unnecessary luxuries and overlook the more
practical necessities. However, camp life does not mean that one
must be uncomfortable, but rather implies plain and simple living
close to nature. An adequate shelter from the sun and rain, a
comfortable bed, a good cooking kit, and plenty of wholesome food,
are the important things to consider. No man or woman requires
more, and if unwilling to share the plain fare of the woodsman, the
pampered ones should be left at home, for the grouchy, complaining
individual makes, of all persons, the very worst of camping
companions.
The Old Hand at the Camping Game Prefers
to Cut Poles on the Camping Site and Set
Them Up on the Outside for the Camp-Fire
Tent

The Wall Tent may be erected with the

Regular Poles, or, When Ordered with Tapes
along the Ridge, It can be Set Up with Outside
Tripod or Shear Poles
 The Choice of a Tent

There are tents and tents, but for average outings in what may be
considered a permanent camp, the regulation wall, or army, tent is
generally used to make a comfortable shelter. It is a splendid utility
tent, with generous floor space and plenty of headroom. For the
permanent camp, the wall tent is often provided with a fly, which may
be set up as an extra covering for the roof, or extended over the front
to make a kind of porch. An extension may also be purchased to
serve the same purpose. The 7 by 9-ft. wall tent will shelter two
persons comfortably, but when the camp is seldom moved, the 9 by
12-ft. size, with a 3¹⁄₂-ft. wall, will afford more room. The regulation 8-
oz. duck is heavy enough, or the same tent may be obtained in tan
or dark green khaki, if preferred. In any case the tent should have a
sod cloth, from 6 to 12 in. wide, extending around the bottom and
sewed to the tent. An extra piece of canvas or floor cloth is desirable,
but this as well as the fly are extras, and while convenient, are by no
means necessary. The wall tent may be erected with the regular
poles, or it may be ordered with tapes along the ridge and erected by
suspending between two trees. The old hand at the camping game
rarely uses the shop poles supplied with most tents, but prefers to
cut them at the camping site and rig them up on the outside, one
slender pole fastened with tapes along the ridge and supported at
either end in the crotch formed by setting up two poles, tripod or
shear-fashion.
The “Baker” style is a popular tent, giving a large sleeping
capacity, yet folding compactly. The 7 by 7-ft. size, with a 2-ft. wall,
makes a good comfortable home for two, and will shelter three, or
even four, if required. The entire front may be opened to the fire by
extending it to form an awning, or it may be thrown back over the
ridge to form an open-front lean-to shelter.
The “Dan Beard,” or camp-fire, tent is a modification of the Baker
style, having a slightly steeper pitch, with a smaller front opening.
The dimensions are practically the same as the Baker, and it may be
pitched by suspending between two trees, by outside poles, or the
regular poles may be used.
 For traveling light by canoe or pack, a somewhat lighter and less
bulky form of tent than the above styles may be chosen, and the
woodsman is likely to select the forester’s or ranger types. The
ranger is a half tent with a 2-ft. wall and the entire front is open; in
fact, this is the same as the Baker tent without the flap. If desired,
two half ranger tents with tapes may be purchased and fastened
together to form an A, or wedge, tent. This makes a good tent for two
on a hike, as each man carries his own half, and is assured a good
shelter in case one becomes separated from his companion, and a
tight shelter when the two make camp together.
The forester’s tent is another good one, giving good floor space
and folding up very compactly, a 9 by 9-ft. tent weighing about 5¹⁄₂ lb.
when made of standard-weight fabric. It may be had either with or
without hood, and is quickly erected by using three small saplings,
one along the ridge, running from peak to ground, and one on each
side of the opening, to form a crotch to support the ridge pole, shear-
fashion. These tents are not provided with sod or floor cloths,
although these may be ordered as extras if wanted.
The canoe or “protean” tents are good styles for the camper who
travels light and is often on the move. The canoe tent has a circular
front, while the protean style is made with a square front, and the
wall is attached to the back and along the two sides. Both tents are
quickly set up, either with a single inside pole or with two poles set
shear-fashion on the outside. A 9 by 9-ft. canoe or protean tent with
a 3-ft. wall makes a comfortable home in the open.
Whatever style of tent is chosen, it is well to pay a fair price and
obtain a good quality of material and workmanship. The cheaper
tents are made of heavier material to render them waterproof, while
the better grades are fashioned from light-weight fabric of close
weave and treated with a waterproofing process. Many of the
cheaper tents will give fair service, but the workmanship is often
poor, the grommets are apt to pull out, and the seams rip after a little
hard use. All tents should be waterproofed, and each provided with a
bag in which to pack it. An ordinary tent may be waterproofed in the
following manner: Dissolve ¹⁄₂ lb. of ordinary powdered alum in 4 gal.
of hot rain water, and in a separate bucket dissolve ¹⁄₂ lb. of acetate
of lead—sugar of lead—in 4 gal. of hot rain water. The acetate of
lead is poisonous if taken internally. When thoroughly dissolved, let
the solution stand until clear, then pour the alum solution into a tub
and add the lead solution. Let the solution stand for an hour or two,
then pour off the clear water and thoroughly soak the fabric in the
waterproofing mixture by rubbing and working the material with the
hands. Hang the cloth up without wringing it out.
The Forester’s Tent is Quickly Erected by
Using Three Small Saplings, One along the
Ridge, and One on Each Side of the Opening
to Form a Crotch for the Ridge Pole
The Ranger’s or Hiker’s Tent Comes in The Canoe or Protean Tents
Halves. Each Half may be Used Are Good Styles for the
Independently as a Lean-To Shelter for One Camper Who Travels Light
Man, or Both Joined Together to Make Room and Is Often on the Move,
for Two Persons and They can be Quickly Set
Up with a Single Inside Pole

How to Pitch a Tent

It is, of course, possible to pitch a tent almost anywhere, but for

the sake of comfort, it is well to select a site with natural drainage.
Many campers dig a shallow trench around the tent to prevent water
from running in during a heavy rain. This is a good idea for the
permanent camp, but is not often necessary if the soil is sandy or
porous, or where a sod cloth is used.
It is rarely necessary to carry the regular poles to the camping
ground, and they may be omitted excepting when en route to a
treeless region. The wall and other large tents may be pitched in
several ways. In some places the woodsman cuts a straight ridge
pole, about 3 ft. longer than the tent, and two crotched uprights, 1 ft.
or more longer than the height of the tent. The ridge pole is passed
through the opening in the peak of the tent, or fastened to the
outside of the ridge with tapes sewed to the cloth. The two upright
stakes are then firmly planted in the ground, one at the back and the
other in front, and the ridge pole is lifted and dropped into these
crotched supports. Set up the four corner guys first to get the tent in
shape, then peg down the side guys and slide them taut so that all of
them will exert an even pull on the tent. Another good method for
setting up the side guys is to drive four crotched stakes, each about
4 ft. long, somewhere near 3 ft. from each corner of the tent, and
drop a fairly heavy pole in the rest so formed, then fasten the guy
ropes to this pole. When a sod cloth is provided it is turned under on
the inside, the floor cloth is spread over it and the camp duffel
distributed along the walls of the tent, to hold it down and prevent
insects and rain from entering.
To overcome the disadvantage of placing the poles in the center of
the entrance, the uprights may be formed by lashing two poles
together near the top to make a crotch and spreading the bottoms to
form a pair of shears. Poles may be dispensed with entirely,
providing the tent is ordered with tapes for attaching a rope to
suspend the ridge of the tent between two trees. In a wooded
country this manner of setting a tent is generally preferred.
Where a wall tent is used in a more permanent camp, it is a good
plan to order a fly, a couple of sizes larger than the tent. This should
be set up by using separate poles and rigged some 6 or 8 in. higher
than the ridge of the tent, thus affording an air space to temper the
heat of the sun and also serving to keep things dry during long,
heavy rains.

The Camping Kit

The camping kit, including the few handy articles needed in the
woods, as well as the bedding and cooking outfit, may be either
elaborate or simple, according to the personal experience and ideas
of the camper. In making up a list, it is a good plan to remember that
only comparatively few articles are really essential for a comfortable
vacation in the wilderness. A comfortable bed must be reckoned one
of the chief essentials, and one may choose the de-luxe couch—the
air mattress or sleeping pocket—use the ordinary sleeping bag, or
court slumber on one of the several other styles of camp beds. The
fold-over combination bed, the stretcher bed, or a common bag
made of ticking, 6¹⁄₂ ft. long by 2 ft. wide, which is stuffed with
browse or leaves, will suffice for the average person. Folding camp
cots, chairs, tables, and other so-called camp furniture, have their
places in the large, fixed camps, but the woodsman can manage to
live comfortably without them. A good pair of warm blankets should
be included for each person, providing the sleeping bag is not taken
along. The regulation army blankets are a good choice and
reasonable in price, or the blankets used at home may be pressed
into service.
A good ax is the woodsman’s everyday companion, and a good-
weight tool, weighing 3 or 4 lb., and a smaller one of 1¹⁄₂ lb. should
be carried. When going light, the belt ax will suffice.
The oil lantern is only suited for the fixed camp, since the fuel is
difficult to transport unless it is placed in screw-top cans. The
“Stonbridge” and other folding candle lanterns are the most
convenient for the woods and give sufficient light for camp life.
The aluminum cooking outfits are light in weight, nest compactly,
and will stand many years of hard usage, but like other good things,
they are somewhat expensive. A good substitute, at half the price,
may be obtained in tin and steel, having the good feature of nesting
within each other, but, of course, not being quite so light nor so
attractive in appearance as the higher-priced outfits. Both the
aluminum and steel outfits are put up in canvas carrying bags, and
an outfit for two includes a large and a small cooking pot coffee pot;
frying pan with folding or detachable handle; two plates; cups knives;
forks, and spoons. Outfits may be bought for any number of persons
and almost all sporting-goods stores carry them. The two-man outfit
in heavy aluminum will cost $9 or $10, while the same outfit
duplicated in steel is priced at $3.35.