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 Naar M’fundisi-Holloway

PENTECOSTAL
AND CHARISMATIC
SPIRITUALITIES AND
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT
IN ZAMBIA
Christianity and Renewal - Interdisciplinary Studies

Series Editors
Wolfgang Vondey
University of Birmingham
Birmingham, UK

Amos Yong
School of Intercultural Studies
Fuller Theological Seminary
Pasadena, CA, USA
Christianity and Renewal - Interdisciplinary Studies provides a forum
for scholars from a variety of disciplinary perspectives, various global
locations, and a range of Christian ecumenical and religious traditions
to explore issues at the intersection of the pentecostal, charismatic, and
other renewal movements and related phenomena, including: the trans-
forming and renewing work of the Holy Spirit in Christian traditions,
cultures, and creation; the traditions, beliefs, interpretation of sacred
texts, and scholarship of the renewal movements; the religious life,
including the spirituality, ethics, history, and liturgical and other prac-
tices, and spirituality of the renewal movements; the social, economic,
political, transnational, and global implications of renewal movements;
methodological, analytical, and theoretical concerns at the intersection of
Christianity and renewal; intra-Christian and interreligious comparative
studies of renewal and revitalization movements; other topics connect-
ing to the theme of Christianity and renewal. Authors are encouraged
to examine the broad scope of religious phenomena and their interpre-
tation through the methodological, hermeneutical, and historiographical
lens of renewal in contemporary Christianity. Under the general topic of
thoughtful reflection on Christianity and renewal, the series includes two
different kinds of books: (1) monographs that allow for in-depth pursuit,
carefully argued, and meticulously documented research on a particular
topic that explores issues in Christianity and renewal; and (2) edited col-
lections that allow scholars from a variety of disciplines to interact under
a broad theme related to Christianity and renewal. In both kinds, the
series encourages discussion of traditional pentecostal and charismatic
studies, reexamination of established religious doctrine and practice,
and explorations into new fields of study related to renewal movements.
Interdisciplinarity will feature in the series both in terms of two or more
disciplinary approaches deployed in any single volume and in terms of a
wide range of disciplinary perspectives found cumulatively in the series.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14894
 Naar M’fundisi-Holloway

Pentecostal and
Charismatic
Spiritualities and
Civic Engagement in
Zambia
Naar M’fundisi-Holloway
Territorial Headquarters
of the Salvation Army
London, UK

Christianity and Renewal - Interdisciplinary Studies

ISBN 978-3-319-97057-8 ISBN 978-3-319-97058-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97058-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949899

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover image by Naar M’Fundisi-Holloway

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 This book is a dedication to my dear mother, Regina Tonga Mufundisi
(1942–2002), who I loved dearly and was the epitome of a woman with a
beautiful heart.
And my father, Grey Luke Mufundisi (1940–2009), whose sense of
adventure always inspired me to see and experience life through the lenses of
an explorer.
Zororai Murughare Amai na Baba (RIP)
 Preface

The current study contributes to the development of a discourse

surrounding the ways in which Pentecostal and Charismatic attitudes
­
have been shaped and reshaped by issues at the core of Zambia’s civic
concerns.
Tracing the historical development of Pentecostalism in Zambia and
exploring the nation’s history of civic engagement, the primary areas of
examination will include both political activism and various attempts at
addressing the HIV/AIDS pandemic. For the purposes of this study,
community organization around addressing the HIV/AIDS pandemic
is here understood as political activism and not merely as health care
advocacy. Attempts at Pentecostal civic engagement are traced in post-
colonial Zambia, from independence in 1964 during the Kenneth
Kaunda era, until 2012. It has been discovered that the Pentecostals’
delay in engaging effectively in this area, as compared to mainline
churches can be attributed to the following factors (among others): a
history that eschewed civic engagement (which they deemed ungodly),
their minimal numbers (making it difficult for them to become a pow-
erful influential force), their fragmented voice as a movement, the for-
mation of unhealthy relationships with heads of state in the past (which
proved detrimental to their prophetic voice) and an overemphasis on
prayer as opposed to praxis in dealing with social issues. What will be evi-
dent is the relationship between religion and society and ways in which
Pentecostal and Charismatic beliefs and practices have had an impact on
civic issues and vice versa.

vii
viii    Preface

Between June 2009 and September 2013, the author engaged inter
alia on both intensive and extensive ethnographic research in Lusaka,
conducted over 50 interviews with major church leaders, distributed
300 questionnaires (with a response of 265), attended 20 gatherings
of her focus group, and visited 3 HIV/AIDS clinics in Lusaka over a
4 year period. This research focused on leaders and members of mainly
Pentecostal and Charismatic churches, and also on workers in integrated
health care centres as well as in other institutions set up by some of these
churches. The majority of the interviews were conducted in Lusaka,
except two which were held in Kitwe and Luanshya.
What makes the current study viable and innovative is that to date, no
comprehensive research has been conducted in the area of Pentecostal
and Charismatic civic engagement in the Republic of Zambia.

London, UK Naar M’fundisi-Holloway

 Acknowledgements

Research for this book took me on an interesting journey for a number

of years. There were many lows along the way. However, I also encoun-
tered a number of things that gave me a reason to keep going when the
going got tough. This thesis has roots in Zambia, my home country,
where I was born and spent my exciting formative years. Though my
Christian roots lie within the Salvation Army, it gave me great pleasure to
write something that would demonstrate the role that Zambia has played
in the growth and development of the Pentecostal and Charismatic
movement across the globe.
First of all I would like to give thanks to the almighty God because
with him all things are possible. I am greatly indebted to Professor Allan
Anderson my supervisor, who planted this seed in me by encourag-
ing me to write something about Frederick Chiluba, former President
of Zambia. It is from there that my thesis developed. I would like to
thank Dr. Richard Burgess who was very supportive during the two
years (2010–2012) we worked on the John Templeton Pentecostal
Charismatic Research Initiative. Thank you for working very hard with
other staff in the department to secure funding that helped me continue
with my studies. I would like to thank Professor Allan Anderson, Dr.
Richard Burgess and Dr. Mark Cartledge for their invaluable suggestions
through the years which helped improve my thesis. I also want to thank
Dr. Nimi Wariboko for his invaluable advice and reading through my
drafts at short notices. A special thank you to Dr. John Padwick for being
so gracious as to read through my drafts towards the end.

ix
x    Acknowledgements

I spent a number of months in Zambia in the between 2009 and

2013 doing field research for my Ph.D. Therefore, I would like to
thank all the Bishops, Reverends and Pastors in the Pentecostal and
Charismatic movement that gave me audience when I desperately needed
it to conduct interviews, as well as giving me other leads that would
help me with my research. Special thanks go to Reverend Pius Chisha
of Lakeroad Destiny Centre in Lusaka, who grew to become my friend,
my encourager and confidant during this season. Thank you to Bishop
Joshua Banda Senior Pastor of Northmead Assemblies of God who
allowed me to conduct research at the church’s Circle of Hope Family
HIV/AIDS Clinic. I would also like to thank Pastor Helmut Reutter,
Senior Pastor of Gospel Outreach Fellowship, who allowed me to do
the same at his church’s Chreso HIV/AIDS clinic. Thank you to all the
staff at both clinics who were very cooperative and helpful during my
data collection. Thank you to Bishop Imakando, Bishop George Mbulo,
Pastor Eddie Chansa, Bishop N’gambi, the late Bishop Sky Banda,
Bishop Peter Ndhlovu and Bishop Eddie Mulenga, for showing me great
kindness by taking time out of their busy schedules and allowing me to
interview them. A special thank you to Pastor Bruce Msidi and Pastor
Hannah Ndhlovu of Mount Zion Christian Centre for welcoming me
into their church and making me feel a part of their church family. Thank
you to Pastor Lawrence Temfwe for having so much faith in me. Your
Monday Issue writings not only kept me up breast with what was hap-
pening in Zambia while in the United Kingdom, but they truly inspired
me and spoke exactly what was on my heart.
I would like to thank all the numerous friends I have across the
globe that had more faith in me than I did in myself. Thank you to Dr.
Uthman Mumisa for introducing me to the University of Birmingham.
I appreciate your invaluable advise on issues pertaining to academia.
A heartfelt thank you to my brother in law Mr. Cuthbert Kasonde for
all that you did from the time I was in high school to the present. You
inspired me in many ways. To Dr. Eric Williams, thank you for being
a dependable friend, encourager, cheerleader and advisor and teaching
me the essence of ‘soul struggle’. Bishop Delroy Hall, you were a great
friend and source of support even when I didn’t see much of you. You
truly have a shepherd’s heart.
To my dearest friend Eunice, thank you for being you. Bonaventure
Pongaponga you have proven yourself to be a true friend throughout
my time of study, thank you for everything. To my colleague and dear
 Acknowledgements    xi

brother Shafaquat Hussain, thank you for all those laughs that helped
me release a lot of tension during this journey. Thank you Glynis Jones
my boss who gave me time off work to conduct my research. Mark
Colclough, thank you for making this journey easier on numerous occa-
sions and coming to my aid so generously on numerus occasions. Thank
you to aunty Tendai (the prayer warrior) who encouraged and prayed
for me throughout this journey. You are such a blessing. Thank you to
my church friends, Andrea and Elder Kevin Hutchinson for your con-
stant support. Thank you to Bishop Melvin and Pastor Yvonne Brooks
for praying for me. A massive thank you to Juilia and Cyrille Regis (RIP)
for being so gracious and opening your home to me. You always made
sure I was well fed and made numerous trips to my library to deliver
yummy home cooked meals. What a blessing! My ‘Muface,’ Simbarashe
Mafemera, thank you for rooting for me to the very end. A big thank
you to my dear aunty Charity who has been there for me from the
moment I set foot in Birmingham. You took me into your home and
cared for me like I was your own child. Thanks to my beloved niece
Chimuka, the little sister I never had, for sharing your room with me. I
would like to thank my friends Fatema and Nawaid who selflessly drove
me to the bindery when I was within hours of submission of my the-
sis and the pressure was desperately on. While many of my other friends
encouraged me through cooked meals, others spoke positively into my
life of which I am totally grateful.
I would like to thank my dear husband Andrew Holloway for being
the best husband ever. Baby thank you for your unconditional love,
care and support. You always give me a reason to keep going even when
things seem impossible.
Lastly, may I give thanks to my dear late dad Baba Grey Luke
Mufundisi and my dear late mother Regina Tonga Mufundisi, who loved
their youngest daughter dearly but sadly did not live long enough to see
this come to fruition. I am also greatly indebted to my brothers Glen
and Griffine, and sisters Taurai and Fredah, nieces and nephews who
walked this journey with me. Thank you for your unwavering support,
love and for the numerous prayers and words of encouragement.
There is a saying that goes, ‘it takes a whole village to raise a child.’ In
my case, it took an international village to help me complete my Ph.D.
thesis which has now turned into this book. God was definitely my pro-
vider and covered all bases by brining all these people into my life, each
with an assigned role to play to ensure my success.
 Contents

1 Constructing the Identity of Pentecostal/Charismatic

Christianity in Zambia: Zambia’s Religious Landscape 1
Identifying the Gap 3
Significance 5
Overview of Pentecostal Charismatic Christianity in Zambia 6
Methods 12
Working Definitions 21
Structure 24

2 The History of Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity

in Zambia 35
Pentecostal Churches: Apostolic Faith Mission 38
Pentecostal Holiness Church 40
Pentecostal Assemblies of God Zambia 41
Apostolic Faith Church 44
Church of God 46
Charismatic Churches: Bread of Life Church International 48
Bible Gospel Church in Africa 50
The Reformers Group 51
The Pentecostal/Charismatic Impact on Zambia’s Religious
Culture 53
Noticeable Changes Within the Movement: Civic Engagement 59
Conclusion 61

xiii
xiv    Contents

3 ‘Zambia Shall Be Free!’ Exorcizing Dictatorial Regimes,

Embracing Democracy and Civic Engagement
(1964–1991) 77
Church and State Relations During the Kaunda Era 78
Post-colonial Zambia with Kenneth David Kaunda 78
Church–State Antagonism: Alice Lenshina and the Lumpa
Church 81
Pentecostals and Charismatics: Presence or Obscurity? 84
An Evaluation of Pentecostal/Charismatic Minimal Civic
Engagement in the Kaunda Era 92
Beliefs and Practices 93
The Closing Years of Kaunda and Birth of a Democrat,
Frederick Chiluba 98
Conclusion 99

4 ‘The Hour Has Come!’ Born-Again Christians

and Their Influence on Democratic Zambia 1991–2002 111
Frederick Chiluba 112
The Return to Democracy 113
Frederick Chiluba as Black Moses 114
Pentecostal and Charismatic Contributions to Electoral
Processes (1991): Zambia Elections Monitoring and
Coordinating Committee ZEMCC 115
‘The Hour Has Come!’ Chiluba as Democratic President
of Zambia 120
The Declaration of Zambia as a Christian Nation:
A Premature Declaration? 122
Pentecostal Charismatic Contributions to Electoral Processes
(2001): The Oasis Forum; Working Against Chiluba’s Third
Term Bid 136
Conclusion 137

5 Towards an Evaluation of Pentecostal and Charismatic

Political Engagement Post the Chiluba Era (2001–2012) 153
Distinctive Characteristics, Spiritual Practices and Experiences
of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians 156
The Prosperity Gospel: Current Trends 157
 Contents    xv

Motivation for Civic (Political) Engagement 165

Politics and Pentecostal Christianity in Zambia 168
Conclusion 199

6 ‘Zambia Shall Be Saved!’ Pentecostal and Charismatic

Christianity in the Fight Against HIV/AIDS 217
Pentecostal and Charismatic Responses to HIV/AIDS 218
State Responses to HIV/AIDS 222
HIV/AIDS and the Church in Zambia 224
Initial Reaction of the Religious Community to AIDS:
The Interface Between Pentecostalism and Public Health 225
Chreso Clinic 229
Circle of Hope (ART) Family Clinic 233
Expanded Church Response to HIV/AIDS Trust in Zambia 234
Conclusion 239

7 Conclusion 251
Significance 251
Summary and Observations 253
Conclusion 265
Recommendations for Future Research 266

Appendix A 269

Appendix B 279

Appendix C 287

Sources and Bibliography 291

Index 325
 Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACZ Apostolic Church in Zambia

AFACA Apostolic Faith and Acts Church in Africa
AFC Apostolic Faith Church
AFM Apostolic Faith Mission
AOGZ Assemblies of God Zambia
ART Antiretroviral Treatment
ARV Antiretroviral
BIGOCA Bible Gospel Church in Central Africa
BLCI Bread of Life Church International
CCJP Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace
CCZ Council of Churches in Zambia
COG Church of God
ECR Expanded Church Response to HIV/AIDS
EFZ Evangelical Fellowship of Zambia
EU European Union
FBO Faith-Based Organization
FGCOG Full Gospel Church of God
FODEP Foundation for Democratic Progress
GMMI Grace Ministries Mission International
GOF Gospel Outreach Fellowship
GOMI Gospel Outreach Ministry International
HIPC Highly Indebted Poor Countries
ICOZ Independent Churches of Zambia
IFCC International Fellowship of Christian Churches
JCC Jubilee Christian Centre
JCTR Jesuit Centre for Theological Reflection

xvii
xviii    Abbreviations and Acronyms

LAZ Law Association of Zambia

MDG Millennium Development Goals
MDRI Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative
MMD Movement for Multi-Party Democracy
NCC National Citizens Coalition
NCC National Constitutional Conference
NDIIA National Democratic Institute for International Affairs
NETOZ National Evangelistic Task of Zambia
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NGOCC Non-Governmental Organizations Coordinating Committee
NUBEG National Union for Builders, Engineers and General Workers
OF Oasis Forum
OVC Orphans and Vulnerable Children
PAOG Pentecostal Assemblies of God
PAOGC Pentecostal Assemblies of God Canada
PAOGZ Pentecostal Assemblies of God Zambia
PC Pentecostal and Charismatic
PCRI Pentecostal Charismatic Research Initiative
PEPFAR President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief
PHC Pentecostal Holiness Church
PLWHA People Living With HIV/AIDS
PRP People’s Redemption Party
RCCG Redeemed Christian Church of God
RCZ Reformed Church in Zambia
SADC Southern African Development Community
SDA Seventh Day Adventist
SITG Standing in the Gap
STI Sexually Transmitted Infection
TALST Touch a Life Social Thrust
TB Tuberculosis
TBN Trinity Broadcasting Network
UCZ United Church of Zambia
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund (formerly United Nations
International Emergency Fund)
UNIP United National Independence Party
UNZA University of Zambia
UPND United Party for National Development
UTH University Teaching Hospital
VCT Voluntary Counseling and Testing
WHO World Health Organization
ZCCB Zambia Conference of Catholic Bishops
ZCPT Zambia Prevention, Care and Treatment Program
 Abbreviations and Acronyms    xix

ZCTU Zambia Congress of Trade Unions

ZEC Zambia Episcopal Conference
ZEMCC Zambia Elections Monitoring Coordinating Committee
ZIMT Zambia Independent Monitoring Team
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Pastor Eddie Chansa, Myself and Pastor Helmut Reutter:
The two were founders of the Reformers Movement
at Gospel Outreache Fellowship (GOF), Lusaka 2011 54
Fig. 2.2 Radio Christian Voice, Massmedia—Lusaka 2013 62
Fig. 2.3 Lifeline Community Church, Hellen Kaunda and Deliverance
Church in Kalingalinga—Lusaka 2011 62
Fig. 2.4 Pentecostal Holiness Church in Zambia General Conference
(August 2011)—Lusaka 63
Fig. 2.5 Bishop Edgar N’gambi Founder of Praise Christian
Centre—Lusaka 2011 63
Fig. 2.6 Acts 1:8 Conference, Finale at Grace Ministries Church 2011;
Acts 1:8 Conference at Northemead Assembly
of God PAOGZ, Lusaka 2011 64
Fig. 2.7 Redeemed Christian Church of God, Kalingalinga—Lusaka
2012 65
Fig. 2.8 Gilgal Missions Centre (PAOGZ) in Chelstone, Lusaka 2011 65
Fig. 2.9 Apostolic Faith Mission in Zambia—Lusaka 2012 66
Fig. 2.10 Bishop John Mambo, Former Overseer of Church of God
in Zambia and East Africa 2011 66
Fig. 2.11 Acts 1:8 Conference in Lusaka—Senior PAOGZ Bishops
(J. Banda and H. Sakala) and Canadian PAOC Leaders
Praying for Declarations 2011 67
Fig. 2.12 Bible Gospel Church in Africa (BIGOCA)—Matero,
Lusaka 2011 67
Fig. 3.1 Pastor Danny Pule at Dunamis Christian
Centre—Lusaka 2011 91

xxi
xxii    List of Figures

Fig. 5.1 Mount Zion Christian Centre Handing Out Food and
Clothing at Moore House Skills and Empowerment Centre
in Kalikiliki Compound, Lusaka August 2012 161
Fig. 5.2 Women of Influence Tea Party at Barak Ministries,
Massmedia—Lusaka 2011 175
Fig. 5.3 The Jesus Cares for Souls Event—Lusaka 2009 185
Fig. 5.4 EFZ National Peace-Building Initiative Prayer Meeting
for the Presidential Elections: Woodlands Stadium,
Lusaka 2011 194
Fig. 6.1 Chisamba clinic 2011 222
Fig. 6.2 Gospel Outreach Fellowship—Lusaka 2011 230
Fig. 6.3 Circle of hope family clinic in Lusaka—Makeni 2011 234
Map of Zambia

xxiii
 CHAPTER 1

Constructing the Identity of Pentecostal/

Charismatic Christianity in Zambia:
Zambia’s Religious Landscape

Christianity infuses every part of daily life in Zambia. Based on the

Zambia 2010 Census of Population and Housing Report, 75.5% were
classified as Protestant Christian, 20.2% Catholic, 0.5% Muslim, 2.0%
other and 1.8% other.1 This report did not provide a proportion of
Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians as their numbers would have been
added to the Protestant group. It equally did not indicate the percentage
of African Initiated Churches (AICs) which would have been included
in the ‘other’ category. The arrival of Dr. David Livingston, a mission-
ary and explorer in the late nineteenth century is linked to the advent
of Christianity in Zambia. It was after his arrival that Christian mission-
ary activities and formation of Christian mission stations and churches
happened. Thereafter, AICs arose, however, its leaders ‘did not shun
Christianity altogether, but rather endeavoured to retain the African
traditional flavour and idiom within their ecclesiology and liturgy. The
arrival of Pentecostalism in the early 1940s helped reinforce a spiritual
connection (a world view that is innately African)’ that was downtrodden
by missionaries.2 This was not a spiritual connection that engaged ances-
tral worship and the veneration of ancient spirits, but rather a connection
to the Spirit of God.

© The Author(s) 2018 1

N. M’fundisi-Holloway, Pentecostal and Charismatic
Spiritualities and Civic Engagement in Zambia,
Christianity and Renewal - Interdisciplinary Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97058-5_1
2 N. M’FUNDISI-HOLLOWAY

What resulted after the death of Dr. David Livingstone, was a progres-
sion of missionary stations were planted throughout Zambia especially in
rural areas. According to Robert Rotberg, approximately over 100 mis-
sion stations were opened in Zambia between 1882 and 1924.3 This led
to the rise of numerous mission-led churches and AICs across the coun-
try. ‘Pentecostal growth benefited greatly from this religious plurality
as some of its members had prior links to mainline churches and AICs.
Many young people left their churches, converted and joined this seem-
ingly vibrant movement with new religious sensibilities’.4 Subsequently,
Charismatic churches developed in the 1980s.5 Examples of these
churches will be discussed in Chapter 2. Unfortunately, Dr. Kenneth
Kaunda the first president of post-colonial Zambia from 1964-1991
detested religious plurality amongst the mainline churches and labelled
it ‘denominational idiocy and a terrible condemnation of Christianity
and confusion to the people of Zambia’.6 Kaunda espoused the idea
of having one national church, just like the Church of Scotland in
which his father was a minister. The formation of the United Church
of Zambia (UCZ) in 1965 was to be one of the first ecumenical ven-
tures to be exhibited during that time.7 This came close to what Kaunda
desired. Gifford called it a ‘remarkable ecumenical venture’ in that this
church was an amalgamation of various Protestant movements namely;
The Union Church of Central Africa, The Free Church of Scotland, The
London Missionary Society, The Methodist Missionary Society and the
Paris Evangelical Mission Society to Barotseland.8 The UCZ still exists
today and has also experienced ‘Pentecostalisation’ which has led to the
creation of a breakaway Charismatic church called Grace Ministries.
Since their inception, mainline churches have made a number of con-
tributions to civic engagement within the country and continue to do
so in the twenty-first century. This in turn has provided a context for
Pentecostal and Charismatic civic engagement. Mainline churches have
always been linked to various learning, health and development institu-
tions. For this reason, Zambia has several schools and hospitals situated in
remote areas of the country that have served the needs of local people for
decades. These institutions continue to stand today and currently, with
the changes in socio-economic, religious and political dynamics, main-
line churches have diversified into more areas of civic engagement. More
importantly, they have strengthened their voice by using the media as a
platform to air their concerns and to lobby the state on a variety of issues
at the core of Zambia’s civic concerns. Roman Catholic institutions have
 1 CONSTRUCTING THE IDENTITY OF PENTECOSTAL/CHARISMATIC … 3

been known to express their views through pastoral letters and articles to
the state often concerned with various issues including matters of gov-
ernance. Both Catholic and Protestant churches are currently engaged
in matters concerning the constitution, governance, health, education,
economic justice, elections, rural and urban development, youth empow-
erment, agriculture, gender issues, church-state relations, politics and
socio-economic justice. This book will demonstrate how Pentecostals
and Charismatics have played centre stage in their own capacity as well
as through interreligious relations in meeting the needs of people on
Zambia’s public domain.

Identifying the Gap

Historians and sociologists have written about Pentecostal and
Charismatic Christianity in Zambia and in a number of other African
countries where the movement is larger and more vibrant.9 Unfortunately,
very few scholars have engaged with the different histories surround-
ing the various expressions of the movement in Zambia from 1946 to
1947 when the Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) is believed to have come
to the country.10 It is only in the last two decades that Pentecostal and
Charismatic Christianity in Zambia has received academic attention. This
research has largely focused on the history of the movement, especially
since the ascension of Frederick Chiluba, a Pentecostal, to the presidency
in 1991. Those that have written about Pentecostal and Charismatic
Christianity in Zambia have lamented the lack of sources to aid their
research. They have noted that even the churches themselves did not for-
mally record their history or retain important historical documents in their
church archives.11 In comparison to mainline churches, few Pentecostal
and Charismatic churches have detailed official documentation of their
church histories. Therefore, much of the data gathered for this research
was collected through oral histories provided by some of the main leaders
in these churches.
Publications about Pentecostal and Charismatic churches have been
written but have mainly focused on the ten years when Zambia had
a Pentecostal president.12 This research aims to provide a history of
the civic engagement of Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity in
Zambia from 1964 to 2012. The book will explore how this form of
Christianity has interfaced with and helped to change the social, political
and religious realities of the public domain in Zambia. Research on civic
4 N. M’FUNDISI-HOLLOWAY

engagement has previously been developed in the global South where

Pentecostalism has had a colossal impact on society and politics. Similarly,
studies have been conducted in Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, Malawi
and Zimbabwe showing the impact Pentecostalism and Evangelical
Christianity has had on the democratization of African countries.13
Civic engagement will be defined as the way in which people ‘connect
with the life of their community’,14 and the ‘influence that Pentecostal
and Charismatic beliefs and practices have on personal and social trans-
formation and on wider civic culture and economic growth in both civic
and congregational settings’.15 This will entail looking at their history and
their initial attitudes and actions towards matters of civic concern for the
past seven decades.16 It will be clear during the course of this book that
as much as Pentecostalism has had an impact on society, society has, in
turn, had an impact on Pentecostalism. The various socio-economic prob-
lems they encounter ‘help them to rethink their understanding of the
transcendent and reorganise themselves and their resources in order to
diversify their levels of civic engagement. It is not only about the relation-
ship between humankind and the transcendent, but also how the expe-
riences of humankind’s altruistic behaviours shape their understanding
of God’.17 These dynamics have allowed for a nuanced understanding of
what is considered religious/non-religious and sacred/non-sacred. Civic
engagement helps to erase these categories as within Zambia, church pro-
jects cater to people from all walks of life regardless of their belief systems.
Civic engagement also creates important links with the concept
of social capital. Sociologists like Bourdieu, Coleman and Putnam
have grappled with this concept in trying to understand the impor-
tance of communal links,18 be it financial, physical or human capital.19
Pentecostal and Charismatic growth and civic engagement in Zambia
has benefited from the concepts of social capital. This is because civic
engagement advances the connection between social, cultural and reli-
gious capital. Bourdieu has defined social capital in terms of ‘resources
gained from mutual acquaintance within a structure or class’,20 Coleman
in terms of ‘a variety of entities with similar characteristics; networks
facilitating actions of individuals within a structure’,21 and Putnam links
it to the importance of ‘social networks and the norms of reciprocity and
trustworthiness that arises from them’.22 Hanifan’s contribution was
also significant in understanding social capital and looked at it in terms
of ‘those tangible things that count for most of people’s daily lives like
goodwill, fellowship, and sympathy and social intercourse to make up
 1 CONSTRUCTING THE IDENTITY OF PENTECOSTAL/CHARISMATIC … 5

a social unit’.23 It will be evident in this book that for Pentecostal and
Charismatics to successfully move out of the four walls of the church to
impact society, they have had to depend on local (and later transnational)
networks in order to gain the connections needed to build capacity.
Having become a movement that houses people from all levels of society,
Pentecostal and Charismatic churches have benefited not only from their
leaders’ initiatives, but also from financial resources gleaned from mem-
bers as well as the social networks they belong to. Therefore, the ability
for these churches whether mega or small to engage in ­sociopolitical and
health issues within their communities has greatly benefited from finan-
cial, physical as well as human capital.24 Unfortunately, some of the det-
rimental consequences of social capital have been identified as ‘exclusion
of outsiders, excess claims on group members and restrictions on individ-
ual freedoms’.25
This book is divided into three parts. The first section discusses Zambia
as a one-party state under President Kenneth Kaunda (1964–1991). The
second section considers Zambia as a democratic state under President
Chiluba (1991–2001). The final section focuses on Zambia post Chiluba
(2001–2012). This book has also sought to examine the significance of
Pentecostal and Charismatic churches on Zambia’s public domain and the
contributions they have made towards sociopolitical issues as well as the
reshaping of Zambia’s religious culture.
The questions explored within this book address issues not fully
explored in the work of other academics. Each section will revolve around
its own set of questions linked to the overall research question which
is: What significance has the interface between Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity and the wider religious, political and social realities had in
Zambia?

Significance
This study contributes to the wider discussion on Pentecostal and
Charismatic Christianity and civic engagement. It examines how differ-
ent expressions and dimensions of spirituality influence civic engagement
and how civic engagement in-turn influences the shape of its spiritual-
ity. This book incorporates voices from influential leaders and those
who may otherwise be considered not influential due to their socio-­
economic and geographical contexts. It also draws on the voice of ordi-
nary Zambian Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians from grassroots
6 N. M’FUNDISI-HOLLOWAY

communities. While most scholarly research in this field has mainly

explored the Chiluba era, this book focuses on early Pentecostal and
Charismatic history as well as on a period of twelve years after former
President Chiluba left office.

Overview of Pentecostal Charismatic Christianity

in Zambia

The past twenty years has witnessed a significant upsurge of research

interest in the growth and development of Pentecostalism in the global
South.26 Religion continues to dominate the public domain and to per-
meate social, political, economic and cultural spheres.27 Christianity in
the Zambian context has established itself as a force not to be ‘readily
agreed with and safely ignored’.28 Research interests in Pentecostal and
Charismatic Christianity have continued to evolve, particularly in rela-
tion to the role of religion in the global South. In the past two decades,
Pentecostal Christianity has become an agent of change in Zambia.
Having emerged as a marginalized branch of Christianity, this move-
ment has become an important player in the Zambian public arena and
has engaged in sociopolitical, economic and development areas. This
research has revealed an interesting gradual shift in Pentecostal spiritual
focus. In comparison with earlier forms of their beliefs, which empha-
sized the urgency of proselytizing in preparation for the imminent return
of Christ, recent decades have witnessed the development of a ‘social
conscience’29 and an endeavour to meet people’s needs holistically while
on earth. Since the introduction of Christianity to Zambia in the late
nineteenth Century during the colonial era, through the post-colonial
era under Kaunda and Chiluba the democrat, into the twenty-first cen-
tury, it has continued to play a major role in Zambia’s public domain.
Paul Gifford presents a well-rounded analysis of the public role of
Christianity on Zambia’s religious culture and politics since the time that
Zambia was a one-party state under Kaunda and during the period when
it became a democratic state under Chiluba. He suggests that the central
civic role of Christianity was clearly emphasized when Kaunda suggested
that the church was ‘among the special five pillars of the nation’.30 Gifford
praised what he called a ‘genuine ecumenism’ in Zambia.31 There are
 1 CONSTRUCTING THE IDENTITY OF PENTECOSTAL/CHARISMATIC … 7

three religious bodies that represent the different Christian movements

in Zambia: The Evangelical Fellowship of Zambia (EFZ-Pentecostals and
Charismatics), the Zambia Episcopal Conference (ZEC-Catholics)32 and
the Council of Churches in Zambia (CCZ-Protestants). Historically, the
most dominant voice among them has been that of the Roman Catholic
community, which has always confidently exercised its prophetic role in
relation to matters of governance and civic concern. These three bodies
came to the fore ecumenically in 1969, to fight against President Kaunda
whom they felt wanted to introduce ideologies which were not Christian.
The church supported and legitimized Kaunda when he kept his Christian
ideals and it was the church that uprooted him from power due to his
ideological beliefs that were considered abominable to the Christian
faith.33 Within this context, Pentecostalism (in conjunction with other
church bodies) became involved in what can be seen as ‘creating autono-
mous spaces of practice which defy the oppressive logic of current power
monopolies, the articulation of strategies to create, exercise and legitimate
new power relations and new opportunities for survival - the elaboration
of a conceptual challenge to the power monopolies’.34
Pentecostals and Charismatics across the globe have adopted differ-
ent levels of social and political action.35 Examples can be drawn from
Latin America where José Míguez Bonino states that ‘due to the aware-
ness of the place of social responsibility in the movement, Pentecostals
have developed a social conscience, not just at a personal and occasional
level, but in an institutionalised form, including social, medical and jurid-
ical assistance, and educational institutions’.36 A similar trend is noted
in African countries like South Africa, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Liberia,
Malawi and Zambia where, just as in Chile, Brazil and Guatemala,37
Pentecostals have taken an active interest in politics and in some cases
won presidential seats. Despite Chiluba’s failure as a head of state due to
the corruption that tainted his government, Pentecostal and Charismatic
Christianity continued to thrive in Zambia’s public arena. Pentecostals’
engagement in politics, their promotion of alternative faith-based life-
styles and their unwavering commitment to evangelism contributed
to the growth and popularity of this form of Christianity in Zambia.
These factors continue to sustain them twelve years after the Chiluba
presidency.
8 N. M’FUNDISI-HOLLOWAY

Presuppositions
The biases of a researcher can have an impact on the ways in which
information is presented and interpreted. Denzin suggests that research-
ers need to take certain presuppositions into account when conducting
historical research, including gender, class, family background, turning
point experiences, objective markers that reflect crucial points about the
subject, real people with real lives and truth statements.38 Having been
born and raised in the Salvation Army (introduced to the Pentecostal
movement in my teens while retaining my identity as a Salvationist) and
being a female Zambian educated in the West, to some extent affects the
way in which I interpret information. I share the same heritage as the
people I have written about and have been present and affected by some
of the developments in Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity in the
past two decades. Being aware of this in the initial stages helped me to
be aware of the temptation to write a biased research project.39
Allan Anderson argues that ‘it is impossible to write a value-free
account of the past as it is always a selective and subjective interpreta-
tion of it’.40 This is further supported by Cole and Knowles who state
that to a large extent, a researcher’s life history is reflected in their
work because every aspect of their study is guided by their own com-
plex personal history.41 For this reason, I have employed a multidiscipli-
nary approach which includes both qualitative and quantitative research
methods. This helped to ‘maintain a critical distance from the mate-
rial’,42 and hopefully has ‘neutralized some bias inherent in particular
data sources, myself as the investigator and method chosen’.43 I also had
to demonstrate a level of reflexivity. Possessing reflexivity can be a chal-
lenge when conducting qualitative research on the insider-outsider scale.
This is the ability of a researcher to engage in ‘conscious and deliberate
self-scrutiny in relation to the research processes’.44 This exercise may
prove to be even more challenging if the researcher ‘possesses a priori
intimate knowledge of the community and its members’.45 It is argued
that the insider–outsider approach can trigger uneasiness especially
when ‘revealing negative aspects of one’s cultural group’. However,
self-awareness is seen as key to succeed in the notion of reflexivity.
Therefore, in this book, I try to critically reflect on my own initial per-
ceptions and beliefs by pushing myself beyond my ‘comfort zone’ to
engage both as a researcher and as a Zambian Citizen born and raised in
Lusaka.46
 1 CONSTRUCTING THE IDENTITY OF PENTECOSTAL/CHARISMATIC … 9

Literature Review
Interest has continued to develop in relation to the engagement of
Pentecostals in national politics especially in the global South. Although
little research has been undertaken on Pentecostalism in Zambia, the
study of Pentecostal and Charismatic political engagement and its public
role has been developed in other African countries and Latin America.
Pentecostalism has moved from being a movement that was demonized
and found mostly on society’s margins to a movement that has broken
confidently onto the global scene and expressed a capacity to influence
the sociopolitical arena. Pentecostalism in Zambia has an interesting his-
tory but has not received a great deal of scholarly attention.
Lumbe notes the lack of adequate written records on the history of
Pentecostalism in Zambia even within Zambia’s church history archives.
In his Master’s dissertation, he challenges Pentecostals to ‘take them-
selves seriously and take up historical scientific documentation and
self-analysis as this is what would strengthen their mandate as an influ-
ential movement’.47 Lumbe presents an insightful introduction to the
movement’s inception, beliefs and practices as well as social engagement.
He attempts to present an all-inclusive account of significant events in
the development of Pentecostalism in Zambia. It is important to note
however that Lumbe’s sources are limited to his own personal knowl-
edge and research on Zambia and one author, Allan Anderson, who has
written very little on Pentecostalism in Zambia. Furthermore, the indige-
nous Zambians interviewed for his work are not key figures in the devel-
opment of Pentecostalism in Zambia. Lumbe does not give a detailed
account of Pentecostalism and civic engagement despite making recom-
mendations for it. He does however present a foundation on which fur-
ther research can be built. Adriano Chalwe wrote a PhD thesis on the
history of the Pentecostal Assemblies of God in Zambia (PAOGZ). This
is the first detailed account of a Pentecostal movement in Zambia. He
concludes by making recommendations for the leadership on the activ-
ities they could engage in, that would enable the church to progress.48
In his article ‘One African Nation Under God’, Ted Olsen (2002)
looked at the significance of Christianity in Zambia from the days of Dr.
David Livingstone who evangelized Africa while colonialists ‘scrambled
for its land’.49 According to Olsen, Christianity in Zambia permeates
the country’s civic and political spheres.50 This is evident in Zambia’s
Preamble which not only acknowledges God as supreme, but also declares
Another random document with
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 ommegangen van toortsdragers, waggelende
processies, met hun hel-gloeierigen [299]afschijn,
omspuiend goudbrons en gloeirood over schouders,
koppen, ruggen; beschroeiend halve tronies van de
razende wezens, daar groeiend, al groeiend als rood-
moordende reuzen, in helle-rumoer; plots soms met
dansenden vlammenschijn rond hun beenen en
dreunende voeten overgoten, door aanstormende
hossers van anderen kant, in worstel hun flambouwen
scherend langs de straatkeien, eindelijk optrekkend te
zaam tegen den duisteren poldernacht.—

De koppen van Jut, met ’t telegraafhooge kleurige

paalwerk stampten en hamerdreunden ’n heeten
geluidsstroom boven den demonischen, gloedrood
geschroeiden menschenwoel uit. ’t Siste, knalde en
kruitplofte er, en ’n dreunraas ging rond van
neerbonkerende houweelen op rotsbonken.—En
hoog, in de starrenlooze lucht, boven de ros-gouden
brandsfeer die omwolkte in lagen hang, tenten en
spullen, walmden zwart de Jutsflambouwen, slangige
kronkeltongen van flakkerig licht, roetigen adem
loozend in den angst-rooden helledamp.—

Feller aldoor dreunden de mokerslagen van

Jutskoppen langs al de palen tegelijk. Klappergerucht,
kruitvonking en knetterig vuurwerkgespat oorlogden in
snerpende jacht van schrikkige knallen, onrust en
slagveldrumoer over de vurige kermisrazernij.

De medaille-borden van Jutskoppen flonkerden op ’t

roode doek, fel-begloeid in de rosgouden walmpitten.
Insignes zilversterden en vonkten er òp in pronkige
pracht tegen de avondzwarte lucht, en de bloedroode
doeken flapperden als satansvaandels.

Half-belichte, toch donk’re schoremkerels,

schonkigden tegen de palen in gracieuzen luier, de
kermisgangers opporrend te beuken, te mokeren op ’t
blok.—Met hun mombakkesachtige bekerfde tronies,
verschminkt in den waaierenden gril-gloed van ’t rosse
lampetgeflakker, lachten ze rauw. Juts-meiden
sleurden telkens wat dronken zwervers, voor ’t doek,
wezen op de pronkerige medailjes, de bukkende
koppen dan rooder opgegloeid in de vier
walmflambouwen naast de vaandels, rook-rood [300]en
roetig walmend den nachthemel in.—De vlaggetjes
van Jut, trilden en flapperden langs de kleurig
betatoeëerde palen.—

Plots kwam aanstormen, in schok van heesche kreten,

breede menschgolf achter tenten, in wilden hos bij de
Juts stremmend, en als in schuim-schubben
rondspattend, bonkbeukend op elkaar in, tègen
kermisgangers van anderen kant loswoelend uit
duistere stegen en donker grommende tunneltjes;
aanworstelend op ’t felle tooneelachtig voetlicht van ’n
paar moorsch-kleurige groote kramen.—Als ’n
razende drom joelde de stoet om en achter de tenten
en palen, plots opgezogen en verdampt in den
demonischen vuurgloed van den lagen luchtbrand,
roode mist verwaaiend rond hun kapriolende lijven.—
In apig karnaval hosten de uitzinnigen van elkaar àf,
naar achter toe, saam-kluitend en kankaneerend
onder eindeloozen jubelkrijsch van ver-zattend genot.
 Vrouwen en mannen, in ’t licht en duister, renden
omver wàt ze in den weg trad, holden voort in de
strakke waanzinvaart van amok, lallende jammer
verhuilend tusschen de uitkraterende bende, door
walmenden hartstocht in brand gelaaid, uitzinnig van
schuimenden wellust.

Mirlitons neusklankten uit alle hoeken in bibberige

stoot-zangen, ’t schelst uit den voortrennenden
reuzenstoet, die alles opzij smakte, in verpletterende
drift-vaart.—Krijschende meidenkelen stortten uit,
martelend gegil, hysterischen wellust-zang, wild en
rauw als van ontvluchte dollen, nood-zangig
verklinkend door de brandroode lucht.

Door al trillender sfeer van rosgoud, geelbrons en

vuurgloed van reuzel-uitzweetende bakovens,
zwierden en zwaaiden de wijven en gorillige-kerels, in
demonische pracht, hun stokken, vlaggen en
serpentiens, wapperend rond de áán- en
weggloeiende koppen. Soms, bij ’n verren stillen hoek,
strompelde de heele stoet in ’t duister, klankzeilde
alleen uit ’t donker, geblèr en gelal boven den zwarten
drom uit, om plots weer, bij ’n zwenk òp te duiken
langs bevlamde boomen, langs tenten en kramen,
[301]langzaam en worstelend uit ’t nachtdiep
opgloeiend, in pracht van wild fakkel-rood en woeste
schijnsels rondtooverenden gouddamp, van lampetten
op kar-stalletjes.

Brandrossig licht van flambouwen was hel aangegolfd

over de voorste oranjiggloeiende tronies, en plots hief
de eerste koppen-rij van den al zwellenden
 reuzenstoet, onder aanrauwenden gilzang, een slang
vurige lampions, hel-rood de lucht in, damp walmend
en bloedende schijnsels nèèrglanzend over de
hossers. Kronkelende vuurlijn zigzagde en
slangkromde ’t hemelduister in, ver, vèr wijkend naar
achterste boulevard-eind van Baanwijk. En telkens
trekkend door ànderen lichtglans van avondsferig
gegloei en mythologische vuurspuwing, vlamde de
vurige slange-kronkel boven de hossende, grillig
lichtende, dan weer wegduisterende woelkoppen. En
in brullende razernij, onder voetendreunenden massa-
stap, krijschte dóór, eindloos lallende jammer van
verzopen menschenstemmen; schelden en bibber-
zangden de vloei-jeukende mirlitons, snerpten de
pikolo’s, tokkelden fluitzwierig mond-harmonika’s,
dwars door den dronken schrei-zang heen.—

In roode dolheid trampelde de reuzenstoet Baanwijk àf

in al sneller tempo, verder, vèrder, dat de vuur-kronkel
der wiegelende lampions als ’n enkele bloedstreep
achter boomendiep, ’t peilloos luchtduister insneed. In
vèrzwakkend rumoergerucht, vergalmde gesmoord
nog hun krijschzang uit de verte, zacht omroffeld van
warrig lawaai, en al verder de stoet verduizelde in den
eindeloozen kermisnacht.—

Uit zijgangen en kronkelpaadjes, duister en eng,

stortte van verbrokkelde stoeten zang neèr en
raasden de straatorgels. Duizenden mirlitonsmonden
scheurden nasaal-trilrige deuntjes door de lucht,
harmonika’s drensden om zuurstalletjes, en armzalig-
droef en mager-klankend roffelden piano-orgels als
zingende vischwijven, liederlijk-rap en kanaljeus hun
liedjes àf. Klankhoos op klankhoos zwirrelde rond. De
huizen kaatsten krijsch en galm terug; deuren en
vensters sidderden en de geruchten [302]zèlf
horlepijpten nog nà, hoog in de lucht, hun woeste
schal in den brallenden Augustus-avond.

Van de Baanwijk àf dromden de mensenmassa’s,

opstuivend door stegen en gangen naar Haven terug,
waar ’t gewoel nog helscher loeide en zengde.—

Als ’n bekraterde duistere nachtstad, waar half-

ingestorte gevel-geraamten en brok’lige ruïnes nog
nazwammen onder heet puin en gloeiende stormlava,
in ’n dampigen vuurregen van tooverwoeste kleuren,
—demonisch en angstontzaggelijk in bange
nachtpracht rondwolkend,—zoo brandde de Haven
daar òp, in een roodgouden schroeienden walm-mist.
En aan den voet, dollerijk van licht, vlam en lijfgewoel.
Zoo barstte en krater-spoog daar het leven uit, van
draai- en stoommolens, tenten, spullen, kramen en
ovens.

Van Baanwijk àf, was de woeligste kermisgang in een

schuimenden vloedgolf naar de Haven gebruist, in
verborrelenden smak en zuig neerkolkend op
stoommolen, schommels en paardspullen.—De
stoommolen stond in laaiende praal, met z’n vonkende
spiegelruiten en inwendigen warrel van bont bekleurde
gondels en schuiten. Alles verschommelde daar
achter glans-spiegelend ruitwerk, dat de menschen
trampelden en vloekten van ongeduld om zich in die
wentelende pracht te kunnen storten.
 Tusschen de wachtende bende, vóór stoommolen
holden in bazuinende toeters- en blaasdreun, dronken
boerenkerels en tuindersknechten, met aangehaakte
boerenmeiden, betatoeëerd in lint en blom, van hoed
tot hielen.—

In ’t vuurbakige paars elektriek gloeiden de

kerelskoppen òp; tronies van ibissen norsch-wijs, op
kurassiersgestalten; tronies van vossen, listig en
boerig loensch in fellen vraatzuchtigen mondstrakken
hartstocht; mombakkes-wreed en rauw, lichtmaskers,
sullig en verwrongen van dronken slemp’rigen lust. En
wijven vlerkten mee in dolle verrukking, halfbezwijmd.

De oude wijven er onder, bezopen en roodgelig van

tronies, in duivelige hekserij en tooverkollige starheid,
kermkrijschten [303]en kraaiden mee, met genotshuiver
en aangehitten wellust op de brandende kaken, in
laatste levensopstuiping, dol van ’t roode en paarse
gloedlicht waar ze doorheen sprongen en hosten als
in ’n nacht van moord. De jonge meiden gierden en
lalden als geschondene, tot furies vervlamde
wijfbeesten, met hun woesten zinnenschroeienden
oogenstaar wèg in ’t genot, de beenen uitslaand als
touwtjes-harlekijnen. Onder dien wijvenstoet, soms
plots zacht voortschuifelend, gloeiden òp koppen van
al dieren; fijne, katzachte gluiperige tronies, strijkerig
en lekkend, blank en rozig met de gazige
doorschijnende warmte van hun kappengoud en
oorbellenschitter; wandrochtelijke vischsnoeten, met
kieuwige mondlijnen, spleterig en liploos-nijdig; tronies
van hel-strakke wreedheid, verstuipt in brandende lijf-
passie, ’t gezicht grauwrood vervreten van beestige
lusten, naast week-zoete melk-blanke poppetjes, zoo
gekarnd van ’t land, in lodderige naïviteit, hulpeloos
meekankaneerend, soms bevallig in kinderlijken
lijfzwier, omstraald van hun bontvervige doeken en
sjalen.—

Zoo schuifelde en sprong de boerenbende voorbij, de

mannestemmen klankloos en schreiend-heesch van
lallend gebral; de oude wijven zang-kermend als
verdoemden in hellevuur.

Vroolijk doorkruiste plots een hossende meidenstoet

de zwijmelbende van oude wijven, jonge boerinnen en
drinkebroers.—Hossende meiden met vloeipapieren
mutsen op hoeden en borst, op de hielen
nagehunkerd door ’n troep straat jochies, die met hun
hoog-puntige ingekromde mutsen, als baardlooze
karbouters in en uit ’t lichtfelle lampgegloei van
kramen en bakovens opdoemden en wegdoken.—
Achter hen weer rende ’n gierende kerels-stoet, in
woesten amok-zwaai van armen, met opgekruifde
mutsen op de hoeden, roode en hard-groene papier-
boeketten op de borsten, in blommigen pronk besliert
met oranje sjerpen en serpentines. Er waren die zich ’t
heele lijf, van boord tot broekspijp hadden volgespeld
met ruikers en linten, omregend draafden en hinkten
in strooival van konfetti. Jutsmedailles zilver-sterden
en goudglommen op hun kleeren, en in waggel
haakten ze zich vast met dronken klauwen, beverig en
gemeen [304]in de meidrokken, smakten ze zich op de
vrouwlijven, sleurden ze hierheen en daarheen.—

Heesche galm bralde rond:

 Ar re me frouw en kindere
Stuurt men nòa de moor-de-noarskampe haine!
Oooaa-uw! waa’t ’n ska-ande!
Loàge wroak.. van En-gè-land.

Woester, in donker-belichte slingerrij, hoste de bende

door, in rammel van blommen, uitslierting en druisch
van linten, paljasserigen kronkel van lijven,
voortsleurend tusschen de ingehaalde omstormde
meiden. Hun hoeden waggelden vuistverbeukt op de
koppen, en de geradbraakte beenen dansten over de
straat als gekrompen en kreupel.

Van ’t paardenspul, bij den Havenhoek, sloeg ’n

fakkelhel goudrossig, in gelen walm-weerschijn, ’n
vurige gloed ze in de tronies. De opgesjorde
meidenrokken plooiden kanaljeus boven het kleurig en
wit ondergoed, bij de mooiste en heetste been-
uitschoppende en harlekijnige juffers ’t hevigst, in
waaierende schuiming opwoelend.—

Heescher gebral braakten ze uit bij den fakkelbrand.

—Heb je wèl hoort

Hoe de En-gelschman moort
In Suid-Oafrikoansche felde!
Hoe men Skeepers.. dien held
Haift ter nair gefeld..
Deur beule daid men sàin f’rmoorde!

Immense jammer rauwde uit de roode kelen, en

geeselend, in sidder van kermissatanisme, smakte de
bevende realiteit, òpgejaagd in verbijstering néér op
de dampen en vuurkringen, waar de passies in
 aangloeiden en de uitfuriënde beestlust steigerde. ’t
Stedeke vervulkaande als demonenrijk, roode helle-
stad waarin duizenden brandende alarmklokken
bimbamden.—’t Stedeke vlamde en gloeide,
verreuzigd als demonenrijk, waar mensch-duivels en
gedrochten, satyr-hoornige, bokspootig
[305]gespletene, slangkoppige en beest-grillige
monsters, jubelden in hellekring. Waar, tusschen het
moordend zwart van den nacht, Satan aanstormen
deed, breed-uitspattenden golven-brand van
schroeiend licht en vlammenvuur, om damproode
mist-poorten in kratergloed. Daar, in die roode nood-
beierende klokkenstad, drong Satan òp met z’n
demonische helpers, saamgestoet in den schallenden
vuurgloed en schater van hun haat, loslatend en
verjagend over ’t aardebrok, monsterlijke
jammermenschen, wraakgierig gekastijden,
geschondenen en verminkten; hinkende mirakels en
verluisde landloopers; goochelaars en ketellappers,
roetig als kolebranders; maagden en havelooze oude
wijven, tooverkollig en hekserig, met tronies van
bakers, of drakige petemoeien, dooreen zwirrelend in
den verhitten waanzin van hun walmende wellust en
zuip-passie.—

Zoo de heete beestmenschen dromden òp in den

schorren jammer van hun eigen krijsch, ontploften in
den vuurdamp en bloed-rooden gloei van zinnedrift,
ontembaar en bandeloos verbacchanalend, grootsch-
dierlijk leven.—
 [Inhoud]

IV.

In geweldige lijn, van paal tot paal, tent tot tent stond
de Haven-kermishoek in gloei. De boomen in den
elektrischen lichtmist, met de hel-avondgroene bleeke
lom’ring, staarde in waanzin-schrik naar den dronken
hellewaggel.

Kerels met bruine kruiken en flesschen, strompelend,

klokten jenever in, vuurheet op straat, waggelden na
slurp en genotsrochel weer verder, verschaduwden in
donkering, lichtten verder weer òp in brandschijn.
Schonkige boeven in lompen-ellende, schooierden
sinister bijeen, stoelenmatters en scharenslijpers,
bedelaars-smurrie en jeuk’rige landloopers, morsige
ketellappers, hinkenden en schijn-verminkten, stem-
smeekend op krukken, strompelend voor tenten en
bak-vuren van poffertjeskramen, gretig loerend op
gulle fooi van bezopenen of naar zakrol [306]van
neergeronkte bewustloozen. In gelige oliejassen en
groenige pijjekkers schurftten hun lijven, de morsige
rottende plunje bedropen met vuil en modder.—Hun
marjeniers-kleppetten schooierden scheef, vlak boven
de brauwen, en pruimspuwend stootten ze zich
telkens, als in vuistgevecht, de knuisten in de petten,
dat de gebarsten kleppen deukten en rafelden in
slonzige boevigheid. En zóó, in sprong op kruk,
hinkend of jammerend, bedel-smeekten ze de
gierende hossers en slenteraars tegemoet,
gromvloekend en plots dreigend als er niets afviel.
Tusschen de spullen, draaimolens, luchtschommels,
Jutskoppen en worp-bakken, in achteruit donkerende
hoeken, van de kraterende kermishel afgetrapt,
duister-droefden de stalletjes met poonen, scharren,
en vroege vruchten.—

Stille jammerlijven,—met d’r tronies geelrood begloeid,

achter de kar-stalletjes neergedonkerd op lage
krukjes, half verstikt in den roetkleurigen walm van
stank-zweetende petroleumpitten, die flakkerend
vlamlekten, roodgeel en bronzerig in angstigen
schroei van misere-belichting, verspokend in
prachtsfeer;—stille jammerlijven riepen monotoon hun
waar.—Kar aan kar droefde omdampt van prachtrood-
gouden nevel, de half-donk’re lijven verschrompelend;
de roepende lippen rood-grillig áángloeiend, de open
roode monden verrossigend groot, de zorgelijke geel-
roode tronies belichtend in vale gloeiing. En
scheem’rig in bronzen flakker, kleur-weifelden
omslagdoekjes van de stalletjesvrouwen, achter den
bangen schroei van rood-dampigen pittenwalm.

Hun roodversmookte monden bekrijschten àl sterker

hun koopwaar.

Met één sprong tijgerden ze òp van hun weggezonken

krukjes uit ’t geel-roode geschemer als koopers
opdrongen.—Voorovergebogen dan over hùn stal,
oranje-feller gloeiden hun tronies áán, in den
flakkerbrand van hun walmende pitten, flambouwig
vlamlekkend schijnsels op neuslijn, jukken en ooren;
verwalmend roodzwart over wangbrokken en kleeren,
de oogen vonkend in hellen vuurgloed. Handen
 oranjig, gloeiden en graaiden [307]in de schimmig
bevlamde koopwaar, tusschen de bronzen poonen,
oranje-vale sinaasappels, noten en vroege peren.—En
gretig, onder petroleumstank en walmroet van d’r
pitten verkochten ze, met levendige schorre stemmen
de koopers opjagend, de omgloeide koppen van
omstaanders zangerig omschreeuwend, met
konkurreerenden prijs.—Koopers dongen, dongen
worstelend koppig, bij de stalletjeswijven en meisjes.
—Roetwalm van lampetten kwam als smoezelige
adem uit de roode kelen en longen der stalventsters.
Soms kwam plots ’n áántrekkende fakkelstoet, met z’n
rood-gouden gloed àf, op de in nacht-omduisterde
stalletjes.

Een fantastische sfeer verbeefde er dan om de

koppen, sfeer van bronzig en groenig vuur, nevel,
verflakkerend door ’t oranjerood, àl de tronies uit de
half-duistering naar voren spokend, heimvol
bewalmend en aanzwammend de huiden, demonisch
met hun inkervingen en rimpels, zorg-groeven en
leed-sneeën op voorhoofd en wangen. En al de
koopers en koopsters mombakkesten moord-rood
onbewust, de vlam-oogen woest in de spokige koppen
geboord.—En door, in de demonische sfeer graaiden
de handen van koopers, feller belicht, in den
pittengloei, omspoelend de waar, soms in veeg van
koop-gebaar, die handen zóó dicht onder den
oranjewalm, dat ze klauwden, omvreten van licht,
gekreukt, doorbarsten en reuzig. En wèg weer doken
de kerels, stalletjeswijven en meisjes, in ’t moorsche
geschemer van hun kleurige omslagdoeken, weifelend
vaal om de verschrompelde schouders, als koopers in
 hos, vretend en kankaneerend, zakken gevuld, de
kermishel inkermden. Dan doffer monotoonden hun
rillige stemmen uit den roodgelen walmflakker van hun
stallen, die weggetrapt dampten in de duisterende
hoeken,—valer smartte hun roep om koopers.—

Tusschen den stoomdraaimolen, heel naar achter,

tegen donk’ren planken muur, zat Dientje, Kees’ kind,
opgepookt door Ant nou erais ’n slag te slaan met de
kermis. Ant zelf, pas heel naar bevallen van ’n dood
kind, tien dagen kraamsch, durfde nog [308]niet mee
venten om d’r zwakke lijf, en om Wimpie. Maar nou
zou Dientje ’t moeten doen.

Beverig sloeg ’r schel-krijscherig overspannen

stemmetje stùk op ’t zanggeloei. Vlak voor d’r laag
karretje zat ze, ’t zenuwvervreten karkasje trillend, ’t
rimpelig kopje vaal geelrood schemerend in den
waaienden flakker van haar stinkende
walmflambouwen.

Ze schreeuwde, schreeuwde maar. Telkens sprong ze

òp van ’r krukje om dronken kerels en meiden te
helpen, angstig ’r bevonkte oogjes naar joodschen
buurman gericht, rekenend op zijn kracht als
beschonken herrieschoppers d’r niet betalen wilden.—

Soms gluurde ze naar de prachtdraaimolens, ’n end

van ’r af, in ’t licht, bel-klingelend en dreunend van
orgelschal, en soms zag ze nog net even de rooie
boegen van de luchtsloepjes opzweven uit de tent, ’t
boomlommer in.
Als zei d’r nou-rais ook mocht! Moeder had gezeid dat
als ze ’n goeie haalde, ze Maandag en Dinsdag, al
was ’t maar drie cent, kon verdraaien.

Ze was dan juist jarig, tien jaar. En Wimpie had dat

met smeekjes bij d’r moeder voor haar klaar gespeeld.
Zalig in voorpret dat ze misschien ook nog draaien
ging, schreeuwde ’r kinderkeeltje, met opwinding door
’t lawaai:

—Ferse poone! mooie skarre! ferse pietèrs …

aldegoar nuut goed!

Ze genoot stil van den lichtenden hellewoel om ’r

heen, en den brandgloed, dien ze overal boven zich
hangen zag, stedekekant uit, boven tenten, huizen en
spellen,—maakte er blij, angstig blij. Telkens neuriede
ze achter haar eenzaam walmstalletje méé met de
straatorgeldeunen, die om ’r heen razende geruchten
verkolkten. Heet snoof ze de gesmolten reuzel- en
oliestank in, heerlijk-prikkelend op d’r tong. Ze rook en
snoffelde in den sissenden poffertjes-bak; ze proefde
den botergeur, ze watertandde, en snoof, snoof maar,
heel den kermisstank in.—En ’r neusje joolde en
schaterde in de warme prikkelende reuken.— [309]

Heel ’t bonte kleurenwonder, de gloei van spiegels en

lijstpraal, brandende ruiten en goud-vergulde tenten,
bestaard van heel uit de verte, sloegen ’r lam van
verbazing, bij wijlen van overrompelende verrukking.
En nou, zoo ver van d’r àf, druischwoelend in den
kleurigen avond, vond ze ’t allemaal nog veel mooier
en begeerlijker dan overdag.—
 Later op den avond kreeg kindeke ’t heel rillig van ’t
stille zitten, keek ze onrustig rond of Jansje, d’r zusje,
’r niet ’t geleende omslagdoekje kwam brengen, met ’n
koppie-van-dit-of-van-dat, als iederen dag. Ze wist wel
dat Wimpie in kermistijd niet alleen blijven wou, maar
Jansje kon toch wel effetjes om ’r denken.—

Jansje had van smiddags een uur tot zeven, op haàr

plaats gezeten, tot zij ’r was komen aflossen. Ze had
wel gehoord Dientje, dat ’r vader schrikkelijke ruzie
maakte met d’r moeder, omdat ze haàr tot twee uur,
iederen nacht dwong achter ’t stalletje te blijven; maar
ook wist ze hoe moeder terugsnauwde dat d’r weer
geen eten was, nou d’r vader weer niet werkte, ’t nest
te hongeren lag.—Toen was Kees in ’n uitspuwende
drift aan ’t bombardeeren geraakt, met z’n vuist op
den rommel, Wimpie vergetend, dat ’t heele bendetje
stond te trillen van angst om z’n uitstortende razernij.
En toch had d’r moeder haar zin doorgezet, had ze ’r
stiekem, iederen avond de Haven opgeduwd.—

En ze peinsde nu Dientje, met ’r zorgkopje vòl ellende

van thuis. Ze zag d’r zusje maar niet opdagen. Vlak
achter haar rugje, bij ’t donkere havenwater, dreef de
polderwijde nachtstilte, eindloos. Ze rilde, en half
verdoofd door ’t helle-rumoer, dat vóór d’r droeve
kijkertjes uitraasde, riep ’r stemmetje smartelijk zwak
en moe:

—Mooie poone, aldegoar nuut goed!

Ze huiverde in ’r kale vodjes. Slaperige loomte kroop

over ’r oogleden, die brandden. Bang werd ze plots in
de stormende herrie, bang en eenzaam, als ze even
 achter ’r stalletje uitkeek, den stikduisteren
poldernacht in.— [310]

Van de polderbrug af bij Spoordijk kwam vuurkronkel

van lampions weer opslangen. Roode adem
gloeihijgend tegen zwart azuur en ronddonkerende
hemelwijdte.

De stoet kwam nader.—In ’n storm van kreten trillend

nasaalden de mirlitons, stootten de pikolo’s en fluitjes,
en doffe bange trommels roffelden demonische
somberte door ’t schelle orgellawaai.

Als ’n gedrocht, waarvan ’t lijf nog woelde in ’t duister,

adem-rood vooruitblazend tegen luchtzwart, zoo
rumoerde lampionsstoet in ’t donker áán, tot
schoenen, beenen, lijven, armen en koppen langzaam
opgloeiden in den eersten fakkelbrand van ’t alleen
staand paardenspul, opdoemden met reuzig geweld in
den schrik van ’t rossig-oranje walmlicht, in ’t
flambouwende toortsgeel, woest en oproerig
vervlammend over de tronies. Stel bij stel, rij bij rij,
ingekluwd en omkettingd met armenknel, sloeg in den
schroei van ’t licht, dat geelrossiger àl verder
overgolfde de koppen en lijven. Mutsen, in kleurige
woestheid gloeiden áán, beschminkte en
bemombakkeste tronies, burlesk en infernaal in den
vlammigen gloed vergroeiend.

Fakkelend, de voorste slingerrij, fel wadend in

oranjegelen mist van schijnsels, hief hoog boven
koppendrom de lampions, die in prachtvurigen gloei
weer een kronkel streepten van vuur, vreemd
verwilderd rood nu in de toortsenhel. Achter den weer
 wijkenden stoet werd gevochten, geraasd,
gescholden. Maar voort rende de inééngekettingde
massa, in een wrong-drom van stapelgekke hossers,
in vaart voorbij de tenten, òpdoemend in wemel van
bevlamde kleuren, wegdonkerend in nacht-duistere
hoeken waar geen kramen lichtten. En weer, in
helschen ommegang, verwaanzind van passie, renden
ze den kermisbrand uit, stikduister laandiep in van
Lemperweg. En rood, prachtrood, bleef geheven,
boven het verwoelend wegtrampelend massagedrocht
in ’t duister, de vuurslang z’n rooden adem den diep-
donkeren hemel inhijgend. [311]

[Inhoud]

V.

Vóór de paard-draaimolens stonden de neven Hassel.

Achter hen golfde ’t van kijkers en gillers.

De havenhuizen rompig, rossigden gevel-naakt in den

schrik van ’t licht, en de lage ruiten gloorden in
bloedrood, groen-geel en goud geschijnsel,
weerkaatsing van bakovens, lampions en kleurige
hosstoeten, voorbijrennend.

In heel eigen, geel-gouden sfeer, wentelde de paard-

draaimolen. Uit binnensten kring van lamplicht,
dreunde ’n orgel, ééndeunig, en ’t donk’re paard, den
draaimolen in gang trekkend, duisterend, èven belicht
aan z’n kop, liep in ’n eeuwigen cirkel, groezelig achter
lichtjool. Binnenste lampenkring brandde in geelrood
afgebeuld licht, bleek neergroezelend over zwart
fluweel, onder de kleurwemelende kap, meer naar
voren moorschen brand van glansjes en flitsjes
verfonkelend tusschen zilverig ornamentwerk,
gitkleurig kralenspel en doorgloeide franje.

Een duizel van kringlichtjes spetterde er rond.

Tusschen ’t belgeklingel, in gang zettend en afbrekend
elke ronde, wiegelden de hobbelpaarden en
schommelschuitjes, vettig befluweeld, donkerrood en
groenig. En àl ouderwetscher, naast den
stoomdraaimolen met z’n hel elektriek, wentelde de
karoussel, in ’n stillen klater van kleurtjes en lichtjes;
vlamde en bruiste òp, uit tooverballettigen gloei van
voorsten lampenkring, praal van zilverkraal en
goudstiksels. Dàn wegwaggeling van pluche, dàn
opschommeling van fluweel, in één draai en duizel
van avondkleuren, omdruischt van tegen-elkaar
indreunende orgelstrotten.—

De koperen stangen,—tusschen de kromklauwige

leeuwen en tijgers, met hun druipende grimmige
bloedmuilen,—schichtigden rond in glanzend
goudstavig geel. Warrel en tegenwarrel âl om van
rood en paars, rose en zilver, borduursels en fluweel,
spiegelglans en bontstralend gekraal, draaiend, al
draaiend in [312]een damp van dof-tonig, mat-
schitterend goud, soms plots overgloeid in duizel van
glanskronige-prisma’s, als vonkvliegend raderwerk.
En ééndeunig, troosteloos van jammer-geluid kermde
’t orgel binnen-in, één deun, één deun.—

Bij nieuwen rondgang waren Piet en Willem, Dirk en

Grint, en al de meiden in den karoussel gesprongen,
in vasthakenden smak op beestruggen en draaiende
baldakijnen.—Dirk was pardoes op schoot van Geert
gesmakt, zoende en begrabbelde haar dat ze
ingesmoord en onmachtig weggezonken, tegen ’t lijf
van ’n andere meid zuchtte en kermde naar lucht,
onder z’n brandenden aanval. Schatergil en zang
duizelde mee in den dollen molendraai, en van allen
kant nu strompelden de kerels op de meiden, zoenden
en kletterden ze nat, met wangenzuig en kokenden
adem.—

Geert Grint’s zwart-mooie kop stond flets en

roodvlekkig van de wilde zoenen, ’t haar afgezakt,
verfladderd langs de ooren. Guurt Hassel zat met
natte wangen, half versuft, ’r rokkenboel opgesjord,
knuisten op de knie, ’t korpulente lijf weggekrampt
achter woest-losgebarsten Jan Grint. Ze had ’m
gebeten in z’n oor en handen van woede. Als dat nou
eens haar sekretarie-heertje gezien had, was z’m
t’met kwijt, voor goed. Ze vervloekte Jan, met bevende
driftkaken, dat de vent na z’n eersten overmoed,
verbluft zwijgend rondkeek.

De molen was voor den tweeden keer in gang geluid,

en weer bleven ze zitten, dubbel betalend.

Dirk, Hazewind en Rink waren met hun drieën in een

klein mallemolentje gesprongen, dat tol-snel draaide
om eigen spil, ìn den grooten karousselwentel. Ze
 hadden ’n jochie gehuurd die hun draaide, al maar
draaide. Met hun handen de stangen omklauwend
tolden ze rond, al sterker rondgekeild in wilder furie
door schaterend jochie, dat lol had in den dollen dans.
Met hun duizelhoofden naar elkaar toegebogen, leken
ze in den razenden tol, één log donker lijf,
monsterkoppig met drie tronies, lijf dat wiegel-
waggelde op donker heupenstel. De meiden en
jongens rondom de karoussel gierden ’t uit, toen ze de
kerels [313]zoo suf met de inéénloopende tronies bij
elkaar gebukt, zagen zitten in dollen duizel, half
bezwijmd.—

En vuriger wentelde ’t jochie den mallemolen,

verblindend in den koperen stangenflakker, tot bel
klingelde en stoppen seinde.

Met een sprong renden Willem, Jan, Henk van hun

baldakijns, hielpen de verwaaide bestormde meiden
uit plooikronkels van hun kleeren.—

Dirk, Hazewind en Rink wilden opstaan maar bonsden

scheef tegen elkaar op.—Eindelijk in drift, plofte Dirk
uit ’t mallemolentje, zwaaide woest nog in naduizel
tegen ’n schaterenden meidenstoet op, schoot in ’n
dronken zeil van armen en bovenlijf midden in de
Hassels en Grintjes. De lange Rink, waggelend en
braak-ziek van ’t tollen, smakte plat op de straat, met
z’n kop tegen de pooten van ’n vooruitstaand stalletje,
dat ie bloedde bij de slapen. Maar niets wou ie ’r van
weten. Bemodderd met stoffig vuil scharrelde ie weer
òp, lacherig nazwaaiend en schreeuwend: