New Advances in Mechanisms,

Mechanical Transmissions and

Robotics: Proceedings of The Joint
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International Conference on
Mechanisms and Mechanical
Transmissions (MTM) and the XXIII
International Conference on Robotics
(R 1st Edition Burkhard Corves
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Mechanisms and Machine Science 46

Burkhard Corves
Erwin-Christian Lovasz
Mathias Hüsing
Inocentiu Maniu
Corina Gruescu Editors

New Advances in
Mechanisms, Mechanical
Transmissions and
Robotics
Proceedings of
The Joint International Conference of the
XII International Conference on Mechanisms
and Mechanical Transmissions (MTM) and the
XXIII International Conference on Robotics
(Robotics ’16)
Mechanisms and Machine Science

Volume 46

Series editor
Marco Ceccarelli
LARM: Laboratory of Robotics and Mechatronics
DICeM: University of Cassino and South Latium
Via Di Biasio 43, 03043 Cassino (Fr), Italy
e-mail: ceccarelli@unicas.it
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8779
Burkhard Corves ⋅ Erwin-Christian Lovasz
Mathias Hüsing ⋅ Inocentiu Maniu
Corina Gruescu
Editors

New Advances in
Mechanisms, Mechanical
Transmissions and Robotics
Proceedings of The Joint International
Conference of the XII International
Conference on Mechanisms and Mechanical
Transmissions (MTM) and the XXIII
International Conference on Robotics
(Robotics ’16)

123
Editors
Burkhard Corves Inocentiu Maniu
RWTH Aachen University University Politehnica of Timisoara
Aachen Timişoara
Germany Romania

Erwin-Christian Lovasz Corina Gruescu

University Politehnica of Timisoara University Politehnica of Timisoara
Timişoara Timişoara
Romania Romania

Mathias Hüsing
RWTH Aachen University
Aachen
Germany

ISSN 2211-0984 ISSN 2211-0992 (electronic)

Mechanisms and Machine Science
ISBN 978-3-319-45449-8 ISBN 978-3-319-45450-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-45450-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016950582

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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Printed on acid-free paper

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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The present book gathers up-to-date contributions in the field of mechanisms,

mechanical transmissions, robotics and mechatronics. The topics developed within
this volume are as follows: analysis and synthesis of mechanisms, dynamics of
mechanisms and machines, mechanical transmissions, biomechanics, precision
mechanics, mechatronics, micromechanisms and microactuators, computational and
experimental methods, CAD in mechanism and machine design, mechanical design
of robot architecture, parallel robots, mobile robots, micro- and nanorobots, sensors
and actuators in robotics, intelligent control systems, biomedical engineering,
teleoperation, haptics and virtual reality.
The results reported in the papers were discussed at MTM & Robotics
2016—The Joint International Conference of the XII International Conference on
Mechanisms and Mechanical Transmissions (MTM) and the XXIII International
Conference on Robotics (Robotics), held in Aachen, Germany, on 26 October–27
October 2016. All 58 submitted contributions were carefully reviewed and selected
for the presentation and publication by independent reviewers and the members
of the International Scientific Committee. As a result of the two-stage review
process, 49 contributions were selected for the presentation at the conference and
publication in this book.
The previous editions of the two conferences were held in Romania, beginning
in 1972, every four years until 2012, when the joint international conference was
organized outside Romania for the first time at Institute Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand,
France.
MTM & Robotics 2016 was organized by the Department of Mechanism Theory
and Dynamics of Machines at RWTH Aachen University and the Department of
Mechatronics at University Politehnica Timisoara, with the support of IFToMM
Germany, the Romanian Association for Theory of Machines and Mechanisms
(ARoTMM) and the Robotics Society of Romania (RSR).
We are grateful to the authors for their contributions and to the reviewers for
their recommendations as improvement guidance for the selected papers. Special
thanks go to our Keynote speakers, Prof. Gosselin (University Laval), Prof. Schmitt
(RWTH Aachen University), Dr. Nefzi (Carl Zeiss AG) and Dr. Harmeling

v
vi Preface

(Karl Mayer GmbH), for their valuable and inspiring contributions to the scientific
programme. We would like to express thanks to the International Federation for the
Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science (IFToMM) and to the Robotics
Society of Romania (RSR). We also thank to the members of the Organizing
Committee of MTM & Robotics 2016 and to Springer Publishers for their excellent
technical and editorial support.

Aachen, Germany Burkhard Corves

Timişoara, Romania Erwin-Christian Lovasz
Aachen, Germany Mathias Hüsing
Timişoara, Romania Inocentiu Maniu
Timişoara, Romania Corina Gruescu
June 2016
Organization

Conference Chairman
Burkhard Corves, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Conference Co-chairmen
Erwin-Christian Lovasz, University Politehnica of Timisoara, Romania
Inocentiu Maniu, University Politehnica of Timisoara, Romania
Mathias Hüsing, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

International Scientific Committee

Oscar Altuzarra, University of the Basque Country, Spain
Jorge Angeles, McGill University, Canada
Virgil Atanasiu, Technical University of Iaşi, Romania
Radu Balan, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Stelian Brad, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Cornel Brişan, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Tobias Bruckmann, University Duisburg-Essen, Germany
Giuseppe Carbone, University of Cassino and South Latium, Italy
Marco Ceccarelli, University of Cassino and South Latium, Italy
Dorian Cojocaru, University of Craiova, Romania
Valer Dolga, Politehnica University Timisoara
Ioan Doroftei, Technical University of Iaşi, Romania
Mehmet Ismet Can Dede, Izmir Institute of Technology, Turkey
Jean-Christophe Fauroux, SIGMA Clermont
Grigore Gogu, SIGMA Clermont
Antoni Gronowicz, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland
Mircea Ivănescu, Robotics Society of Romania
Nicolae Joni, Robcon TM SRL, Romania

vii
viii Organization

Andres Kecskemethy, University Duisburg-Essen, Germany

Chin-Hsing Kuo, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Silviu Dan Mandru, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Gheorghe Mogan, Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
Andreas Mueller, Johannes Kepler University, Austria
Vistrian Mătieş, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Mircea Neagoe, Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
Mircea Nitulescu, University of Craiova, Romania
Nenad D. Pavlovic, University of Nis, Serbia
Dan Perju, Technical University of Timisoara, Romania
Victor Petuya, University of the Basque Country, Spain
Doina Pisla, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Iulian Tăbăra, Technical University of Bucharest, Romania
Yukio Takeda, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
Radu Tarca, University of Oradea, Romania
Hidetsugu Terada, University of Yamanashi, Japan
Ioan Vela, University ”Eftimie Murgu” of Reşiţa, Romania
Ion Visa, Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
Yao Yan-An, Beijing Jiaotong University, China
Song Lin, Tongji University, China

Organizing Committee
Claudia Cornely, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Stefan Kurtenbach, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Iosif Cărăbaş, University Politehnica of Timisoara, Romania
Valentin Ciupe, University Politehnica of Timisoara, Romania
Corina Gruescu, University Politehnica of Timisoara, Romania
Dan Teodor, Margineanu University Politehnica of Timisoara, Romania
Cristian Moldovan, University Politehnica of Timisoara, Romania

Under the Patronage of IFToMM

Teresa Zielinska, Secretary-General of IFToMM
Erwin-Christian Lovasz, Chair of the Technical Committee for Linkages and
Mechanical Controls

With the Support of

Andres Kecskemethy, Chair of IFToMM Germany
Ioan Doroftei, Chair of the Romanian Association for Theory of Machines and
Mechanisms (ARoTMM)
Mircea Ivănescu, Chair of the Robotics Society of Romania (SRR)
DFG Germany, German Research Foundation
Contents

Part I MTM—Mechanisms—Analysis and Synthesis

Optimal Design of a Grasping Device Through Simplified Pose
Synthesis of a Four-Bar Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
V. Mesaros-Anghel, E.-C. Lovasz, C.M. Gruescu and C.E. Moldovan
Modified Method of the Kinematic Analysis of Planar Linkage
Mechanism for Non-stationary Motion Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
J. Drewniak, P. Garlicka, J. Kopeć and S. Zawiślak
A Type Synthesis Method for Parallel Mechanisms
Based on SAKCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Huiping Shen, Chi-Yu Sun, Dan Zhang and Ting-li Yang
Matlab GUI for SVAJ Cam Analysis Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
C. Pop, E.-C. Lovasz, F. Pop, A. Davidescu and S.M. Grigorescu
On the Kinematic Analysis of a Sixth Class Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
C.E. Moldovan, D. Perju, E.-C. Lovasz, K.-H. Modler and I. Maniu
Zero-Free-Length Elastic Systems for Static Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
L. Ciupitu and I. Simionescu
Analytic and FEM Study of Load Distribution on the Length
of Spline Joints Under Pure Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
D. Mărgineanu, C. Sticlaru, A. Davidescu and E. Mărgineanu
Dimensional Synthesis of Planar Parallel Manipulator Using Geared
Linkages with Linear Actuation as Kinematic Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
S.M. Grigorescu, E.-C. Lovasz, D.T. Mărgineanu, C. Pop and F. Pop

ix
x Contents

Part II MTM—Dynamics of Mechanisms and Machines

The Concept of Natural Motion for Pick and Place Operations . . . . . . . 89
J.P. Barreto, F. J.-F. Schöler and B. Corves
Structural Synthesis of Planar Geared Linkage Mechanisms
as Multibody Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
I. Visa, M. Neagoe and M.D. Moldovan
Dynamics of a Vertical Unbalanced Gyroscopic Rotor
with Nonlinear Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Zh. Iskakov

Part III MTM—Mechanical Transmissions

Edge Tooth Addendum Thickness of Hindley Worm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Yaping Zhao
A Single Speed (CVT) Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
K. Ivanov, B. Tultayev and G. Balbayev
An Approach for Modelling Harvester Head Mechanism
in the Harvesting Process of Hardwood Stands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
B. Hatton, B.C. Bouzgarrou, J.-C. Fauroux, V. Gagnol and G. Gogu
Novel Speed Increaser Used in Counter-Rotating Wind Turbines . . . . . 143
M. Neagoe, R. Saulescu, C. Jaliu and N. Cretescu

Part IV MTM—Micromechanisms and Microactuators

On Application Melnikov Method to Detecting the Edge
of Chaos for a Micro-Cantilever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
J. Xie, S.-H. He, Z.-H. Liu and Y. Chen

Part V MTM—Computational and Experimental Methods

Use of the Structomatic Method to Perform the Forward Kinematic
and Kinetostatic Analyses of a Hydraulic Excavator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
M. Mailloux, M. Éné, I. Simionescu and I. Tabara
Application of a Cam Workbench for Education in Mechanical
Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
H. Chen, T.T.N. Nguyen, M. Müller, S. Kurtenbach, C. Pan, M. Hüsing
and B. Corves
Kinematic Characterization of the Origami Spring Based
on a Spherical 6R Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Hiroshi Matsuo, Daisuke Matsuura, Yusuke Sugahara and Yukio Takeda
Contents xi

Scaled Test Stand Simulation for Studying the Behavior

of Anti-lock Brake Systems on Bumpy Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
V. Ciupe, D. Mărgineanu and E.-C. Lovasz

Part VI MTM—Terminology
Activities of Russian—Speaking Scientists in Development
of MMS Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
V.E. Starzhinsky, E.V. Shalobaev, M.M. Kane and V.I. Goldfarb
State of Art in Separate Sections of MMS Terminology
and Some Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
E.V. Shalobaev, S.V. Shil’ko, R.T. Tolocka, V.E. Starzhinsky,
G.N. Iurkova and D.G. Surikov

Part VII Robotics—Mechanical Design of Robot Architecture

Design Solutions to Simplify the Calibration of a Robotic Flexible
Manufacturing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
A.-M. Stoian, I. Maniu, E.-C. Lovasz and C.M. Gruescu

Part VIII Robotics—Mobile Robots

Reconbot: A Reconfigurable Rescue Robot Composed
of Serial-Parallel Hybrid Upper Humanoid Body
and Track Mobile Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
W. Ding, T. Detert, B. Corves and Y.A. Yao
Kinematics Modelling of Mobile Robot with Articulated Limbs
Without Wheel Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
P. Sperzyński and A. Gronowicz
Experimental Platform for Hexapod Locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
M. Nițulescu, M. Ivănescu, S. Mănoiu-Olaru and V.D.H. Nguyen
Quadcopter Propeller Design and Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Endrowednes Kuantama, Dan Craciun, Ioan Tarca and Radu Tarca
A Method for Structural Synthesis of Cooperative Mobile
Manipulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Z.-E. Chebab, J.-C. Fauroux, G. Gogu, N. Bouton, L. Sabourin
and Y. Mezouar
Mobile Robot Used to Collect Data from a Difficult Access Area . . . . . . 287
R. Zemouri and P.C. Patic
xii Contents

Part IX Robotics—Parallel Robots

Extended Procedure for Stiffness Modeling Based on the Matrix
Structure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
T. Detert and B. Corves
Translational Parallel Manipulator with Pa2 Kinematic Joints . . . . . . . . 311
A. Hernandez, Z. Zhang, V. Petuya, E. Macho and E. Amezua
Synthesis and Modeling of Redundantly Actuated Parallel
Kinematic Manipulators—An Approach to Efficient Motion Design . . . . 321
T. Haschke, M. Lorenz, J. Brinker, M. Hüsing and B. Corves
6-PSS Based Parallel Manipulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
T.A. Dwarakanath, K.D. Lagoo and D.N. Badodkar

Part X Robotics—Sensors and Actuators in Robotics

Compliant Rotary Actuator Driven by Shape Memory Alloy . . . . . . . . . 343
H. Yuan, X. Balandraud, J.C. Fauroux and F. Chapelle
Modelling and Simulation of Linear Actuators in Mechatronic
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
V. Dolga, L. Dolga and C. Moldovan

Part XI Robotics—Robotic Control Systems

Dynamic Control for a Class of Continuum Robotic Arms . . . . . . . . . . . 361
M. Ivanescu, M. Nitulescu, V.D.H. Nguyen and M. Florescu
Actuator Design for Stabilizing Single Tendon Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
D. Haarhoff, M. Kolditz, D. Abel and S. Brell-Cokcan
Model-Based Stability Prediction of a Machining Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
S. Mousavi, V. Gagnol, B.C. Bouzgarrou and P. Ray

Part XII Robotics—Biomedical Engineering

Augmented PID Control of a 2PPR-2PRP Planar Parallel
Manipulator for Lower Limb Rehabilitation Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
J.K. Mohanta, M. Santhakumar, S. Kurtenbach, B. Corves
and M. Hüsing
Human Motion Characterization Using Wireless Inertial Sensors . . . . . 401
M. Olinski, A. Gronowicz, M. Ceccarelli and D. Cafolla
Trajectory Analysis for Modified Jansen Leg Mechanism
Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
F. Pop, E.-C. Lovasz, C. Pop, V. Dolga and S.M. Grigorescu
Contents xiii

Development of an Assisting Instrument of Standing-Up Motion

Using Driving Springs for Elderly Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
H. Terada, K. Makino, K. Ishida and M. Ichikawa
An Evolutionary Computational Algorithm for Trajectory Planning
of an Innovative Parallel Robot for Brachytherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
F. Gîrbacia, D. Pîslă, S. Butnariu, B. Gherman, T. Gîrbacia and N. Plitea
Inverse Kinematics and Dynamics of an Overconstrained
Manipulator for Upper Extremity Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Ö. Selvi and K. Yilmaz

Part XIII Robotics—Teleoperation, Haptics, Virtual Reality

Image Processing Based Stiffness Mapping of a Haptic Device . . . . . . . . 447
B. Taner and M.İ.C. Dede

Part XIV Robotics—Compliant Structures

Kinematic Analysis of a Flexible Tensegrity Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
O. Altuzarra, M. Diez, J. Corral and F.J. Campa
Adaptive Compliant Gripper Finger with Embedded
Contracting and Extending Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
A. Milojević, N.D. Pavlović and H. Handroos
Kinematic and Dynamic Analysis of a 4DOF Parallel Robot
with Flexible Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
N. Cretescu, M. Neagoe and R. Saulescu

Part XV Robotics—Robotic Applications

Automated Handling and Draping of Reinforcing
Textiles—Challenges and Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
J. Brinker, I. Prause, P. Kosse, H.-C. Früh, S. Printz, C. Henke, M. Hüsing,
B. Corves, R. Schmitt, T. Gries and S. Jeschke
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Abstracts of Keynote Speeches

Mechanism Synthesis and Design for Low-Impedance

Human–Robot Interaction Based on Under-Actuated
Redundancy
Clément Gosselin
Département de Génie Mécanique, Université Laval, Canada
Clement.Gosselin@gmc.ulaval.ca

This presentation addresses the synthesis of passive mechanisms that are used as a
mechanical interface between a human operator and an active robotic system for
physical human–robot interaction. This approach results in under-actuated redun-
dant robots which provide a very intuitive physical interface to human operators by
allowing them to display their own mechanical impedance and by decoupling the
human and the robot dynamics. A serial architecture is first presented that makes
use of modified straight-line Chebyshev mechanisms and of the Sarrus mechanism.
Gravity is used to produce the self-centring of the Chebyshev mechanisms, while
the Sarrus mechanism, used for the vertical motion, is balanced using a spring
system. An alternative approach based on a three-degree-of-freedom decoupled
translational parallel mechanism (the Tripteron) is then presented. It is shown that
the use of the Tripteron leads to a compact and effective design. Experimental
demonstrations of the mechanisms are presented.

xv
xvi Abstracts of Keynote Speeches

The Demanding Implications of Nanolithography

for High-Precision Opto-Mechanical Systems
Marwène Nefzi
ZEISS SMT GmbH, Oberkochen, Germany
marwene.nefzi@zeiss.com

The fabrication of complex integrated circuits needed for modern electronic devices
involves different processes that aim at building billions of transistors on a semi-
conductor substrate (e.g. silicon wafer). Photolithography is the core process of the
semiconductor manufacturing technology, since it is the key enabler for closer
packing of transistors and smaller feature size. It mainly consists in projecting an
image of the mask through high-performance optics onto a wafer before stepping it
to a new position. This assumes not only optical systems with minimum aberra-
tions, but also the adequate mounting and manipulation of optical elements. On the
one hand, 6 DoF adjustments are required without deformations of the optical
elements. On the other hand, the mounting and manipulation of the optical elements
should be insensitive to different dynamic and thermal disturbances. In this pre-
sentation, we will present some generic design tasks that arise from the design and
development of kinematic and dynamic architectures that make up opto-mechanical
systems for nanolithography.

Metrology-Enabled Adaptive Robotic Control in Industrial

Assembly
Robert Schmitt
Chair of Metrology and Quality Management
RWTH Aachen University, Germany
R.Schmitt@wzl.rwth-aachen.de

Recent developments in large-scale metrology systems and automation towards

increased connectivity and interoperability facilitate their use within process control
of robotic assembly systems. The metrology systems are used to obtain information
on part geometry or robotic pose as input for model-based process control. Using
two examples, the benefits of increased flexibility, productivity, and quality are
illustrated. One example focusses on fixtureless aircraft primary structure assembly
by incorporating a component deformation model into the robot controller to
determine robot movements to compensate deviations and achieve nominal
geometry. A second example presents a model predictive control approach to
enable a robotic assembly process of a windscreen onto a moving truck cabin using
iGPS. Furthermore, a vision for a fix-point free assembly system for large products
based on mobile robots and metrology-assisted model-based control and the
associated technical requirements is presented.
Abstracts of Keynote Speeches xvii

Dimensioning and Optimization of High-Precision

and High-Dynamic Mechanisms
Frank Harmeling
Karl Mayer Textilmaschinenfabrik, Obertshausen, Germany
Frank.Harmeling@karlmayer.com

This keynote speech delivers insight into the model-based development of mech-
anisms that fulfil a highly precise motion at high production speed. One essential
aspect is the interdisciplinary modelling of a system consisting of a mechanism with
elasticities, the electric drive and the closed loop control. The total system model
consists of finite element subsystems and multibody subsystems as well as analytic
equations. Although all machines are similar, each machine development aiming at
the increase of customer value has got its individual challenges. Therefore, another
essential aspect is the individual adaption of the dimensioning and optimization
process to fulfil the complex requirements regarding speed, durability, manufac-
turing costs and functional aspects. The process has to focus on the individual
question that has to be answered, respectively, on the decision that has to be taken.
This affords a flexible configuration of the partial models, an adequate detailing
of the models and an adaption of the proceeding.
 Part I
MTM—Mechanisms—Analysis
and Synthesis
Optimal Design of a Grasping Device
Through Simplified Pose Synthesis
of a Four-Bar Linkage

V. Mesaros-Anghel, E.-C. Lovasz, C.M. Gruescu and C.E. Moldovan

Abstract The paper shows the optimal synthesis of grasping device design based
on the Chebyshev spacing method. The original grasping device uses two sym-
metrical four-bar linkages with opposite motion of the jaws fixed on the coupler.
The goal of the study is the development of a grasping device with minimal error of
the axial centering, which reduces the synthesis to a four-pose one for the four-bar
linkage. In order to minimize the centering error of the grasping device an equiv-
alent Chebyshev spacing method for establishing the synthesis poses is used.
A simplified pose synthesis method for the grasping four-bar linkage is developed.
The both deviations of the axial centering errors (without spacing and with spacing)
for the obtained linkage are indicated and analyzed.

Keywords Grasping device ⋅ Four-bar linkage ⋅ Four-pose synthesis ⋅

Centering error

1 Introduction

The grasping devices are end-effectors of the manipulating robots, described and
analyzed by several authors (ex. [1, 2]), on different criteria such as kinematic
scheme, construction, technical characteristics and cost-effectiveness. A very

V. Mesaros-Anghel ⋅ E.-C. Lovasz (✉) ⋅ C.M. Gruescu ⋅ C.E. Moldovan

Universitatea Politehnica, Timişoara, Romania
e-mail: erwin.lovasz@upt.ro
V. Mesaros-Anghel
e-mail: voicu.mesaros-anghel@upt.ro
C.M. Gruescu
e-mail: corina.gruescu@upt.ro
C.E. Moldovan
e-mail: cristian.moldovan@upt.ro

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 3

B. Corves et al. (eds.), New Advances in Mechanisms,
Mechanical Transmissions and Robotics, Mechanisms and Machine Science 46,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-45450-4_1
4 V. Mesaros-Anghel et al.

up-to-date and complete description and classification of the concepts, principles

and design of the grasping devices are given in [3, 4].
In comparison with a human hand (100 % dexterity), a two-finger grasping
device still retains 40 % dexterity and, furthermore, satisfies many criteria (simple,
cheap, functionally intelligent). This is the reason why most of the grasping devices
feature two fingers, in a structure including a “carrying mechanism” and an “ac-
tuating mechanism”. An intelligent trait in grasping devices functioning is centering
(along with the axis of the manipulated cylindrical parts). This type of functioning is
analyzed in [5–10]. Still, for special applications, which require fine motion,
complex structures containing more human-like fingers are already developed and
controlled [11, 12]. Recent researches also pursue the achievement of specific
grasping devices to work with soft robots, which must perform gentle tasks [13], or
for handling heavy elastic objects [14]. The underactuated grasp is also a subject in
regard with design, kinematic analysis and control for simple or complex anthro-
pomorphic structures [15–18].
The authors of the paper consider that the synthesis of the grasping devices
should satisfy several conditions regarding structure, design and centering preci-
sion: to eliminate higher pair, to avoid, as much as possible, the prismatic joints and
to minimize the centering errors of the carrying mechanisms included in the
grasping mechanisms. But, also other design aspects as grasping stability, friction,
compliance and dynamics can be taken into account as optimization criteria [19].
The paper aims the synthesis of a mechanism, associated to a two-fingers
grasping device, optimized in regard with minimizing the centering errors by using
Chebyshev spacing of the jaws poses, using only rotational joints (without the
actuator motion) and simplifying the synthesis method of the four-bar linkage.

2 Structure and Actuation Design

Pursuing the goal of centering, the idea of carrying two prismatic jaws between two
limit diameters was taken into account, as represented in Fig. 1.
The assurance of centering should be achieved for a finite number of poses of the
manipulated parts, as shown in Fig. 2.
Carrying of the prismatic jaws (symmetrically to the x – axis)
can be achieved
like in Fig. 3, by two four-bar mechanisms A0 ABB0 and A′0 A′ B′ B′0 , actuated by the
actuating mechanism (D0 DC and its symmetrical D0 D′ C ′ ). Similar schemes are
described in [7] for tweezers-jaws without centering, in [4] for roller-jaws with
centering only for two positions, in [8, 9] where the carrying mechanisms are
complicated and, therefore, expensive, including the use of higher pairs.
The synthesis of the four-bar linkage for two and three precision points is
presented in [1]. The first optimization of the grasping device would result from a
“particular four-position synthesis” approach. It will be further shown that the
five-pose synthesis, which is the highest applicable to four-bar linkages, does not
Optimal Design of a Grasping Device Through Simplified Pose … 5

Fig. 1 The limit diameters of the prismatic jaws

Fig. 2 The finite poses of the prismatic jaws

Fig. 3 Kinematic schema of the grasping device [1]

6 V. Mesaros-Anghel et al.

apply in this case. The four-pose synthesis ensures centering without errors in the
four imposed positions and, in-between, the manipulated cylindrical parts will
maintain their centers along the Ox-axis, on both sides of the origin at minimized
distances (centering errors). This minimization is a second-step optimization
achieved by the authors through an adequate choice of the four diameters of the
manipulated part (as in Fig. 2), spanning between the limit diameters shown in
Fig. 1.

3 Limitations in Applying the Five-Pose Synthesis

In order to show the limitations of the five pose synthesis, a numerical example is
computed. Table 1 shows the imposed values for the diameters of the manipulated
part Di , the coordinates of the prism jaws point (xMi, yMi) with the corresponding
positional angles βi of the prismatic jaws (with α̂ = 120◦ ).
Using the imposed geometrical parameters for the five poses and computing the
center-point curves f1234 and f2345 in the form of “7 coefficient curve” for the
positions i = 1, 2, 3, 4 and i = 2, 3, 4, 5:


x2 + y2 ⋅ ðAx + ByÞ + Ex2 + Fxy + Gy2 + Hx + Iy + 1 = 0 ð1Þ

lead to the coefficients A, B, E, F, G, H, I of Eq. (1), printed in Table 2.

This means that the center-point curves are shaped particular. Coefficients A and
B suggest a slowly ascending asymptote in curve f1234 and a slowly descending one
in curve f2345. Coefficients E, G and F suggest the existence of an approximately
circular branch. Coefficients H and I in accordance with the interpretation of
coefficients A and B suggest the existence of an approximately straight line branch,
slowly ascending for curve f1234 and slowly descending for curve f2345.
The two center-point curves are shown in Fig. 4, which confirms the previous
interpretation of the coefficients’ size. Furthermore, one can notice that the

Table 1 Geometrical parameters for the five-pose synthesis

Sizes/i 1 2 3 4 5
Diameter Di (mm) 5 21.25 37.5 53.75 70
Angle βi (deg) 120 105 90 75 60
xMi (mm) −1.443 −3.175 0 8.031 20.207
yMi (mm) 2.500 11.850 21.650 29.975 35.0

Table 2 Center-point curves coefficients

Coefficients A B E F G H I
f1234 −163.099 1238.862 2956.126 −22064.523 −2956.064 107155.380 −813931.800
f2345 8.421 63.969 −152.643 −1139.318 152.637 −5532.957 −42027.245
Optimal Design of a Grasping Device Through Simplified Pose … 7

Fig. 4 Center-point curves f1234 and f2345 of the five pose synthesis

approximately straight-line branch is approximately a diametric straight line for the

approximately circular branch.
Figure 4 also shows that the “un-monotone” zones of the curves superpose,
which means that “here are” the solutions of the five-point synthesis and the
Burmester center points (of which, one is surely very close to the origin of the
axes). Thus results that the origin of the axes is not a pole.
Also in Fig. 4, in dotted line, at the same scale as curves f1234 and f2345, the
centered circle representing the part with the maximum diameter given in Table 1
was drawn. Inside this “part-circle” or right close to it (at approx. 2 mm with the
current scale), it is possible to find Burmester center points, suitable to choose for
the joints between the cranks/couplers and the frame element. Inside the space
where the part lies, the joints are impossible to place and the trajectory of the mobile
elements is forbidden, therefore, with mechanisms such as the one in Fig. 3, with
prismatic jaws carried through precision points as in Fig. 2, the five-pose synthesis
(maximum pose number for the four bar linkage) is not possible to apply.

4 Chebyshev Spacing Method Applied in Pose Synthesis

As demonstrated in [20] in order to increase the precision of path/function gener-

ating mechanisms, a certain arrangement of the precision points is practical and
possible. Considering the same ranges of diameters and angles as in the previous
chapter, and dividing the ranges into three equidistant intervals, the characteristic
sizes resulted from computation as given in Table 3.

Table 3 Geometrical Sizes/i 1 2 3 4

parameters for the equidistant
chosen four pose synthesis Diameter Di (mm) 5.0 26.667 48.333 70.0
Angle βi (deg) 120 100 80 60
xMi (mm) −1.443 −2.673 4.845 20.207
yMi (mm) 2.5 15.162 27.481 35.0
8 V. Mesaros-Anghel et al.

Table 4 Geometrical parameters for the Chebyshev spaced four pose synthesis
Sizes/i 1 2 3 4
Diameter Di (mm) 7.474 25.062 49.937 67.526
Angle βi (deg) 117.716 101.480 78.519 62.283
xMi (mm) −2.007 −2.880 5.738 18.132
yMi (mm) 3.819 14.180 28.254 34.513

Table 5 Center-point curves coefficients with and without spacing

Coefficients A B E F G H I
Without −0.0000433 131.21176 0.003899 −2436.525 0.001918 −0.112064 −87761.179
spacing
With 0.0000411 −101.47229 −0.002251 1877.5587 −0.00518 0.000063 67591.431
spacing

The authors consider necessary to apply the Chebyshev spacing to both sizes, Di
and βi chosen arbitrarily in Table 3. The results are shown in Table 4.
Table 5 presents the computed coefficients of the center-point curve f1234 and
f´1234, corresponding to curves with and without spacing.
Among the coefficients in Table 5 there are large differences regarding the size
order. Similarly to the conclusions in Chap. 2 the center-point curves are particu-
larly shaped and the coefficients have the same interpretation. The center-point
curves without spacing f1234 and with spacing f′1234 are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
Comparing the computed center-point curves it can be noticed that the shapes
are almost identical with slight differences in quadrants I and III, each of them
having an approximately circular and straight line branches.

Fig. 5 The center-point

curves without spacing

Fig. 6 The center-point

curves with spacing
Optimal Design of a Grasping Device Through Simplified Pose … 9

As inside the space of the part, the joints are impossible to place and the
elements of the mechanism can not pass through and considering (according to
Figs. 2 and 3) that the part arrives between the jaws from the left side, the following
conclusion results: for mechanisms as in Fig. 3, to which the connecting rod carries
the prism jaw through precision points as in Fig. 2, in applying the four-position
synthesis, only the quasi-linear branch from the right side of the quasi-circular
branch of the centre-point curve is usable for placing the joints between the
rocker/crank and the frame element.

5 Simplified Four-Pose Synthesis Method

One should take into account the conclusions in Chaps. 2 and 3 (tested on approx.
100 numerical syntheses) and the observation that the slope of the straight-line
branch passing through the origin is usable for the synthesis, having values of 3…4
up to 1.000.000 (according to coefficients A, B in Table 5). In this context, the
centers on the center-point curve, which are placed at a reasonable distance from the
origin (less than 500 mm), lie very close to the abscissa (less than one micron).
A point on the abscissa, adopted as center and placed at such a distance from the
center-point curve, satisfies the equation of the center-point curve at least as well as
a pole Pij/Qij, the focus F, the principal point P, the points Newton N and Gauss
G (if existing), the tangent T1…T8, the inflection points I1, I2, I3 or as other
significant points [1]. This statement is true because the properties of the synthesis
curves do not “fade” at such (relatively) small distances.
In the above context, the essence of the proposal to simplify the four-pose
synthesis (in case of adopting the precision positions described in Chap. 3, with or
without spacing) resides (paradoxically) in giving up its performing and adoption of
abscissa (in its positive direction and at larger distances than the maximum radius of
the manipulated part) as geometrical locus of centers (as joints with the frame
element) [1].
The simplified method will be applied to the synthesis of a mechanism as in
Fig. 3, with the precision points as in Fig. 2, performing the following steps:
• choosing four rational values for the angle of the prism-jaw α, the range of the
manipulated part diameters Di and of the bisecting line angles βi ;
• dividing the ranges into equidistant or spaced intervals of the precision poses;
• choosing rationally the revolute joints A0 ≡ A′0 ” and B0 ≡ B′0 on the abscissas
(from kinetostatic point of view is more favorable for larger distance between
these centers, in correlation with the axial size of the actuation cylinder);
• computing the coordinates of the corresponding mobile joints A, A′ , B and B′ by
using the Burmester method [21];
• computing and comparing the lengths of the rockers and connecting rods for
each chosen four poses;
10 V. Mesaros-Anghel et al.

Fig. 7 The simplified synthesis method for the four bar linkage of the grasping device

• setting the final values by considering that the linkage passes through the
alignment position of the revolute joints;
• performing the calculus regarding the theoretical precision of the synthesized
mechanism (not mandatory);
• establishing the position of the connecting joint C on the rocker.
By using the proposed simplified synthesis method [1] for the both cases without
spacing and with spacing and choosing the connecting revolute joints with the
frame element at the abscissas xA0 = 80 mm and xB0 = 180 mm result different link
lengths of the four bar linkages in different poses, but the differences are in hun-
dredth of micron order [1] (Fig. 7). Obviously, in all cases, the frame element has
the same length of A0 B0 = 100 mm. The average link lengths of the four bar linkage,
denoted as in Fig. 3, will be adopted as given in Table 6.
These results confirm that the simplified synthesis proposed is legitimate. It is to
be emphasized that the frame element A0 B0 = 100 mm, the sums B0 B + AB and
A0 B0 + A0 B are approximately equal (the differences are in hundredth of millime-
ter). As the sums above should be strictly achieved by the link lengths of the
linkage, (otherwise it will not pass over the alignment position), the final link
lengths were adopted as written in Table 7.

Table 6 Average link lengths of the four bar linkage

Link lengths AoA (mm) AB (mm) BoB (mm)
Without spacing 26.534 9.148 117.435
With spacing 26.296 9.125 117.228

Table 7 Final link lengths of the four bar linkage

Link lengths AoA (mm) AB (mm) BoB (mm) AoBo (mm)
Without spacing 26.55 9.15 117.4 100
With spacing 26.3 9.1 117.2 100
Optimal Design of a Grasping Device Through Simplified Pose … 11

The values in Table 7 were used in computing of centering precision and the link
lengths with spacing served to practical manufacturing of the patented grasping
device [22].

6 Theoretical Precision of the Grasping Device

Considering the mechanism in Fig. 3 with the link lengths given in Table 7, the
theoretical centering precision was computed starting from the position relation for
the four-bar linkage. The theoretical computation starts with the calculus of the
positions of the point M in the top of the prism-jaw and the positions of an auxiliary
point N, placed at a constant distance to M on the bisecting line of the prism.
The absolute centering error is the distance from the intersection of the bisecting
line with the Ox-axis.
The average absolute centering error is 0.1971 mm for the mechanism without
spacing and 0.1923 mm for the linkage with spacing (Fig. 8). The physical sig-
nificance of these average absolute centering errors is a correction, which must be
applied to the linkage in the practical achieving of the device or in the command of
the robot, i.e. the joints A0 and B0 must be closer to the origin (centering position)
with these values. This is necessary because the dimensions of the linkages in
Table 7 do not correspond exactly to the precision points. The average values in
Table 6 had to be adjusted in order to ensure the passing of the linkage through the
alignment position.
Examining the absolute centering errors results that, indeed, for the linkage with
spacing (Fig. 8b), the extreme errors are about one third smaller and symmetrically
distributed, compared with the extreme errors for the linkage without spacing
(Fig. 8a). This observation pleads for using of Chebyshev spacing method in
positioning mechanisms synthesis.
The calculus of the centering errors, as described in this chapters, may be
missed, considering that the relative errors (regarding the diameter of the part) are
less than 1 % (in the above example the maximum relative error is 0.8 %).

Fig. 8 The centering errors of the grasping device without spacing (a) and with spacing (b)
12 V. Mesaros-Anghel et al.

7 Conclusions

The paper presents a study on applying of the linkage synthesis theories for
developing of a new grasping device, which use two symmetrical four-bar linkages
with opposite motion of the jaws fixed on the coupler.
This study allowed the demonstration of the limitations (impossibility) in
applying the five-pose synthesis and the particularities of the four-pose synthesis in
the case of grasping devices. A simplified four-pose synthesis method was devel-
oped based on the analysis of the particular shape of the center-point curve in its
useful zone.
By using the Chebyshev based spacing method for both sizes, namely the
grasping diameter Di and the positional angle of the prismatic jaws βi, the theo-
retical centering axial precision increases in comparison with the errors obtained
with equidistant chosen four-pose synthesis.
The computed centering errors of the grasping device show that between the
precision poses considering the Chebyshev spacing, the errors are less than 1 %,
which can be easily corrected by redesigning the grasping device through trans-
lating the whole linkage closer to the Ox-axis origin with the absolute average error.

References

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them, and obtained sufficient for his purpose. Some of them he
pounded between stones and placed upon the wound, others he ate.
So in a short time he found himself so much recovered as to
commence his journey. With his bow and arrows he killed birds in the
day, which he roasted before the fire at night. In this way he kept
hunger from him until he came to a water that separated his wife and
friends from him. He then gave that whoop which says a friend is
returned. The signal was instantly known, and a canoe came to bring
him across; and soon the chief was landed amidst many shouts.
Then he called his people to his lodge, and told them all that
happened. Then ever after it was resolved to build a fire by the dead
warrior, that he might have light and warmth, if he only dreamed as
the chief had dreamed.”
The Indians of Natchez carried to a still higher point their profound
veneration for those who were no more. At the funerals of their
relatives or friends they gave unequivocal signs of extreme and most
sincere grief. They did not burn the body, like the Greeks, the
Romans, and several American nations, but they placed it for a time
in a coffin of reed, and regularly brought it food in token of their love
and solicitude. This they continued till nothing remained of the body
but dry bones, which were then collected and placed in the funeral
temple. These temples of the dead only differed from the ordinary
dwellings of the Natchez in having a wooden head suspended over
the entrance door. Nothing could surpass their attachment to these
relics of the departed beings they had lost, and when they emigrated
they generally carried away the bones of their ancestors.
The interment of their sovereigns, or one of his near relations,
assumed with the Natchez the proportions of a public calamity. Such
funereal ceremonies were accompanied by a real voluntary
massacre, in which a multitude of individuals allied to the family of
the deceased, his friends or servants, were immolated. We will give,
still through the Abbé Dominech, a few examples of this custom, by
citing some details related in history concerning the death of the
“Stung Serpent,” brother of the “Great Sun.” As the number of
victims to be sacrificed during the funeral ceremony was very
considerable, the officers of Port Rosalie repaired to the village
where the deceased had dwelt, in order to save from death as many
people as they could. Thanks to the charitable intervention of the
French, the number of victims was limited to the two wives of the
deceased, the chamberlain, physician, servant, pipe-bearer, and a
remarkably beautiful young Indian girl, who had loved him greatly,
and some old women, who were to be strangled near the mortal
remains of the noble dead.
The body of the “Stung Serpent” was clothed in beautiful
garments, and placed on a bed of state; his face was painted
vermilion, on his feet were beautiful embroidered mocassins, and on
his head he wore a crown of red and white feathers, as a prince of
blood. By his side was placed his gun, his pistol, his bow and a
quiver full of arrows, and his best tomahawk, with all the calumets of
peace which had been offered to him during his life. At the head of
the bed was a red pole supporting a chain of reeds also painted red,
and composed of forty-six rings, indicating the number of enemies
he had killed in battle.
All the persons composing the household surrounded the
deceased, serving him from time to time as when in life; but as of
course all the food remained untouched, his servant called out, “Why
do you not accept our offerings? Do you no longer love your
favourite meats? Are you angry with us, and will you allow us no
longer to serve you? Ah! you speak to us no more as you used to do.
You are dead! all is finished! Our occupation is ended; and since you
abandon us, we will follow you to the land of spirits.” Then the
servant uttered the death shout, which was repeated by all present,
and spread from village to village to the farthest extremities of the
country like a tremendous funeral echo.
The beautiful young Indian, who would not survive her lover,
raised her voice in the midst of the general lamentations, and,
addressing the officers, said, “Chiefs and nobles of France, I see
how much you regret my husband. His death is indeed a great
calamity for you, as well as for your nation, for he carried them all in
his heart. How he has left us for the world of spirits; in two days I
shall be with him, and I will tell him that your hearts swelled with
sadness at the sight of his mortal remains. When I am no more,
remember that our children are orphans, remember that you loved
their father, and let the dew of your friendship fall in abundance on
the children of him who was friendly to you.”
The following day the grand master of the ceremonies came to
fetch the victims for the death dance, and led them in procession to
the place where they were to die. Each of them was accompanied by
eight of his nearest relatives, who were to perform the office of
executioners: one carried a tomahawk, and threatened every instant
to strike the victim; another carried the mat on which the sacrifice
was to be made; a third the cord which was to serve for the
execution; a fourth bore the deer skin which was to be placed on the
head and shoulders of the condemned; the fifth carried a wooden
bowl containing the pills of tobacco which the patient swallowed
before dying; the sixth an earthen bottle full of water, to facilitate the
passage of the pills. The office of the last two was to render the
strangulation as speedy as possible, by drawing the cord to the right
and to the left of the patient.
These eight persons became noble after the execution: they
walked two and two after the victims, whose hair was painted red.
On arriving at the public place where the temple stood, all began to
shout out the death cry; the persons who were to be sacrificed
placed themselves on the mats, and danced the death dance. Their
executioners formed a circle round them, and danced the same
dance; then all returned in procession to the cabin of the deceased.
The inauspicious day of the funeral ceremony having arrived, the
legitimate wife of the “Stung Serpent” took leave of her children with
the following words. “The death of your father is a great loss. He wills
that I accompany him into the world of spirits, and I must not let him
wait for me in vain. I am in haste to depart, for since his death I walk
the earth with a heavy step. You are young, my children; you have
before you a long path, which you must pursue with a prudent spirit
and a courageous heart. Take care you do not tear your feet on the
thorns of duplicity and the stones of dishonesty. I leave you the keys
of your father’s inheritance, brilliant and without rust.”
 The body of the prince was borne by eight guardians of the
temple, and preceded by a multitude of warriors, who, in walking,
described continual circles until they reached the temple where the
body of the “Stung Serpent” was deposited. The victims, after having
been strangled according to custom, were buried in the following
order: the two widows in the same tomb as their husband, the young
Indian woman to the right of the temple, and the chamberlain to the
left. The other bodies were removed to the different villages to which
they belonged. Then the dwelling of the “Stung Serpent” was fired,
and burnt to its foundations. Such were the barbarous and touching
ceremonies observed by the Natchez on the death of the highest
dignitaries of their ancient nation.
Dacotah Chief.
 CHAPTER XXIX.
Funeral rites in Damara land—The Koossan method of disposing of the
dead—The grave in the cattle fold—No recovering spilt water—Coming
out of mourning—No half mourning among savages—The feast of
release—The slave barracoon—A thousand skeletons—The mortal
remains of a Bechuana—The burying ground at Fetich Point—The
grave of old King Pass-all—A Barrodo Beondo funeral—The late King
Jemmy—Respect of the Timannees for their dead—A Religious
impostor—A funeral at Mandingo—Strange behaviour of the mourners
—By whose “Griffee” did you die?—Burial of King Archibongo—His
devil-house—Funeral ceremonies in Madagascar—How the poor
Malagasey is disposed of—“Take that for dying”—Sepulchral rites in
Abyssinia—Burying in Sambo land—The demon “Wulasha”—Blood
rule in Dahomey—The very last grand custom—Devil’s work—How a
Dahoman king is buried—A pot for the king’s bones.
mong the Damaras of South Africa the mode of disposing of
the dead is somewhat different from that practised by those
who dwell in the more remote parts of that country.
Andersson tells us, that in the case of the Damara, as soon
as he dies (sometimes, indeed, it is horridly rumoured, before
animation has ceased), his nearest kinsfolk fetch a big stone and break
the backbone, the more conveniently to bundle and tie him nose and
knees together. This accomplished, the body is wrapped in the hide of an
ox, a hole dug in the earth, and the defunct squatted in with his face
towards the north. This is done, say the natives, to remind them where
they originally came from.
When a poor Bechuana or Damara woman, having a helpless baby,
dies, it is no uncommon thing for the little creature to be placed with her
alive in the hole dug for the reception of the adult body. Mr. Rath, a
missionary, happened on one occasion to approach a burial party at which
this atrocity was about to be committed, and was successful in releasing
the poor little thing.
“After having consigned the remains of a chief to his last resting-place,”
says Andersson, “they collect his arms, war-dress, etc., and suspend
them to a pole or to a tree at the head of the grave. The horns of such
oxen as have been killed in commemoration of the occasion are hung up
in a like manner. The tomb consists of a large heap of stones surrounded
by thorn bushes, no doubt to keep hyænas and other carnivorous animals
from extracting the corpse. Sometimes, however, the chief, should he
have expressed a wish to that effect, instead of being buried is placed in a
reclining position on a slightly raised platform in the centre of his own hut,
which in such a case is surrounded by stout and strong palisadings.

Damara Tomb.
“When a chief feels his dissolution approaching, he calls his sons to his
bedside and gives them his benediction, which consists solely in wishing
them an abundance of the good things of this world. The eldest son of the
chief’s favourite wife succeeds his father; and as soon as the obsequies
are over he quits the desolate spot, remaining absent for years. At last,
however, he returns, and immediately proceeds to his parent’s grave,
where he kneels down, and in a whispering voice tells the deceased that
he is there with his family and the cattle that he gave him. He then prays
for a long life; also that his herds may thrive and multiply: and, in short,
that he may obtain all those things that are dear to a savage. This duty
being performed, he constructs a kraal on the identical spot where once
the ancestral camp stood; even the huts and the fireplaces are placed as
near as possible in their former position.
“The flesh of the first animal slaughtered here is cooked in a particular
vessel; and when ready the chief hands a portion of it to every one
present. An image consisting of two pieces of wood, supposed to
represent, the household deity, or rather the deified parent, is then
produced and moistened in the platter of each individual. The chief then
takes the image, and after affixing a piece of meat to the upper end of it,
he plants it in the ground on the identical spot where the parent was
accustomed to sacrifice. The first pail of milk produced from the cattle is
also taken to the grave; a small quantity is also poured over the ground,
and a blessing asked on the remainder.
Among the Koossas, a tribe of South African natives, as soon as they
perceive a sick man near his end, he is carried from his hut to some
solitary spot beneath the shade of a tree. A fire is then made, and a
vessel and water set near him. Only the husband or wife, or some near
relation, remains with him. If he appear dying, water is thrown over his
head, in hopes of its reviving him; but should this fail, and it becomes
apparent that death is approaching, he is left by everybody but his wife; or
should the sick person be a woman, then it is her husband alone who
stays with her. The relations, however, do not retire to their homes; they
gather at a distance, and from time to time the dying person’s nurse calls
out and lets them know how matters are progressing, till comes the final
announcement “he is dead.” When all is over, the dead man’s relatives
proceed to the nearest stream, and, having purified themselves, return
home.
The wife, however, who must pay the last duties to her husband,
cannot do this. She leaves the body, about which no one is any longer
solicitous, to become a prey to beasts and birds, and goes with a
firebrand taken from the fire that had been kindled near the dying man, to
some other solitary place, where she again makes a fire, and though it
should rain ever so hard, she must not suffer it to be extinguished. In the
night she comes secretly to the hut where she had lived with her husband,
and burns it, and then returns back to her solitude, where she must
remain a month entirely secluded from the world, and living the whole time
on roots and berries. When this period of solitary mourning has expired,
she divests herself of her clothes, which she destroys, bathes, lacerates
her breasts and her arms with a sharp stone, and having made her a long
petticoat of rushes returns at sunset to the kraal.
At her desire a youth of the tribe brings her a lighted firebrand, and
exactly on the spot where her husband’s hut formerly stood she builds a
fire; some one of her tribe then brings her some new milk, with which she
rinses her mouth, and she is then acknowledged as completely purified,
and is received once more among her relations and friends. Singularly
enough, however, the cow from which the milk is drawn is, on the contrary,
rendered impure, and though not killed, is neglected entirely and left to die
a natural death. The day following the widow’s return an ox is killed, and
after feasting on its flesh, the skin is given to her to make her a new
mantle. Immediately after this her sisters-in-law assist her in building a
new hut, and she is completely reinstated in social life.
A widower has nearly the same mourning ceremonies to observe, only
with this difference, that his seclusion lasts but half a month. He then
throws his garments away and prepares himself a new garment from the
skin of an ox. He takes besides the hair the tail of the ox, with which he
makes himself a necklace and wears it as long as it will last. If a person
dies suddenly the whole colony will shift, judging that no further luck will
attend them if they stay, and the body of the suddenly defunct is allowed
to remain exactly as it fell, and with the hut for its sepulchre. If, however,
the individual suddenly dying is a young child, impurity is supposed to
attach only to the hut in which it died, and which is either pulled down or
closed up for ever.
It is only the chiefs and their wives who are buried. They are left to die
in their huts; the corpse is then wrapped in the folds of their mantle and a
grave is dug in the cattle-fold. After the earth is thrown in some of the
oxen are driven into the fold and remain there, so that the earth is entirely
trodden down and indistinguishable from the rest. The oxen are then
driven out; but they by this process become sacred oxen, and must by no
man be slain for his eating.
The widows of the deceased have all the household utensils which they
and their husbands had used together; and after remaining three days in
solitude purify themselves according to the usual manner. They then each
kill an ox, and each makes herself a new mantle of its hide. The kraal is
then entirely deserted by the tribe and is never chosen as a building site,
even though it be highly eligible and the horde in search of a site is
entirely unknown to that belonging to which the chief died. A chief whose
wife dies has the same ceremonies to observe as any other man,
excepting that with him the time of mourning is only three days. The place
where the wife of a chief is buried is forsaken in the same manner as in
the case of the chief himself.
The Koossas have no priests or religious ceremonies, and
consequently but few traditions. They know of no power superior to that
with which ordinary mortals are invested except that professed by
enchanters, which are of two sorts—good and bad; the former being the
more powerful and able to frustrate the designs of the latter, provided that
he be called on in time and the transaction be made worth his while. The
Koossan enchanters are, as a rule, old women—poor wretches who,
doubtless, finding themselves past labour and objects of contempt and
impatience among their tribe, avail themselves of their long experience of
the weaknesses and superstitions of those by whom they are surrounded,
and boldly set up as witches as the most certain means of gaining not
only the goodwill of the people but also their awe and respect.
Should a Koossan find himself at what he has reason to suspect to be
death’s door, he sends for an enchantress. The “magic woman,” after
hearing his case—never mind what it may be—proceeds to cure him; she
makes some pellets of cow-dung, and laying them in rows and circles
upon the man’s stomach, chants certain mysterious airs and dances and
skips about him; after a while she will make a sudden dart at her patient
and hold up to her audience a snake or a lizard, which the said audience
is to infer was at that moment, through her force of magic, extracted from
the seat of the patient’s ailment. If the sick man should die the excuse is
that the appointed time of life had expired and that “there was no
recovering spilled water,” or else she puts a bold face on the matter and
declares that at least two evil enchanters were working against her, and
that against such odds success was hopeless. In his dealings with these
enchanters, however, the Koossan has this substantial security that no
stone will be left unturned to effect his cure—the fee is agreed on
beforehand and posted with a friend; should the patient grow well the
friend delivers the ox, or whatever the fee may consist of, to the doctress;
if the patient should die, or after a reasonable time find himself no better
for the old lady’s services, he fetches home his ox and there is an end to
the matter.
 If, however, the patient be an exacting individual and inclined to avail
himself to the fullest of Koossan law, he, although quite restored to health
through the witch’s agency, may still refuse to pay her her fee till she
discovers and brings to justice the person who enchanted him. As this,
however, is a mere matter of hard swearing, combined with a little
discrimination in the selection of the victim, the witch-doctress is seldom
averse to undertake this latter business. The whole tribe is collected on a
certain day, and in their midst a hut is built. To this hut the witch retires on
the pretence that before she can reveal the name of the malefactor she
must sleep, that he may appear before her in a dream. The people without
in the meantime dance and sing for a while, till at length the men go into
the hut and beg the enchantress to come forward. At first she hesitates;
but they take her a number of assagais as a present, and in a little while
she makes her appearance with the weapons in her hand. While staying
in the hut she has busied herself in painting her body all sorts of colours,
and with scarcely any other covering she stalks into the midst of the
assembled throng.
With loud compassion for her nudity the people hasten to pluck their
ox-hide mantles from their own shoulders and cast them on those of the
witch, till she is nearly overwhelmed by these demonstrations of their
solicitude. Suddenly, however, she starts up, flings off the cover of
mantles, and makes a rush towards a certain man or woman, striking him
or her with the bundle of assagais. For the unlucky wretch to protest his
innocence it is utterly useless. The rabble, chafing like other beasts,
seizes the evil doer and impatiently await the good witch’s decision as to
what had best be done with him—whether, for instance, he shall be buried
under an ant heap or put in a hole in the ground and covered with large
hot stones. Should the ant hill be his doom, lingering torture and death are
certain; but if he be a very strong man he may resist the hot stone torture,
and when night arrives may force the terrible weights from off him, and
dragging his poor scorched body out of the hole make his escape. Never
again, however, must he venture among the people, who in all probability
number among them his wife and children; for should he do so he would
be executed off hand and his body thrown out to the hyænas.
In certain parts of the interior of Africa the custom of “waking” the
defunct is ordinarily practised. Du Chaillu had a serving man named
Tonda, and one day Tonda died, and the traveller having a suspicion of
the ceremony that would be performed visited the house of Tonda’s
mother, where the body lay. The narrow space of the room was crowded;
about two hundred women were sitting and standing around, singing
mourning songs to doleful and monotonous airs. “They were so huddled
together that for a while I could not distinguish the place of the corpse. At
last some moved aside, and behold! the body of my friend. It was seated
in a chair, dressed in a black tail coat and a pair of pantaloons, and wore
round its neck several strings of beads. Tonda’s mother approaching her
dead son, prostrated herself before him and begged him to speak to her
once more. A painful silence followed the of course fruitless adjuration;
but presently it was broken by the loud hopeless wailing uttered by the
bereaved woman, the rest of the company making dolorous chorus.”

African Wake.
 The savages of Central Africa do not wear black for their departed
relatives, unless indeed an accumulative coat of dirt may be so called; for
it is a fact that among these people the way to express extreme sorrow is
to go unwashed and very dirty. Besides, they wear about their bodies any
ragged cloth that comes handy, and altogether evidently endeavour to
convey the idea that now so-and-so is dead their relish for life is at an
end, and that the frivolous question of personal appearance is no longer
worth discussing. To their credit be it named, however, they are not guilty
of the monstrous civilized custom of half-mourning. They don’t
immediately on the death of a friend don attire and virtually proclaim, “See
how sorry I am!—see my jetty gown or coat and the black studs in my
shirt-front!” nor do they, when the deceased has passed away three
months or less, streak their black with white and proclaim, “I am a little
more cheerful—you may see how much by the breadth of the white stripe
in my ribands.” The African is happily ignorant of these grades of grief;
when he sorrows he sorrows to the very dust, but between that mood and
boisterous merriment is with him but a single skip. Thus when the
mourning period has expired (it varies from one to two years) a day is
appointed for the breaking-up of mourning-time and a return to the bright
side of the world. The friends and relatives and the widows (there are
often six or seven of them) come in gangs of ten or a dozen from villages
far off—some by the road, and some in their canoes, and none empty-
handed. Each one is provided with a jar of mimbo or palm wine, and
something that will make a row—gunpowder, kettles with round stones to
shake in them, drums, tom-toms, and whistles made of reed. The row is
the leading feature of the breaking-up, and is called bola woga. Virtually
the mourning is over the evening before the ceremony commences, for
the company have all arrived, as has the dead man’s heir (who, by-the-by,
can, if he chooses, claim and take home every widow on the
establishment), and the bereaved wives, albeit as yet uncleansed from
their long-worn and grimy mourning suit, are full of glee and giggle, and
have pleasant chat among themselves concerning the gay rig out they will
adopt to-morrow.
To-morrow comes. Early in the morning the village is informed that the
widows are already up and have already partaken of a certain magic brew
that effectually divorces them from their weeds. The gun firing is likewise
the signal for as many as choose to come and take part in the jollification,
and as it invariably happens that as many as like unlimited mimbo accept
the invitation, the entire population may presently be seen wending one
way—toward the feast house. There they find mats spread not only about
the house, but down the street that leads to it, and there they find the
cleanly-washed widows decked in spotless calico and wearing anklets
and wristlets heavy enough to account for their sedate mien. Then all the
guests, having taken care that floods of mimbo are within easy reach, take
their seats, and more guns are fired, and the orgie commences, and
concludes not till every jar of palm wine has been broached, all the
gunpowder expended, every drum-head beaten in, and every kettle
hammered into a shapeless thing by the banging of the stones within. The
rising moon finds them to a man huddled in every possible attitude about
the wine-stained mats, helplessly drunk and with each other’s carcases,
and cooking pots, and jars, and fractured drums as pillows. Next day the
house of the deceased is razed to the ground, and the mourning for the
rich man with many wives is at an end.
While Du Chaillu was sojourning at Sangatanga, the domains of a
certain African king named Bango, whose chief revenue is derived from
dealing in slaves and by taxing the slave “factors” whose “barracoons” (as
the slave warehouses are called) are situated on the coast there; he was
witness to the disposal of the body of a poor wretch who had fortunately
died before he could be bought, hauled aboard a slaver, and “traded-off”
anywhere where the market was briskest. If anything can be told in
connexion with the hideous system further to disgust its enemies—which
happily includes every man in England’s broad dominions—it is such
stories as the following:
“During my stay in the village, as I was one day shooting birds in a
grove not far from my house, I saw a procession of slaves coming from
one of the barracoons towards the further end of my grove. As they came
nearer I saw that two gangs of six slaves each, all chained about the
neck, were carrying a burden between them, which I presently knew to be
the corpse of another slave. They bore it to the edge of the grove, about
three hundred yards from my house, and there throwing it down upon the
bare ground returned to their prison, accompanied by their overseer, who
with his whip had marched behind them hither. Here, then, is the burying-
ground of the barracoon, I said to myself sadly, thinking, I confess, of the
poor fellow who had been dragged away from his home and friends to die
here and be thrown out as food for the vultures, who even as I stood in
thought began already to darken the air above my head and were
presently heard fighting over the remains.
 “The grove, which was in fact but an African aceldama, was beautiful to
view from my house, and I had often resolved to explore it and rest in the
shade of its dark-foliaged trees. It seemed a ghastly place enough now, as
I approached it to see more closely the work of the disgusting vultures.
They fled when they saw me, but only a little way, sitting upon the lower
branches of the surrounding trees watching me with eyes askance, as
though fearful I would rob them of their prey.
“As I walked towards the body I felt something crack under my feet, and
looking down saw that I was already in the midst of the field of skulls. I
had inadvertently stepped into the skeleton of some poor creature who
had been thrown here long enough ago for the birds and ants to pick his
bones clean and the rains to bleach them. I think there must have been a
thousand such skeletons lying within my sight. The place had been used
for many years, and the mortality in the barracoons is sometimes frightful.
Here the dead were thrown, and here the vultures found their daily
carrion. The grass had just been burned, and the white bones scattered
everywhere gave the ground a singular, and when the cause was known,
a frightful appearance. Penetrating a little farther into the bush, I found
great piles of bones.
 The “Master of Life” as represented in Equatorial Africa.
“Here was the place where, when years ago Cape Lopez was one of
the great slave markets on the west coast and barracoons were more
numerous than now, the poor dead were thrown one upon another till
even the mouldering bones remained in high piles as monuments of the
nefarious traffic.”
In Angola, in cases of death the body is kept several days, and there is
a grand concourse of both sexes, with beating of drums, dances, and
debauchery kept up with feasting, etc., according to the means of the
relatives. The great ambition of many of the blacks of Angola is to give
their friends an expensive funeral. Often when one is asked to sell a pig
he replies, “I am keeping it in case of the death of any of my friends.” A
pig is usually slaughtered and eaten on the last day of the ceremonies,
and its head thrown into the nearest stream or river. A native will
sometimes appear intoxicated on these occasions, and if blamed for his
intemperance will reply, “Why, don’t you know that my mother is dead,” as
if he thought it a sufficient justification. The expenses of funerals are so
heavy that often years elapse before they can defray them.
The Bechuanas of Southern Africa generally bury their dead. The
ceremony of interment, etc., varies in different localities and is influenced
by the rank of the deceased. But the following is a fair specimen of the
way in which these obsequies are managed:
On the approaching dissolution of a man, a skin or net is thrown over
the body, which is held in a sitting posture with the knees doubled up
under the chin, until life is extinct. A grave is then dug—very frequently in
the cattle-fold—six feet in depth and about three in width, the interior
being rubbed over with a certain large bulb. The body, having the head
covered, is then conveyed through a hole made for the purpose in the
house and the surrounding fence and deposited in the grave in a sitting
position, care being taken to put the face of the corpse against the north.
Portions of an ant-hill are placed about the feet, when the net which held
the body is gradually withdrawn. As the grave is filled up the earth is
handed in with bowls, while two men stand in the hole to tread it down
round the body, great care being taken to pick out anything like a root or
pebble. When the earth reaches the height of the mouth, a small twig or
branch of an acacia is thrown in, and on the top of the head a few roots of
grass are placed. The grave being nearly filled, another root of grass is
fixed immediately over the head, part of which stands above ground.
When this portion of the ceremony is over, the men and women stoop,
and with their hands scrape on to the little mound the loose soil lying
about. A large bowl of water, with an infusion of bulbs, is now brought,
when the men and women wash their hands and the upper part of their
legs, shouting “Pùla, pùla” (rain, rain). An old woman, probably a relation,
will then bring the weapons of the deceased (bows, arrows, war-axe, and
even the bone of an old pack ox), with other things. They finally address
the grave, saying, “These are all your articles.” The things are then taken
away and bowls of water are poured on the grave, when all retire, the
women wailing, “Yo, yo, yo,” with some doleful dirge, sorrowing without
hope.
Here is another singular picture of an African burying-ground:
 “Near Fetich Point is the Oroungou burying-ground, and this I went to
visit the following morning. It lay about a mile from our camp, toward
Sangatanga, from which it was distant about half-a-day’s pull in a canoe.
It is in a grove of noble trees, many of them of magnificent size and
shape. The natives hold this place in great reverence, and refused at first
to go with me on my contemplated visit, even desiring that I should not go.
I explained to them that I did not go to laugh at their dead, but rather to
pay them honour. But it was only by the promise of a large reward that I at
last persuaded Niamkala, who was of our party, to accompany me. The
negroes visit the place only on funeral errands, and hold it in the greatest
awe, conceiving that here the spirits of their ancestors wander about, and
that these are not lightly to be disturbed. I am quite sure that treasure to
any amount might be left here exposed in perfect safety.
“The grove stands by the seashore. It is entirely cleared of underbush,
and as the wind sighs through the dense foliage of the trees and whispers
in the darkened and somewhat gloomy grove, it is an awful place, even to
an unimpressible white man. Niamkala stood in silence by the strand
while I entered the domains of the Oroungou dead. They are not put
below the surface; they lie about beneath the trees in huge wooden
coffins, some of which by their new look betokened recent arrival, but by
far the greater number were crumbling away. Here was a coffin falling to
pieces, and disclosing a grinning skeleton within. On the other side were
skeletons already without covers, which lay in dust beside them.
Everywhere were bleached bones and mouldering remains. It was curious
to see the brass anklets and bracelets in which some Oroungou maiden
has been buried still surrounding her whitened bones, and to note the
remains of goods which had been laid in the same coffin with some
wealthy fellow now mouldering to dust at his side. In some places there
remained only little heaps of shapeless dust, from which some copper or
iron or ivory ornament gleamed out to prove that here too once lay a
corpse. Passing on to a yet more sombre gloom, I came at last to the
grave of old King Pass-all, the brother of his present majesty. The coffin
lay on the ground, and was surrounded on every side with great chests,
which contained the property of his deceased majesty. Among these
chests, and on the top of them, were piled huge earthenware jugs,
glasses, mugs, plates, iron pots and bars, brass and copper rings, and
other precious things, which this old Pass-all had determined to carry at
last to the grave with him. And also there lay around numerous skeletons
of the poor slaves who were, to the number of one hundred, killed when
the king died, that his ebony kingship might not pass into the other world
without due attendance. It was a grim sight, and one which filled me with a
sadder awe than even the disgusting barracoon ground.”
In matters of death and burial, as in all other matters pertaining to
savagery, Western Africa stands conspicuous. “At the town of Ambago,”
says Hutchinson, “when all preliminaries are arranged, they carry the
corpse to its last resting-place, accompanied by the surviving relatives,
male and female, who bear in a small package a portion of the hair, nails,
etc., of the deceased. When arrived at the secluded place which has been
prepared to receive the body they deposit it in its last resting-place. Over
this they erect a tomb, on which, in a sort of niche, are placed various
small earthen or hardware figures, plates, mugs, bottles, etc., together
with a variety of edibles; the receptacle prepared to receive these being
called quindumbila. After the ceremony, the survivor—husband or wife—is
carried from the grave on the back of a person of the same sex, and
thrown into the river for ablution or purification. On coming up out of the
river, the individual is conveyed back to his residence, where he is obliged
to remain secluded for eight days, during which time he must not
converse with any person of the opposite sex, nor eat anything that has
been boiled, nor wash himself during these days of obit. The friends,
meanwhile, enjoy a feast of fowls and other delicacies which has been
prepared for the occasion, after which they each make a present to the
mourner of something preparatory to the celebration of the great batuque,
or dance. If unable to provide for the expense of the funeral, some relative
or friend generally becomes security for its payment; this is called
“gungo.” After the eight days have elapsed the room is swept, and the
mourner is permitted to enjoy comfortable and warm food. On this
occasion the eldest child or heir (if any) is brought in and made to sit down
on a benza,—a small square seat made of bamboos. They then place
upon his head a caginga, or calotte, a kind of hat or cap made of palm
straw interwoven, and demand that all the papers belonging to the
deceased be produced, that they may learn what his will was in reference
to the disposal of his property, and whether he had given liberty to any of
his slaves. The nearest of kin is looked upon as the legitimate heir, and
accordingly takes possession of all the moveable property.”
Valdez, the African traveller, furnishes some curious examples of the
death and funeral ceremonials of the inhabitants of many remote Western
African towns. As for instance at Barrodo Beondo:
 “Attracted by a strange noise proceeding from the river, I went to
ascertain what it was. On arriving at the landing-place I learned that it
proceeded from a number of persons who formed an itame, or funeral
procession, of a Muxi Loanda who had just died. When any person dies
the mourners commence a great lamentation and manifest apparently the
most extravagant grief. The corpse is first wrapped in a number of cloths
with aromatics and perfumes; it is then conveyed to the place of
interment, followed by a large cortege of the relatives and friends of the
deceased, the females who accompany the funeral procession being
dressed in a long black cloak with a hood which covers the head.
“On the present occasion the Muxi Loanda not being a Christian was
buried in a place not far distant from the road, and the grave covered with
small stones, a paddle or oar being placed on it in commemoration of the
profession of the deceased. Many graves are thus marked by the
distinctive insignia of office of those interred in them.
“There is another singular custom amongst these people, that of one of
the survivors, the nearest of kin to the deceased, being obliged to lie in
the bed that was lately occupied by him for the space of three days from
the time of removal. During this period the mourning relatives make
lamentation at stated intervals each day—namely, at day-break, sunset,
and midnight. At the expiration of eight days the relatives and friends
reuniting, resume their lamentations and recount the virtues and good
deeds of the deceased, occasionally exclaiming ‘Uafu!’ (he is dead), all
present at the same time joining in a chorus and exclaiming ‘Ay-ú-é (woe
is me). At the expiration of the eighth day they go in solemn procession,
headed by the chief mourner, to the sea-side, river, or forest, whichever is
nearest, bearing the skull of the pig upon which they had feasted, and on
this occasion they suppose that the zumbi or soul of the deceased enters
eternal happiness. One month after death the relatives and friends again
assemble together and hold a great feast, at which they consume great
quantities of cachassa or rum, and which they terminate with that
lascivious dance the bateque.”
Among the Bulloms and the Timannees, we are informed by
Winterbottom, the chief solemnity and magnificence of their funerals
consists in the quantity of rum and tobacco expended upon the occasion,
which they call “making a cry.” Among the poorer sort this ceremony is
sometimes deferred for several months after the body is buried, until they
can procure a sufficient quantity of these indispensable articles to honour
the memory of the deceased. The funeral or “cry” of Mr. James Cleveland