CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

Rock bun, also called a rock cake, is a small cake with a rough surface resembling a rock. They

were promoted by the British Ministry of Food during the Second World War since they require

fewer eggs and less sugar than ordinary cakes, an important savings in a time of strict rationing

Lemm (2016). Rock bun can be prepared with different types of legumes or cereals depending on

the nutritional value demanded or the taste needed. Making rock buns from composite flour of

different legumes or cereals gives one a larger nutritional value and taste. For instance preparing

rock buns from blends of wheat, soybeans and sweet potato will give one all the nutritional

benefits attached to them individually in the proportion to which it is added.

In many celebrations and fast-food sectors, cakes are served as snacks (Kiin-Kabari and Banigo,

2015). There are a variety of cake recipes to choose from, each with its classification based on

ingredients and cooking methods (Eke et al., 2008). They are made by mixing margarine with

flour, beaten eggs, sugar, and baking powder (Kiin-Kabari and Banigo, 2015). Wheat (Triticuma

estivum) enhances the worldwide diet with more calories and proteins than other regularly

consumed grains (Kumar et al., 2011). Wheat grain contains a lot of nutrients, specifically

protein (Koehler and Wieser, 2013). Products such as semolina, bread, scones, noodles, and

other confectionery goods can all be prepared from it (Kumar et al., 2011; Sramkova et al.,

2009). Wheat is the cereal of choice for snack production; however, it cannot be produced in

tropical areas, including Ghana, due to climate conditions. As a result, in areas where wheat is

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scarce, people rely on imports or avoid it entirely in their diets to make baked goods (Holt et al.,

1992).

Snack foods have always been a significant part of modern life; they represent a distinct and

constantly widening and changing group of food items. Consumer appeal for ready-to-eat (RTE)

products is forecast to grow rapidly over the next 5 years as consumers demand convenient

snacks with exciting sensory and textural properties. Extrusion technology has been used

extensively in the production of cereal RTE snacks due to its ease of operation and ability to

produce a variety of textures and shapes which appeal to consumers.

Designing snack foods today can be a complex process to meet changing consumer’s taste and

expectation, for example, ‘good for your health,’ ‘rich source of protein,’ ‘offering a unique

flavour,’ and the elusive search for something unique that also appeals to a wide variety of

people. Most snack manufacturers use some form of existing technology as the basis for creating

snack products, but incorporate variations that increase the resulting snack’s health image appeal

by lowering fats and calories or adding nutrients.

Soybean is a leguminous vegetable of the pea family that grows in tropical, subtropical, and

temperate climates. It was domesticated in the 11th century BC around northeast of China. It is

believed to have been introduced to Africa in the 19th century by Chinese traders along the east

coast of Africa (IITA, 2015). The eastern half of North China in the eleventh century B.C. has

been traced to the first domestication of soybean. Islam et al. (2007) reported that soybean is one

of the most important oil and protein crops of the world of which Serrem et al. (2011) also stated

that it contains 30 to 45% protein with a good source of all indispensable amino acids. The

protein content of soybean is about 2 times of other pulses, 4 times of wheat, 6 times of rice

grain, 4 times of egg and 12 times of milk. Soybean has 3% lecithin, which is helpful for brain

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development. It is also rich in calcium, phosphorous and Vitamins A, B, C and D. It has been

referred to as “the protein hope of the future” (Islam et al., 2007)

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The growing concern about healthier lifestyle and healthy foods necessitated the food industries

to utilize the indigenous food to create new products. In essence, various processing technologies

have helped in transforming food ingredient into healthier products with maximum nutritional

value to ensure nutrient security of the population in developing countries. It was also observed

that composite flour is considered advantageous in developing countries as it reduces importation

of wheat flour and encourage the use of locally grown crops as flour.

1.3 Aims and Objectives

The aim of this study is to investigate the pasting properties and evaluate the nutritional

composition of rock buns produced from a composite flour blend of wheat, soya beans, and

sweet potatoes. The specific objectives of the study may include:

 To produce rock buns from the composite flour blend.

 To evaluate the nutritional composition of using promimate analytics method

 To evaluate the pasting properties of the composite flour blend.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The study was done to find out how well rock buns prepared with soy flour and sweet potato

instead of wheat flour or addition wheat, soy flour and sweet potato flour would keep in storage.

Due to the limitations of wheat agriculture, society must improve by using wheat grains in buns

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preparation. Poor buns snack preparation results from this. To increase snack quality and

quantity, there are numerous ways to do it. A snack's total nutritional content and protein quality

have been demonstrated to increase with the addition of oil and sweet potato seed flour.

Malnutrition and snack expenses could be reduced while soy bean usage could rise.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Wheat flour

Wheat is the most important stable food crop for more than one third of the world population and

contributes more calories and proteins to the world diet than any other cereal crops (Abd-El-

Haleem et al., 1998). It is nutritious, easy to store and transport and can be processed into

various types of food. Wheat is considered a good source of protein, minerals, B-group vitamins

and dietary fiber (Shewry, 2007) although the environmental conditions can affect nutritional

composition of wheat grains with its essential coating of bran, vitamins and minerals; it is an

excellent health-building food. Wheat flour is used to prepare bread, produce biscuits,

confectionary products, noodles and vital wheat gluten or seitan. Wheat is also used as animal

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feed, for ethanol production, brewing of wheat beer, wheat based raw material for cosmetics,

wheat protein in meat substitutes and to make wheat straw composites. Wheat germ and wheat

bran can be a good source of dietary fiber helping in the prevention and treatment of some

digestive disorders (Simmonds, 1989). The antioxidant activity and phytochemical content were

studied in milled grain of eleven varieties which included a range of red and white wheat and

durum wheat. Whole-wheat bread is good for health. There is no doubt that the adaptability and

high yields of wheat have contributed to its success, but these alone are not sufficient to account

for its current dominance over much of the temperate world. The key characteristic, which has

given it an advantage over other temperate crops, is the unique properties of dough formed from

wheat flours, which allow it to be processed into a range of breads and other baked products

(including cakes and biscuits), pasta and noodles, and other processed foods. These properties

depend on the structures and interactions of the grain storage proteins, which together form the

‘gluten’ protein fraction. Lutein is the predominant carotenoids present in wheat (Abdel-Aal et

al., 1993) and the bran/germ fractions of wheat contained greater amounts of carotenoids and

antioxidant activity than the endosperm fractions (Alan et al., 2000). Lutein, along with

zeaxanthin, is important for the health of skin and eyes in humans.

2.1.1 Nutritional Contents

Globally, there is no doubt that the number of people who rely on wheat for a substantial part of

their diet amounts to several billions. Therefore, the nutritional importance of wheat proteins

should not be underestimated, particularly in less developed countries where bread, noodles and

other products (e.g. Bulgar, couscous) may provide a substantial proportion of the diet. Wheat

provides nearly 55% of carbohydrate and 20% of the food calories. It contains carbohydrate

78.10%, protein 14.70%, fat 2.10%, minerals 2.10% and considerable proportions of vitamins

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(thiamine and vitamin-B) and minerals (zinc, iron). Wheat is also a good source of traces

minerals like selenium and magnesium, nutrients essential to good health (Adams et al., 2002).

Wheat grain precisely known as caryopsis consists of the pericarp or fruit and the true seed. In

the endosperm of the seed, about 72% of the protein is stored, which forms 8-15% of total

protein per grain weight. Wheat grains are also rich in pantothenic acid, riboflavin and some

minerals, sugars etc. The barn, which consists of pericarp test and aleurone, is also a dietary

source for fiber, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and niacin in small quantities

(Adams et al., 2002).

2.1.2 Types of Wheat Flours and their uses

2.1.2.1 All-Purpose Flour

All-purpose flour is the finely ground endosperm of the wheat kernel separated from the bran

and germ during the milling process. All-purpose flour is made from hard wheat or a

combination of soft and hard wheat from which the home baker can make a complete range of

satisfactory baked products such as yeast breads, cakes, cookies, pastries and noodles. Enriched

All Purpose Flour has iron and B-vitamins added in amounts equal to or exceeding that of whole-

wheat flour. Bleached Enriched All Purpose Flour is treated with chlorine to mature the flour,

condition the gluten and improve the baking quality. The chlorine evaporates and does not

destroy the nutrients but does reduce the risk of spoilage or contamination. Unbleached Enriched

All Purpose Flour is bleached by oxygen in the air during an aging process and is off-white in

color. Nutritionally, bleached and unbleached flour are the same (Alan et al., 2000).

2.1.2.2 Bread Flour

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Bread flour, from the endosperm of the wheat kernel, is milled primarily for commercial bakers

but is also available at retail outlets. Although similar to all-purpose flour, it has greater gluten

strength and generally is used for yeast breads.

2.1.2.3 Self-Raising Flour

Self-rising flour is all-purpose flour with salt and leavening added. One cup of self-rising flour

contains 11/2 teaspoons baking powder and 1/2 teaspoon salt. Self-rising flour can be substituted

for all-purpose flour in a recipe by reducing salt and baking powder according to those

proportions.

2.1.2.4 Whole Wheat Flour

Whole-wheat flour is a course-textured flour ground from the entire wheat kernel and thus

contains the bran, germ and endosperm. The presence of bran reduces gluten development.

Baked products made from whole-wheat flour tend to be heavier and denser than those made

from white flour are (Gebruers et al., 2008).

2.1.2.5 Other Flours

Cake Flour - Milled from soft wheat. Especially suitable for cakes, cookies, crackers and

pastries. Low in protein and gluten.

Pastry Flour - Milled from soft, low gluten wheat. Comparable in protein but lower in starch

than cake flour.

Gluten Flour - Used by bakers in combination with flours having a low protein content because

it improves the baking quality and produces gluten bread of high protein content.

Semolina - Coarsely ground endosperm of durum wheat. High in protein. Used in high quality

pasta products.

Durum Flour - By-product of semolina production. Used to make commercial U.S. noodles.

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Farina - Coarsely ground endosperm of hard wheat. Prime ingredient in many U.S. breakfast

cereals. Also used in the production of inexpensive pasta which has very low saturated fat; No

cholesterol; Very low in sodium; Very low in sugar; High in dietary fiber; Very high in

manganese and high in phosphorus (Gebruers et al., 2008).

2.1.3 Medicinal properties of wheat

2.1.3.1 Wheat Bran

Wheat bran is used as a supplemental source of dietary fiber for preventing colon diseases

(including cancer), preventing gastric cancer, treating Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS), reducing

the risk of hemorrhoids and hiatal hernia, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, reducing the risk

of breast cancer and gallbladder disease, and type 2 diabetes (Garvin et al., 2006). Wheat bran

helps constipation by speeding up the colon and increasing stool output and bowel frequency.

Wheat is an excellent source of iron and phosphorous. The outer layer of the barn provides fiber

that gives bulk and regulates the absorption and excretion of nutrients from the body.

2.1.3.2 Wheat Germ

The germ contains riboflavin, thiamine, vitamin E and trace minerals such as zinc, copper, iron

and magnesium. Wheat is the best nourishing food that can be easily given to patients and even

babies. Wheat has antibilious, antihydrotic, antipyretic, antivinous, sedative, skin and stomachic

properties. Wheat germ oil is a highly rich unrefined oil, richest sources of vitamin E, A and D. It

also has a high content of proteins and Lecithin. This oil is widely used for external application,

as it helps a great deal in getting rid of skin irritation including skin dryness and cracking. Wheat

germ oil is increasingly finding its way in the making of skin care products. The oil extracted

from wheat germ has a shelf life of near about 6-8 months. It is a good source of fatty acids that

are very vital for the healthy growth of the body. The germ forms only 3% of the weight of a

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wheat grain; nonetheless, contains about 25% of the protein, vitamins and minerals. Wheat germ

oil is known for its antioxidant properties and this explains the reason why it is added to other

carrier oils. When applied on the skin, it improves the circulation of blood and helps to repair the

skin cells destroyed by the scorching heat of sun. It keeps away the symptoms of dermatitis,

thereby preventing the skin from being victimized by various kinds of problems. Thick in

consistency, its independent use for massaging the body is not usually preferred. Since it has

exceptional nourishing qualities, it is used in lesser quantities for preparing the carrier oil blend

(Garvin et al., 2006).

2.1.3.3 Wheat Stem, Fruit and Seed

The young stems are used in the treatment of biliousness and intoxication. The ash is used to

remove skin blemishes. The fruit is antipyretic and sedative. The light grain is antihydrotic. It is

used in the treatment of night sweats and spontaneous sweating. The seed is said to contain sex

hormones and has been used in China to promote female fertility. The seed sprouts are

antibilious, antivinous and constructive. They are used in the treatment of malaise, sore throat,

thirst, abdominal coldness and spasmic pain, constipation and cough. The plant has anticancer

properties also (Drankham et al., 2003).

2.1.4 Therapeutic effect of wheat flour

2.1.4.1. Internal Rejuvenation

Wheat protein, which comprises up to eight per cent of the grain, has a special benefit as it has

eight of the essential amino acids in delicately balanced proportions. A complete internal

rejuvenation takes place when Wheat protein is metabolized into health-building amino acids.

These amino acids build a resilient muscle that comes back to its original form after stretching

and bending, healthy skin and hair and clearer eyesight and nourish the heart and lungs, tendons

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and ligaments, brain, nervous system and glandular network. The B-complex vitamins,

especially thiamin, riboflavin and niacin offered by natural brown Wheat promote youthful

energy and nourishment to skin and blood vessels. An abundance of minerals in natural brown

Wheat help to nourish the hormonal system, heal wounds and regulate blood pressure. Wheat

also offers iron to enrich the bloodstream and phosphorus and potassium to maintain internal

water balance along with other nutrients. Wheat thus helps restore internal harmony (Alvarez et

al., 2000).

2.1.4.2 Tooth Disorders

Wheat is valuable in the prevention and cure of pyorrhea. It takes time to eat wheat and as it is

generally taken with other foods, it compels the chewing of other foods also. This not only

provides the needed exercise for the teeth and gum but also a great aid to digestion. Wheat grass

juice acts as an excellent mouth wash for sore throats and pyorrhea. It also prevents tooth decay

and tooth aches. Therefore, it is beneficial to chew wheat grass which draws out toxins from the

gums and thus checks bacterial growth.

2.1.4.3 Constipation

The bran of wheat, which is generally discarded in milling of the flour, is more wholesome and

nourishing than the flour itself. It is an excellent laxative. The laxative effects of bran are much

superior to those of fruits or green vegetables as cellulose of the latter is more easily broken

down by bacteria while passing through the intestine. The bran is highly beneficial in the

prevention and treatment of constipation due to its concentration of cellulose which forms a

bulk-mass in the intestines and helps easy evacuation due to increased peristalsis (Hvatum et al.,

2006).

2.1.4.4 Skin Diseases

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It has been scientifically proved that chlorophyll arrests growth and development of harmful

bacteria. Wheat grass therapy can be effectively used for skin diseases and ulcerated wounds as

by retarding bacterial action, it promotes cell activity and normal re growth. By drinking wheat

grass juice regularly, an unfavorable environment is created for bacterial growth. Poultice of

wheat grass juice can be applied on the infected area, as it is an able sterilizer. Externally, wheat

flour is useful as a dusting powder over inflamed surface as in burns, scalds and various itching

and burning eruptions, Whole wheat flour, mixed with vinegar, boiled and applied outwardly

removes freckles (Jacobs et al., 1998).

2.1.4.5 Digestive System Disorders

Wheat grass juice used as an enema helps detoxify the walls of the colon. The general procedure

is to give an enema with lukewarm or Neem water. After waiting for 20 minutes, 90 to 120 ml of

wheat grass juice enema is given. This should be retained for 15 minutes. This enema is very

helpful in disorders of the colon, mucous and ulcerative colitis, chronic constipation and

bleeding piles (Hvatum et al., 2006).

2.1.4.6 Circulatory Disorders

The chlorophyll content present in wheat enhances heart and lung functions. Capillary activity

also increases while toxemia or blood poisoning is reduced. Due to increased Iron content in the

blood and hemoglobin, lungs function better. Oxygenation improves and the effect of carbon

dioxide is minimized. It is for this reason that wheat grass juice is prescribed for circulatory

disorders (Jacobs et al., 1998).

2.2 Sweet Potatoes

Sweet potato is cultivated and utilized extensively in Asia and Southeast Asian countries,

although processed products are more common in countries like Indonesia, Philippines,

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Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam. The tubers are eaten after boiling or baking and increase in

sugars during these processes makes the tubers sweet after cooking. The ‘dry’ type of tubers will

be dry and firm but mealy after cooking, while the ‘moist’ type will be soft and watery as well as

sticky after cooking (Rao et al., 1974)

Sweet potato contains water soluble pectin, which enables its use in making jams and jellies. Due

to the high starch content of sweet potato, compared to fruits, the jam has a slightly different

consistency (Truong1987). Differently colored and flavoured jams were prepared in the

Philippines using white, orange or purple fleshed sweet potato with fruits like orange, guava,

pineapple, mango, etc. Jams from sweet potato have been prepared in India (Padmaja and

Premkumar, 2002) and Bangladesh (Chaudhury, 1992). The orange fleshed variety‘ Kamala

Sundari’ was used for making jam with either sugar or molasses (Chaudhury, 1992). It was

found that the high starch sweet potato varieties could be in corporate only up to 60% (Padmaja

and Premkumar, 2002).

2.4.1 Food products of Sweet Potatoes

2.4.1.1 Sweet Potatoes Flakes

A procedure for the production of sweet potato flakes was first described by Taubenhaus (1923),

consisting of washing, cooking, mashing and drying on steam heated drum dryers. The process

underwent several steps for refining the technology and a much advanced process is now

available. The dehydrated flakes can be reconstituted to mashed sweet potato or incorporated

into various food products like pastries, cakes, bread, biscuits, etc. Hoover (1966) reported that

the ratio of soluble to the insoluble solids in sweet potato pure decided the final quality of the

flakes produced. The high content of soluble solids in the sweet potato flakes resulted in low

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water requirement to rehydrate the flakes. Further, the flavour also improved with increase in the

proportion of enzyme treated pure in the mash. The earlier process was further modified for pure

preparation using added alpha-amylases to partially hydrolyse the starch and increase the soluble

solids content of puree. The hydrolyzed pure was then added to the control pure and subjected to

drum drying. Spadaro and Patton (1961) observed that the quality of dehydrated sweet potato

flakes depended on the variety of sweet potato and for each variety, the process parameters have

to be optimized. The procedure was subsequently modified by adding amylase and/or sucrose

after cooking and pureeing, leading to a more acceptable product. Curing of tubers and storage

were reported to affect the amount of amylase required to produce acceptable flakes (Bertoniere

et al., 1966). The extraneous addition of alpha-amylases further eliminated by activating the

endogenous amylases during processing (Hoover, 1967). The process consists of heating the

puree almost instantaneously by steam injection to 160-185°F. The pre-heating helped to activate

the endogenous amylases in sweet potato and a holding period of 2-6min was sufficient to

achieve the required conversion of starch to sugars. The partially cooked puree is then passed

through a second steam injector, where high temperature in activation of the amylases is

achieved at 200°F. The treated puree was then drum dried to form dehydrated flakes. The

modified process enables the use of freshly harvested and/or high starch cultivars also for the

production of flakes with acceptable quality

2.4.1.2 Frozen Sweet Potatoes

Low temperature storage of sweet potato is practiced in developed countries only, as the cost is

prohibitive for adoption. Sweet potatoes are frozen as whole roots or sliced cubes, pieces or as

pastes. The roots are often blanched in water or with steam at 10psi pressure (116°C) to

inactivate the enzymes associated with browning, off flavor development, etc. Steam blanching

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was reported as the best method, as it does not lead to a soggy product (Woodroof and Atkinson,

1944). The slices/cubes are packed in plastic bags and blast frozen at 40°C. The washed roots are

sometimes steamed, crushed, mixed with 35% sugar (w/w) and filled to plastic bags under

pressure before blast freezing at-40°C. Frozen sweet potato products are widely popular in Japan

(Woolfe, 1992).

2.4.1.3 Fried Sweet Potatoes Products

Sweet potato roots are transformed into more stable edible products like fried chips, crisps,

French fries etc., which are very popular in Japan, USA, China, Netherlands, and Peru etc. The

roots are peeled, sliced into thin chips and deep fat fried to obtain fried chips. Discoloration

during frying at high temperature due to Maillard reaction is very common with cultivars having

high amino acid and sugar contents. Sugar coated fried chips are popular in Japan, while salted

or spicy chips are preferred in Papua New Guinea, Bangladesh and Peru. The quality is improved

through treatments like blanching for 2min at 93°C in boiling water or a solution of sodium acid

pyrophosphate (0.5-0.75% w/w) or diffusion extraction of sugars to eliminate the problem of

browning, etc. Picha (1986) reported that the glucose and fructose content of the sweet potato

slices determined the extent of browning of fried chips, rather than the sucrose content.

2.4.1.4 Dehydrated Chips and Flour

Sweet potato roots are dehydrated to enhance the shelf life of stored roots. The chips are further

powdered to flour and used for making many snack foods. The roots are either peeled or

unpeeled and sliced for drying. Discolouration of dried chips is a problem with certain cultivars

having high activity of polyphenol oxidases and higher levels of phenols. Walter and Purcell

(1980) found that the browning tendency of sweet potato was correlated only with the phenolic

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content, while others found that PPO activity was also correlated with browning potential of

sweet potato (Scott and Kattan, 1957). Walter et al., (1979) found that the principal phenolics

of sweet potato viz., chlorogenic acid and its isomers were effectively oxidized by sweet potato

PPO, resulting in browning in the processed product. Extensive drying of sweet potato is

practiced in China to produce dried chips for its further use in starch, noodle and alcohol

factories. Damp weather and prolonged drying periods can cause microbial contamination of the

chips.

2.4.2 Application of Sweet Potatoes

2.4.2.1 Noodles and other extruded foods

Sweet potato is processed into noodles in many countries of the Far East viz., China, Japan,

Taiwan and Korea. A major part of sweet potato starch produced in China and Korea is utilized

for the production of noodles (Hong, 1982). There are many home scale and cottage level

processing units in China, which make traditional noodles from sweet potato starch. The process

consists in gelatinizing sweet potato starch slurry in a big vessel at 80°C, treating with sulphate

to prevent discoloration and mixing with native dry sweet potato starch (5%) to form a dough.

The dough is then filled to long cylindrical column (30cm×40cm) and pressed to extrude the

dough into strings into hot water. This is then separated manually to prevent adhesion. The

strings are then suddenly put to cold water, when the outside hardens and stickiness is reduced.

The noodles are then dried slowly so that both inside and outside get dry (Wiersema et al,. 1989).

In the Korean method, sweet potato starch is used to replace part of the wheat flour. The noodles

are made from sweet potato starch, wheat flour and salt. Steam cooking of wet sweet potato

starch, over boiling water is adopted in Vietnam. The extruded starch is then dried in bamboo

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racks and semi dried material is cut into strips. Noodles are often dark coloured due to phenol

oxidation, which limits its marketability.

2.4.2.2 Sugar Syrups

Both glucose syrup and HFS are commercially made from sweet potato starch in China

(Wiersema et al., 1989). Sweet potato starch is converted to glucose syrup or high fructose syrup

for use in confectionery industries, pharmaceutical applications, etc. Microbial enzymes with

high conversion efficiency are available to effect the liquefaction and saccharification reactions,

which have advantages of the earlier acid linked hydrolysis. The optimum temperature for

liquefaction using liquezyme X was standardized as 90°C for 1h. Viscosity profile analysis

during liquefaction of sweet potato starch indicated that small amount of liquezyme X

(6.0mg100ml-1slurry) could bring down the viscosity of a suspension (1:10 w/v) from 3653cP to

972cP. Approximately 96% conversion of sweet potato starch to glucose could be obtained with

48h of action by the saccharifying enzyme, Dextrozyme X on liquefied sweet potato starch

slurry. Glucose isomerase (Sweetzyme T) could then convert glucose to HFS at 80ºC and pH 7.0

(Regy Johnson et al., 2011).

2.4.2.3 Commodity Chemicals from Starch

Sweet potato starch is commercially utilized for the production of a number of commodity

chemicals like citric acid, monosodium glutamate, microbial enzymes etc. which are used in the

food industry. Most of these are produced on small scale in China and Japan where sweet potato

starch is industrially produced. The starch is first converted to sugars and fermented to citric acid

by Aspergillus niger (Wiersema et al., 1989). Monosodium glutamate, a flavour enhancer for

various foods is manufactured from sweet potato starch in China. Sweet potato starch is first

16
hydrolysed using enzymes to glucose, which is then converted by Brevi bacterium glutamicus to

glutamic acid. Monosodium glutamate is produced using alkali treatment of glutamic acid

(Wiersema et al., 1989).

2.5 Soybeans

Soybeans (Glycine max) belonging to the family leguminosae constitute one of the oldest

cultivated crops of the tropics and sub-tropical regions, and one of the world’s most important

sources of protein and oil. Soybeans are probably the most important oil seed legume which has

its origin in Eastern Asia, mainly China. The cultivar Glycine max is thought to be derived from

Glycine ussuriensis and Glycine tomentosa which grow wild in China, and can be found in great

quantities in Asian countries such as Japan and Indonesia (Onwueme and Sinha, 1999).

The seeds vary in shape and colour depending on the cultivar. In shape, they can be spherical to

flatten while the colour varies from white, yellow and brown to black. Also, the chemical

composition of each variety of soybeans differs from each other. Due to the long and tedious

processing technique of soybeans, Japan which is one of the largest suppliers of soybean has

developed highly advanced processing technologies in the processing and manufacturing of

highly acceptable and palatable soya products (NSRL, 2002). As a result of high protein content

in soybean, it can be used as a substitute for expensive meat and meat products (Charles and

Guy, 1999).

2.5.1 Nutritional content of soybean

Soybean (Glycine max) first emerged as a domesticated crop in the eastern half of North China

around the 11th century B.C of Zhou Dynasty. It is easy to grow and has adaptability to a wide

range of soils and climate. Because it contains high amount of protein and oil, the soybean was

considered one of the five sacred grains along with rice, wheat, barley and millet (Ang et al.,

17
1999). The protein and oil component of soybean are not only high in terms of quantity but also

in quality. For instance, soy oil has a highest proportion of unsaturated fatty acids such as

linoleic and linolenic acid making it a healthy oil to use. Soybeans are known to be typical of

such crops that contain all three of the macro-nutrients required particularly for human nutrition.

They also contain protein which provides all the essential amino acids in the amounts needed for

human health. Most of the essential amino acid present in soybean is available in an amount that

is close to those required by animals and humans. The protein – digestibility – correlated amino

acid score is close to 1, a rating that is the same for animal proteins such as an egg white and

casein. Additionally, soybean contains phytochemicals which have been shown to offer unique

health benefit. Soybean also has versatile end uses which include human food, animal feed and

industrial materials (Liu, 2000).

2.5.2 Utilization of soybeans

Soybean can be processed to give soy milk, a valuable protein supplement in infant feeding,

soycurds and cheese (Tunde-Akintunde, 2000). It is also used to produce soysauce used

extensively in cooking and as a sauce. Soybeans are also used for making candies and ice cream

and soybean flour which could be mixed with wheat flour to produce a wide variety of baked

goods such as bread and biscuits (Onwueme and Sinha, 1999). Soybean oil is used for edible

purposes, particularly as a cooking, and salad oil and, for manufacture of margarine (Onwueme

and Sinha, 1999). The oil can also be used industrially in the processing of paints, soap, oil, cloth

and printing inks. The meal and soybean proteins are used in the manufacture of synthetic fibre

(artificial wool) adhesives and textile (NSRL, 2002). Soybeans could be made into such products

as tempeh, miso and natto which may include other sub-products (Onwueme and Sinha, 1999).

Soybean protein fibre has been reportedly produced from bean dregs that are produced when

18
extracting oil (NSRL, 2002). From these, globular protein is extracted, made into a spinning

solution of a consistent concentration with the addition of a functional auxiliary and spun int o

yarn by the wet method (Senshoku, 2002). Effect of fermentation on soybean has the tendency of

altering the features of the arising dregs when oil is so extracted from soybean. This thus has

tendency of either skewing up or otherwise the various arrays of benefits known to accrue from

the development of soybean fiber blends with other fibers (Senshoku, 2002). (FFTC, 2002), has

also reported on the chemical composition and total digestible nutrients (TDN) of fermented

soybean paste residue. This is usually exploited for the utilization of such residues in livestock

rations. Furthermore, (Jong-kyu et al., 1996) had suggested the likelihood of the use of

fermented soybean paste residue for livestock feed in the near future as a form of turning waste

to wealth and thus serving as anchor for many other accruing benefits.

2.6 Snacks

Whether snacking is initiated because of hunger, regular eating patterns, or other psychological

or physiologic cues may be predicative of its effect on weight (Ma, 2003). The health impact of

eating frequency may depend on how an individual defines an eating occasion (a snack

compared with a meal) as well as their motivation to eat, food choice, age, sex, and

socioeconomic group (Ng et al., 2011).

2.6.1 Snacks as beverages

Food preferences for snacks are similar in several areas of the world. In the United States, “salty

snacks, desserts, candy, and sweetened beverages” are popular snack choices (Wang et al.,

2012), and salty snacks have become especially popular since 1977 (Piernas and Popkin, 2010).

In 2006, salty snacks including chips and nuts comprised 14.3% of total snacks consumed

19
(Piernas and Popkin, 2010). Salty snacks, including crackers, popcorn, and pretzels, are also

popular among Canadian youth (Mercille et al., 2010). From 1977 to 2006, the preference for

sweet snacks in the United States decreased overall, but in 2006 desserts still comprised 19.6%

of snacks (Piernas and Popkin, 2010). Milk/dairy and fruit/juices have also become less popular

snacks in the United States as well (Piernas and Popkin, 2010). Yet, although fruit and sweet

have declined slightly as snack selections in the United States, they are very popular snacks in

Mexico, Brazil, China, Oman, and France (Musaiger, 1994). Fruit is the most common snack

food in Mexico (Duffey et al., 2014), and one of the most popular snack items in Brazil (Duffey

et al., 2013). Other popular snack items in Brazil are other sweets, desserts, and “salgados

(fried/baked dough with meat/cheese/vegetable)” (Duffey et al., 2013). Similarly, among Greek

adults, 2 of the most popular snack items are desserts (chocolates, cakes, and ice cream) and

savory pies (Elena and Maria, 2006). In China, both fruit and grain-based foods are popular

snacks (Wang et al., 2012). Snacks in France also tend to include sugary grain-based foods,

including “sweets, cereal bars, [and] biscuits” (Bellisle et al., 2013), and Canadian children tend

to also choose sweet grain-based products (Mercille et al., 2010). In Finland, however, the same

foods are consumed at snacks and meals (Ovaskainen et al., 2010). With the exception of fruit,

many of these snacks fit the profile of “snack foods” and are relatively nutrient-poor and energy-

dense. Therefore, on the basis of cross-sectional data, the choice of foods eaten for snacks is an

area of concern for public health.

The increased consumption of caloric beverages as snacks also merits concern, because

sweetened beverages provide energy and few, if any, other nutrients. In the United States, the

energy density of beverages consumed as snacks has been increasing since 1977 (Piernas and

Popkin, 2010). From 1977 to 2006, the “percentage of snacks that consisted of beverages only”

20
increased by 4%, and beverages now comprise; 100 kcal/d in the diets of American adults

(Popkin and Duffey, 2010). Beverages to better fulfill nutrient insufficiencies and avoid

nutritional excesses. Information from several countries will be addressed, but due to the

authors’ language proficiencies, data for part II were limited to countries for which government

issued dietary guidelines were available in English or French and at least 1 study on snacking

habits was available in English. Language presents an important limitation to this worldview of

snacking, because it is not possible to know whether data on other countries are missing due to

language barriers or a lack of data. In addition, the data discussed in this section are limited by

the study populations assessed. Nationwide survey data on snacking patterns were not available

for all countries and therefore some information used in this section relies on data from small,

homogenous populations.

2.6.2 Health benefits of snacks

The only consistent link between snacking and a health outcome appears to be its association

with improved cardiovascular health markers, including lipid profile (cholesterol and TG

concentrations) and blood pressure (Smith et al., 2012). Frequent eating may improve lipid

profiles and decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease (Smith et al., 2012). A review article

assessing the effects of feasting (1 large meal daily) compared with “nibbling” (Elena and Maria,

2006, small meals daily) found that the “nibbling” pattern was associated with lower total- and

LDL cholesterol concentrations and blood pressure (Bhutani and Varady, 2009). An additional

study found that more frequent meal consumption (>1–2 meals/d) resulted in lower total and

LDL cholesterol (Edelstein et al., 1992). Although the results of this review and study assess a

pattern of “frequent eating” rather than “snacking,” they both suggest that consuming food more

21
often throughout the day, an eating pattern that could be due to snacking, improves lipid

concentrations and blood pressure.

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

The Wheat, soybeans and sweet potato snack were made from the following materials: flour

milling machine, mechanical sieve, oven, desiccators, centrifuge, weighing balance, Rapid Visco

Analyzer (RVA), stirrer, knife, water, pipettes crucibles, bowls, napkin, Wheat, Soybeans, and

vegetable oil. The ingredients were obtained from Lapai central market, Lapai, Niger State.

3.2 Preparation of samples

3.2.1 Preparation of Whole Wheat Flour

The whole wheat grains were sundried for 24 hours after being sorted, cleaned and washed. The

dried grain was ground with a hammer mill into fine flour and sieved using a 2mm sieve before

being cooled.

22
3.2.2 Preparation of Soybeans Flour

The Soybeans were sundried for 24 hours after being sorted, cleaned and washed. The dried

grain was ground with a hammer mill into fine flour and sieved using a 2mm sieve before being

cooled.

3.2.3 Sample Formulation

The wheat and soybeans were blended in different ratio. The ratios are as follows:

3.1 Formulation table

Sample Wheat flour SoyBeans flour Sweet Potato flour

A 100% 0% 0%

B 70% 20% 10%

C 60% 20% 20%

D 50% 30% 20%

23
Wheat grains sweet potato Soybeans grains

Sorting and cleaning sorting/washing Sorting/cleaning

Washing peeling Blanching

Washing

Sun drying (24 hours) slicing Sun drying (24hours)

Blanching

Milling draining Milling

Sieving drying Sieving

Cooling milling Cooling

Wheat flour sieving Soybeans flour

Sweet potato flour Composite flour

Mixing water

Molding

Baking

Cooling

24
 Packaging

Fig. 3.3: Flow-chart for the production of rock buns.

Proximate composition of wheat, Soybean and Sweet potatoes rock buns

AOAC (2007)was used to determine the proximate analyses of the fortified rock cake samples

and the control sample. Moisture, ash, fat, crude fiber, crude protein and carbohydrate (by

differential) was calculated.

3.5 Proximate analysis

3.5.1. Moisture Content

Moisture content of the buns was used to determined using the procedure described by AOAC

(2000). 2g of sample was heated for 3h at 100oc to constant weight (AOAC, 2000).

3.5.2. Crude Protein

Protein was used to determined using the micro-Kjeldahl method AOAC (2000). Mecuric sulfate

and 250ml of H2SO4 was added to the dried sample. The mixture was use heated at 450oC for 30

min in a digester until a clear solution is produced. The tube was placed in the Kjeldahl

distillation apparatus and 10 of 0.5% w/v NaOH will be added. The ammonia in the sample was

steam-distilled for 5min into a receiving flash containing 5% boric acid. The sample w as

titrated with 0.1% v/v HCL solution.

The concentration of protein in the digested sample was used to determined spectro

photometrically and calculated as

% crude protein 
titre of sample - blank   0.01  14.007  6.25  100
10  weight of sample

25
3.5.3. Crude Fat

This was carried out using the standard method of AOAC (2000).

3.5.4. Crude Fibre and Ash Content

Determination of the crude fibre and the ash content in the rock buns samples was carried out

using the standard methods described by AOAC (2000).

3.5.5. Carbohydrate

Carbohydrate was determined using estimation by difference AOAC (2000). The crude fibre,

crude protein, and the fat content was subtracted from organic matter; the remainder accounted

for carbohydrates:

% carbohydrate = 100 − protein (%) + fat (%) + ash (%) .

3.6 Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses was used to performed using the SPSS (version 20). Difference in proximate

composition and sensory scores was detected using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). A

significance level of (𝑃< 0.05) was used for the study.

3.7 Determination of Pasting Properties

This would be determine according to the method described by Efuribe et al. (2018) with a

Rapid Visco Analyzer (Tecmaster Perten N103802 Australia). Exactly 3.5 g of the samples

would be weighed into the test canister. Then 25 mL of distilled water was used to dispensed

into the canister containing the sample. The solution will thoroughly be mixed and the canister

well fitted into the RVA as recommended. The slurry would be heated from 50 to 95°C with a

holding time of 2 min followed by cooling to 50°C with 2 min holding time. The rate of heating

and cooling is at constant rate of 11.25°C/min. Peak, trough, breakdown, final, and setback

26
viscosities, peak time and pasting temperature would be read from the pasting profile with the

aid of Thermocline for Windows Software connected to a computer

3.8 Evaluation of Sensory Attributes

Sensory evaluation wias use to performed 24 hours after baking to evaluate loaf color, crust,

aroma, crumb texture, taste, and overall acceptability of the bread sample. A panel of ten judges

(using a questionnaire) of regular bread consumers using the Hedonic scale product will be set

up. The panel was set up in three sets (to obtain three replicates) and the sensory scores was

analyzed statistically.

CHAPTER FOUR

Results and Discussion

Table 1: Pasting properties

27
 Samples Peak Trough Breakdown Final Set Peak Pasting

viscosity back time temperatutre

A 1916.50 970.50±3. 946.00±25.46a 2186.50± 1216.±2 6.00±0. 88.78±0.04a

±21.92a 54a 23.33a 6.87a 00

B 759.50± 324.50±4. 440.00±2.83b 670.00±1 345.50± 5.13±0. 86.88±1.87a

14.85b 95b 4.14b 9.19b 00

C 646.50± 271.50±2. 375.00±15.56c 542.50±2. 271.00± 5.00±0. 83.08±0.04b

13.44c 12c 12c 4.24c 00

D 410.00± 197.00±1. 213.00±1.41d 386.00±4. 189.00± 4.80±0. 83.13±0.04b

2.83d 41d 24d 0.00d 00

Mean with the same superscript in the same column are not significantly different at (p<0.05). Sample
A= wheat flour (100%), Sample B= wheat flour (70%), soybeans flour (20%) and sweet potatoes flour
(10%) flour, Sample C= wheat flour (60%), soybeans flour (20%), sweet potatoes flour (20%), Sample
D= wheat flour (50%), soybeans flour (30%), sweet potatoes flour (20%).

The pasting properties of the flour blends

Peak viscosity

The pasting properties of the flour blends are shown in Table 1. The peak viscosity ranged from

1916.50 – 410.00 in which sample C and D (60% Wheat, 20% soybeans and 20% sweet potato:

50% wheat, 30% Soybean and 20% sweet potato flour) had the lowest value (646.50 and 410.00)

while sample A (100% wheat flour) had the highest peak viscosity followed by sample B (70%

wheat, 20% soybeans and 10% sweet potato flour). High peak viscosity is an index of high starch

content. This explains why sample A (100% wheat flour) and sample B (70% wheat, 20% soy

bean and 10% sweet potato flour) had the highest value indicating high starch content as

28
compared to the other blends. However, inclusion of soybean bean flour and sweet potato flours

at different percentages significantly from samples B (70% Wheat, 20% Soybean and 10% Sweet

potato flour) to sample D (50% Wheat, 30% Soybean and 20% Sweet potato flour) decreased the

peak viscosity. The relatively low peak is the ability of starch to swell freely before physical

breakdown (Sanni et al., 2004). The decrease in viscosity could be due to the high fat content.

This result is in agreement with Eke et al. (2018) on functional and pasting properties of Acha,

defatted soybean and groundnut flour blends.

Trough viscosity

The table revealed that there is significant difference in the trough viscosity which ranged from

sample 197.00 – 970.50 accordingly where sample D (50% Wheat, 30% Soybean and 20%

Sweet potato flour) had the lowest while sample A (100% Wheat flour) had the highest. Trough

viscosity also known as hold period is the point at which viscosity reaches its minimum during

either heating or cooling process. The result indicated a decrease in value with an increase in

addition of soybean and sweet potato flour. The values obtained were higher than values (39.60-

59.19 RVU) reported for wheat and walnut by ofia-olua (2014) but they are in agreement with

Kiin-kabari (2015) on functional and pasting properties of wheat and plantain flours enriched

with bambara groundnut protein concentrate.

Breakdown viscosity

Breakdown viscosity which is the difference between peak viscosity and trough viscosity ranged

from 213.00 – 946.00 of which sample A (100% Wheat flour) had the highest followed by

sample b (70% wheat, 20% soybeans and 10% sweet potato flour) while sample D (50% Wheat,

30% Soybean and 20% Sweet potato flour) had the lowest value. The higher the breakdown

viscosity, the lower the ability of starch in the flour samples to withstand heating and shear stress

29
while lower breakdown value indicates that the starch in question possess cross-linking

properties (Chinma et al., 2010). The table showed that there was significant difference (p≥0.05)

in the flour blends.

Final viscosity

Final viscosity ranged from 386.00 to 2186.50 accordingly where sample D (50% Wheat, 30%

Soybean and 20% Sweet potato flour) had the lowest value compare to other samples while

sample A (100% wheat flour) had the highest value. There were no stability in decrease and

increase of values as inclusion of soybean and sweet potato flours decreased. There were

significant differences (p≥ 0.05) among the samples. The final viscosity is the most commonly

used parameters to determine a particular starch-based sample quality. It gives an idea of the

ability of a material to gel after cooking. Final viscosities are important in determining the ability

of flour to form gel during processing (Liang and King, 2003). The values obtained were above

the range reported by Ofia-olua (2014) for wheat and walnut blends (95.51-252 ) RVU.

Set back

Set back viscosity indicate the stability of starch to paste during low temperature storage, it

ranged accordingly from sample D-A (189.00 – 1216.00) having sample D (50% Wheat, 30%

soybean and 20% sweet potato flour) obtaining the least value while A (100% wheat flour)

obtained the highest value. Adebowale et al. (2005) reported that high set back value is an

indication of the propensity of starch molecules to disperse in hot paste and re-associate readily

during cooling. Setback viscosity values are reported to correlate with ability of starches to gel

into semi solid pastes. This result is slightly higher than that reported by Eke et al. (2018) this

could be due to the individual flours used.

30
Peak time

The Peak time results ranged from 4.80 to 6.00 min where sample A (100% Wheat flour)

obtained the highest value and sample D (50% Wheat, 30% Soybean and 20% Sweet potato

flour) obtained the lowest value while in sample B and C there is no significant difference

(p<0.05) in which both of the samples contain almost similar value (5.13 – 5.00). The pasting

temperature of the flour blends ranged from 83.08 to 88.78oC. Sample C (60% Wheat, 20%

Soybean and 20% Sweet potato flour) obtained the lowest value while sample A (100% Wheat

flour) obtained the highest. This result indicates decreased in peak time and pasting temperature

as addition of soybean and sweet potato flour increased except for sample D and C which

obviously decreased. Peak time is a measure of the cooking time while pasting temperature is the

temperature at which viscosity starts to raise (Eke et al., 2018). Since pasting temperature is a

measure of the minimum temperature required to cook a given food sample, flour blends with

higher pasting temperature may not be recommended for certain product due to high cost of

energy. The values obtained from this study are in agreement with (Eke et al., 2018).

Table 2: Sensory properties

Samples Colour Texture Taste Aroma Overall

A 8.60±0.51a 8.30±1.06a 8.60±0.97a 8.40±0.84a 8.90±0.32a

B 7.50±1.18ab 7.60±0.99ab 8.40±0.84a 7.70±0.95ab 8.10±0.88ab

C 6.40±1.84b 6.70±1.42b 6.00±1.56b 7.50±0.71ab 7.30±0.95b

D 7.00±1.77b 6.90±0.74b 6.60±1.65b 7.10±1.97b 7.20±1.69b

Mean with the same superscript in the same column are not significantly different at (p<0.05). Sample
A= wheat flour (100%), Sample B= wheat flour (70%), soybeans flour (20%) and sweet potatoes flour

31
(10%) flour, Sample C= wheat flour (60%), soybeans flour (20%), sweet potatoes flour (20%), Sample
D= wheat flour (50%), soybeans flour (30%), sweet potatoes flour (20%).

Sensory evaluation of Rock buns.

The detailed results of the sensory evaluation of the wheat, soyabean and sweet potatoes rock

buns are shown in Table 2. The attributes of the buns evaluated were taste, color, texture, aroma,

and overall acceptability of the rock cakes prepared from different blends of wheat seed,

soybeans and sweet potatoes flour and most preferred by the 30 untrained panelists of sensory

assessors.

In colour attribute, food appearance is mostly determine by surface color which is the first

sensation that the consumer perceives and uses as a tool to either accept or reject food. sample A

(100% wheat flour) scored highest in all the attributes evaluated, and they were all above 8.0 on

a 9-point Hedonic scale. sample C (60% wheat, 20% soybeans and 20% sweet potato flour) had

the lowest value (6.40). While There is no signifant difference (p<0.05) between sample B (70%

wheat, 20% soybean and 10% sweet potato flour) and sample D (50% wheat, 30% soybeans and

20% sweet potato flour).

Texture is a sensory and functional manifestation of the structural, mechanical and surface

properties of foods detected through the senses of vision, hearing, touch and kinesthetics by

Szczesniak (2002). The result showed that sample A had the highest value of (8.30) followed by

sample sample B. Also there is no significant difference (p<0.05) between sample C and D. The

texture values decreases accordingly which might be due to the addition of both soybean and

sweet potato flour. The highest percent of soybean added is (30%) which also had the lowest

value.

32
The taste results ranges from (6.09 - 8.60) with sample A (100% wheat flour) had the highest

value without a signifant difference (p<0.95) compare to sample B (70% wheat, 20% soybeans

and 10% sweet potato flour) which had a value of (8.40). Sample D had the least value while

sample C had the lowest value compare to other samples. The highest value of sample A indicate

that Rock buns produced from (100% wheat flour) is more palatible to consumer compared with

the other samples.

In Aroma, the result revealed that sample A (100% wheat flour) had the highest value while

sample D (50% wheat, 30% soybean and 20% sweet potato flour) had the lowest value among

the samples. There is no significant difference (p<0.05) between sample B, C and D. Overall

acceptability is the process of using our senses (taste, smell, touch, sight) and applying them to

determine the acceptability of foods. Simply, it is used in assessing the food to make sure that it

looks, smells, and tastes delicious. This shows that sample A (100% wheat flour) had the highest

value which indicates that buns produce from wheat flour is more accepted compare to the ones

produced from different variety of flour.

Table 3. Proximate composition

33
 Samples Moisture Ash (%) Fibre Fat Protein CHO Energy

(%) Value

A 7.50±3.21 4.01±0.66 1.55±0 10.55±1 1.75±0.8 74.64±3.4 400.51±1

d d
.24d .84c 3c 5a 0.97b

B 8.09±2.04 4.99±0.31 2.08±2 13.68±3 2.88±0.9 68.28±3.4 407.71±2

c c
.03c .51b 6ab 6b 1.88a

C 17.55±1.5 6.53±0.22 3.55±0 15.09±5 2.99±0.6 54.29±1.8 364.93±1

3a a
.52b .88ab 4a 8d 2.90d

D 13.62±2.3 5.88±0.85 5.11±1 16.11±3 2.51±1.5 56.79±2.3 382.19±1

1b b
.61a .32a 5b 3c 9.82c

Mean with the same superscript in the same column are not significantly different at (p<0.05). Sample
A= wheat flour (100%), Sample B= wheat flour (70%), soybeans flour (20%) and sweet potatoes flour
(10%) flour, Sample C= wheat flour (60%), soybeans flour (20%), sweet potatoes flour (20%), Sample
D= wheat flour (50%), soybeans flour (30%), sweet potatoes flour (20%).

Proximate Composition of Rock buns produced from wheat, Soybeans and potatoes flour

Moisture content results reveals that there is significant (p<0.95) difference among the samples

with sample C (60% wheat, 20% soybeans and 20% sweet y flour) had the highest value

followed by sample D (50% wheat, 30% soybeans and 20% sweet potato flour) while sample A

(100% wheat flour) had lowest value. Increase in moisture content decreases the shelf life of the

product and this may lead to proliferation of micro-organisms which causes spoilage.

Ashing is an important first step in proximate or specific mineral analysis. Ash refers to the

inorganic (mineral) residue remaining after the combustion or complete acid-facilitated oxidation

34
of organic matter in food.The Ash content in sample A (100% wheat flour) recorded the lowest

value (4.00) while sample C (60% wheat, 20% soybean and 20% sweet potato flour) had the

highest value (6.53) which means that sample C will require more heat to neutralize the

remaining organic matter in the food.

Fibre results ranges from (1.55 - 5.11). As the soybeans were added the fibre is increasing

accordingly with sample D (50% wheat, 30% soybeans and 20% sweet potato flour) had the

highest value (5.11). The main objective of crude fiber analysis is to determine the presence of

indigestible ingredients including cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in in a food sample. These

substances are mostly present in the cell walls of plant-based foods and are not degraded by

digestive enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. This means that the high percentage of fibre might

be due to addition of sweet potato which is also a good fibre content.

The higher protein for the sample C (60% wheat, 20% soybeans and 20% potatoes flour) showed

that it was superior to other flour blends. This increase is due to the fact that soybean flour is a

rich source of protein and helps to retrieve back the nutritional protein lost during the process of

manufacturing. Significant (p<0.05) difference exist in protein content with sample A(100%

wheat flour) having the lowest value.

In carbohydrates and energy value sample C (60% wheat, 20% soybeans and 20% potato flour)

had the lowest value for each (54.29; 364.93) respectively. There is significant (p<0.05)

difference among the samples in both energy and carbohydrates. Sample A (100% wheat flour)

had the highest value (74.64) in carbohydrates while in energy value sample B (70% wheat, 20%

soybean and 10% potato flour). This shows that wheat is high in carbohydrates content.

CHAPTER FIVE

35
Conclusions

The study revealed that composite flour with good nutritional value could be produced with

wheat flour, sweet potato flour and soybean flour. The functional and pasting properties of the

composite flours were determined by the proportion of each constituent flour. There exist

variations in the proximate composition of the composite flours which are desirable

characteristics for the manufacture of various food products. Sweet potato flour and soybean

flour have great potential as a functional ingredient in partial substitution of wheat flour in the

diets, particularly in the developing countries.

Recommendations

This work recommends the promotion and utilization of wheat-sweet potato-soybean flour.

However further research work should be focused on how to improve the sensory quality and

hence acceptability.

36
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