Renewable Energy Consumption

Scenario in Nepal First Edition Jitendra

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Renewable Energy
Consumption
Scenario in Nepal

Prepared by: Submitted to:

Jitendra Mandal Birendra Pant
Class: XI ‘G’
Roll No.:346
1
Page
 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher
BIRENDRA PANT as well as the Department of Physics who
assigned this project to me, which helped me in doing a lot of
research and got to enrich myself with the knowledge. Secondly, I
would like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time frame.
-Author

2
Page
Background of the Study

Energy is indispensable in modern societies to maintain the current

standard of living. It is one of the major economic and social
development, and thus its demand has increased enormously over the
past years. There are mainly two forms of energy popular in the
present time namely; renewable energy and non-renewable energy.
The energy that cannot be readily replenished by natural means at a
pace quick enough to keep up with consumption is defined as non-
renewable energy. The sources of non-renewable energy can be
broadly categorized as: oil, natural gas, coal and nuclear energy.
Energy that is environmentally friendly and can be used repeatedly
without depletion is regarded as a renewable energy. This includes
energy like wind, solar, hydropower, biomass and geothermal energy.
Speaking strictly, the forms of renewable energy are environmentally
favorable, with no significant negative impacts and are economically
viable.

Renewable energy is getting very popular in the present world. There

are ample reasons behind the preference of renewable energy over
non-renewable energy. There are no environmental and health hazards
by the consumption of renewable energy. In addition to this, safe use
and easy availability of the resources to generate energy from the
resources make it even more popular to be consumed. Thus, most
countries of the world are now focusing on the consumption of
renewable energy.

Nepal relies heavily on the traditional energy sources as no significant

deposits of fuel are available here. Biomass is an indigenous energy
source in Nepal. Three broad types of energy sources exist in Nepal:
commercial, traditional and alternative energy (WECS, 2010). Nepal
has a huge potential for hydropower production, but currently this
remains mostly untapped. Other commercial forms of energy are not
known to exist in any significant amounts.

The per capita energy consumption of Nepal is 177kwh which is the

3

lowest in South Asia (Economic Survey 2017/18). Economic situation

Page
of Nepal is not sound enough to rely upon the non-renewable energy
sources since the expenditure turns out to be very high to import them
from other countries. So, Nepal must focus on the use of renewable
energy sources which is economic, too.

Nepal has been using the renewable sources of energy since a long
time. However, the use was not commercial rather personal. But with
the changing time and technological advancement Nepal has found a
whooping surge in the consumption of renewable sources of energy.
In the earlier days, the non-renewable sources of energy were
popularly used in Nepal. But that had ample disadvantages. The
burning of such fuels contributed to the environmental hazards and
eventually had an adverse effect on human health. Firewood was also
widely used for energy purpose. Although, forest can be replenished
but it takes a long time to do so. Thus, firewood is not considered to
be the renewable source of energy.

There is a huge potential for Nepal to be self-reliant in energy sector

by the production of hydropower. Nepal has a potential to generate
83,000 MW of electricity from more than 6,000 rivers with a total
length of more than 45,000 km. However, this is untapped and we
have to incur huge economic loss annually. Therefore, it is high time
Nepal started the development of renewable energy. Over the years,
there have been notable achievements in this regard. About 18% of
the total population of Nepal have an access to electricity from the
renewable energy sources. In addition, 31% of the population have
utilized clean renewable energy for different purposes.

This study holds a greater importance to enhance the consumption of

renewable energy in Nepal and analyse the recent trend of its
consumption.
4
Page
Objectives of the Study

General Objective
The general objective of the study is to assess the knowledge about
the trend of renewable energy consumption in Nepal over last five
years. Moreover, it also assesses the impacts of massive use of
renewable energy on the economic condition of nation, health of
people and other related areas.

Specific Objective
The specific objectives of the study can be put under the following
bullets:
 To know the efforts of government for promoting the use of
renewable energy.
 To popularize and promote the use of RETs.
 To improve the living standard of people through energy
accessibility in rural areas.
 To assess the knowledge about the availability, accessibility and
spontaneity of energy to population of Nepal.
 To study about the investment and expenditure of government
on renewable energy.
 To study about the use of energy saving devices in Nepal.

Significance of the study

Energy consumption is one of the hotcakes for discussion in the
present world. Energy is not only important for the economic
development but also plays a pivotal role in improving conditions at
the household level. The availability energy sources is one of the
rational basic requirements for the quality of life and development of
the nation. As Nepal has no major oil, gas or coal reserves, and its
position in the Himalayas makes it hard for reaching the remote and
extremely remote communities, the use of renewable energy sources
is the best option Nepal can opt for. In addition to this, the economic
status of Nepal does not allow it to rely upon the exorbitant energy
sources. Therefore, I believe that the present study done on this
5

alarming topic would definitely provide the baseline information

Page
about the recent trend of renewable energy consumption in Nepal and
help the government to combat the energy crisis issues and meet the
demand of energy in the future.

Limitations of the Study

This study has been conducted to appraise the present situation of
renewable energy in Nepal. All the possible efforts have been made to
make this research work reliable, however, the following are the
limitations, which may be acceptable to this study:
 This study is solely limited with secondary data.
 This study has a generalized result concerned with the energy
consumption.
 This study does not comprise the use of standard tools for
primary study of the data.

6
Page
Methodology
This section describes about the methodologies used in the study to
accomplish the cherished objectives.
Due to the pandemic widespread, no primary sources of data have
been plied in the report. Thus, the data presented in the report are all
from secondary sources. Citations of different research papers,
journals, internet websites and survey reports have contributed to the
study.

Method of data collection

The data to be presented in the report were collected by surfing
internet and skimming through the web pages. While collecting the
materials to be studied the research works in related topic were
prioritized. In addition to this, the survey reports of different
institutions and Nepal government were sought for. The primary data
couldn’t be collected due to the unavoidable circumstances. Besides
these, the questionnaire was prepared so that crucial information
would not be missed to be included in the report.

Scientific Principles Involved

No major scientific principles were involved during the study process.
However, complying with the stuffs used to prepare the report the
statistical used by the researchers are common to this project, too.
Along with these the new renewable energy techniques were also
studied and the devices that are acquainted with it which have their
respective principles of manufacture. For instance, photovoltaic cells
work on the principle of solar PV.
7
Page
Data Analysis and Presentation
In the past years, of the total energy consumed, energy from the
traditional sources (coal, petroleum, firewood, etc.) constitutes 68.9%
which is the maximum portion. The second major share is constituted
by the commercial energy sources i.e., 27.9% of the total
consumption. The consumption of renewable energy is the least and
constitutes a minor portion of 3.20%. This data is illustrated by the
chart below:

Energy Consumption

28%

3%
69%

Commercial Renewable Traditional

Source: Ministry of energy, water resources and irrigation

The total energy consumption by household, industries, trade, and

other sectors is 44%, 32%, 7.4%, and 11.4% respectively. In the
2016/17, 45.1% energy was consumed by household, 36.1% by
industries and 7.4 % by trade and 11.4% by others. This is illustrated
by the chart below:
8
Page
 Energy consumption
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Household Industry Trade Others

2016/17 2017/18 Column1

Source: Ministry of energy, water resources and irrigation In

these
years, the total energy consumption was 8,257 ton of oil equivalent,
whereas this has been increased and reached to 90,194 ton of oil
equivalent as per the economic survey 2017/18. 26.5MW of
renewable energy from solar and wind power plant and 30 MW of
energy from micro and small hydropower project have been utilized
as alternative energy in Nepal. The data is vividly illustrated by the
following area chart:

Share of Renewable energy

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Solar and wind Micro and small
hydropower

Energy(in MW) .

Out of the 1044.6 MW of total electricity generation, 990.5 MW from

hydropower, 53.4 MW from thermal plant and 0.7 MW of electricity
9
Page

from solar plant has been generated. During this period, 503.4 MW of
hydropower produced by the private sector has been connected to the
national grid.
In 2017/18, Nepal imported 1,834 GW hours of electricity from India.
In 2016/17, 2,179 GW hours of electricity was imported from India.
The chart below describes the above fact:

Energy import from India

2200
2100
2000
1900
1800
1700 .
1600

2016/17 Series 1
2017/18

Series 1 . .2

10
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 1. Major Issues and Constraints in the Development and Promotion of Renewable Energy Technologies
Various factors such as the wide geographical variability, lower literacy rate among the users and high-cost factor are
some of the major issues associated with the promotion of sustainable energy in the country. The table below presents
major issues and constraints associate in the development of promotion of specific renewable energy technology in the
country.

RETs Technical Financial Policy and Institutional

Micro-  Most mill owners are not trained in
management
Hydropower  O&M Operation and Management ignored
 Management aspect neglected in feasibility
(MHP)
studies
 The cost of feasibility studies borne by
manufacturers, studies are biased leading to
various technical and socio-economic
problems
Biogas  Quality of construction material and
monitoring differ among the companies
installing such plants
 Poor performance as a result of inferior
construction material, selection of wrong
sized, and negligence in construction and
operation
 The main problem in family size plants is low
gas yield during the winter and rainy
seasons.
 The problems for community-sized plants
relate to ineffective management, sharing of
benefits etc.
 The high cost of the plants
and low load factors
(below50%) of the plants
make projects economically
unviable
 Lack of data is another
constraint
 Although biogas production
is superior to direct burning
of cake (dung) in terms of
energy utilisation (thermal
efficiency of 60 per cent
against 11 per cent for dung
cake), it can only be
profitable and attractive for
marginal farmers if a subsidy
is provided along with
appropriate financing
mechanism.
 Biogas production will
become more popular as
fuelwood becomes scarcer
 Investment allocated to this sector is too meagre to have any impact
 Lack of systematic monitoring and evaluation because of lack of inter
institutional linkages and coordination
 Priority given to the projects themselves rather than to
developmental activities for end-use devices
 Institutional gaps are the main bottleneck to promoting and carrying
out the government policy and programme smoothly
 There is no research and development (R&D) institute to concentrate
on developing less expensive biogas plants
 There is a need for a competent biogas development and promotion
unit with full authority for overall policy development, planning,
monitoring, evaluation, quality control, research, and training and
able to establish a functional linkage between the biogas related
organizations
 More than 50 Private Biogas Companies actively engaged
 Subsidy in the biogas installation decreased

11
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Improved  Holes for pots are too small to accommodate ICS programmes are largely dependent  No national policy framework and programme direction integrating ICS
the large pots used in many households on funding from external donors rather as a multisectoral component
Cooking  The baffle is too small to achieve good heat than on mobilisation of internal funds  AEPC has the overall responsibility for the development and
transfer (weak financial sustain ability) promotion of ICS which has been adopting subsidy less promotion of
Stoves (ICS)
 ICS cannot provide both space heating and ICS
cooking, especially important in the higher  Five Renewable Energy Service Centres (RRESC) established under the
hills and mountains National ICS program provides institutional framework for ICS
 ICS cannot handle agricultural biomass and  Lack of extensive and continuous research
industrial residues  Overemphasis on achieving dissemination targets with little attention
 Inserts are too heavy and too fragile for given to extension and monitoring.
widespread dissemination in Nepal  Lack of interaction between researchers, extension agencies, and
 Lack of quality control at production sites policy planners, as well as between producers and end users
results in the production of low-quality stoves  ICS Network coordinated by CRT/N with the support from ARECOP
provides a forum for interaction among the ICS stakeholders.

Solar  Lack of adequate knowledge, information, The financial performance of solar  Strong need for institutions to enforce standards and provide quality
and technical know-how among the thermal devices appears sound, control for manufacturers, especially in the case of solar water heating
manufacturers is a major problem for solar systems
water heaters Financial aspects of PV systems have  Lack of institutional set up for the technical backup to the private
 Leakage problems in storage tanks and hot been found to be negative manufacturers.
water pipelines is a problem for industrial
solar heaters Solar dryers have high capital
investment costs
 Solar cookers cannot be used for frying,
cooking time is longer, and their use is limited
to times of good sunshine. Lack of a storage
system is another problem limiting their
widespread promotion and dissemination
 Frequent breakdown of electrical
components is a major problem in PV
electricity generation

12
Page
Results and Discussion
Despite the huge potential of Nepal to be self-reliant in the energy
sector and improve the economic conditions of country from the
same, the country has not been able to harness the benefits. The
institutional level effort is not sufficient enough to make Nepal an
independent nation in terms of energy consumption. Along with that
the lack of technological advancement in the country and capital the
sector remains mostly independent. Nepal can grow and become one
of the leading producers of renewable energy if effort is sufficient to
be applied.
Renewable Energy Technology
S.No Technologies Description

1 Biomass Based Technologies

ICS 200,000 including national ICS program and other programs

Biogas plant installation 128,223 units

Bee Hive Briquette Production (Micro 50 units

enterprise)

2 Solar Based Technologies

Solar pV Installation

For Public Utility (aviation, telecommunication, 1,000 kW

traffic, supply etc.)

Solar Home system 57,875 units

For Water Pumping System 40 units

Solar Cooker (Parabolic Type) 800 units

Solar Dryer (Box and Cabinet Type) 500 units

Solar Water Heater (commercial) 35,000 units

3 Hydro Based Technologies (decentral)

Micro-hydro Systems (3 to 100 kW) 1100 units with about 13,900 kW Power

Pico-hydro Systems (Up to 3 kW)

Improved Water Mills 1092 under IWM support program of HMG/N since Jan 2003
to June 2005 and around 1000 before that

Peltric Set 1000 units with about 1,800 kW Power

4 Wind Based Technologies

13

Installation of Wind Turbine Units Below 10

Page
Future Scope of Work
The study of renewable energy consumption pattern in Nepal has a
significant future scope. It can help the nation in several aspects. The
major scopes are put under the following bullets:
 It is helpful to prepare plan for energy consumption in Nepal.
 It helps to cope up with the energy crisis that may arise in
future.
 This study can help Nepal to be self-reliant in energy sector.
 Public can be made responsible and accountable towards the
rational use of energy.

Conclusion
From the above study, it can be concluded that the consumption of
renewable energy in Nepal is increasing over the years. The
dependency on other countries is decreasing and production of energy
by the nation itself in under progress which is a good sign of
improvement. However, the government and concerned authority
need to increase their efficiency and the formulation of plans should
be in accordance with the energy production.

14
Page
References
Centre for Rural Technology, National Energy Survey and focus on Renewable
Energy, 2006
Economic Survey, 2017/18
Country Presentation on Energy, 2019
Nepal Energy Survey,2006

15
Page
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 Fig. 313.—Diodon maculatus.

Fig. 314.—Diodon maculatus, inflated.

C. Molina.—Body compressed, very short; tail extremely short,
truncate. Vertical fins confluent. No pelvic bone.
The “Sun-fishes” (Orthagoriscus) are pelagic fishes, found in
every part of the oceans within the tropical and temperate zones.
The singular shape of their body and the remarkable changes which
they undergo with age, have been noticed above (p. 175, Figs. 93,
94). Their jaws are undivided in the middle, comparatively feeble, but
well adapted for masticating their food, which consists of small
species, when the attempt may be made to preserve it separately in
the strongest spirits available. The fresher the specimens to be
preserved are, the better is the chance of keeping them in a perfect
condition. Specimens which have lost their scales, or are otherwise
much injured, should not be kept. Herring-like fishes, and others with
deciduous scales, are better wrapped in thin paper or linen before
being placed in spirits.
The spirits used during this all-important process of preservation
loses, of course, gradually in strength. As long as it keeps 10° under
proof it may still be used for the first stage of preservation, but
weaker spirits should be re-distilled; or, if the collector cannot do this,
it should be at least filtered through powdered charcoal before it is
mixed with stronger spirits. Many collectors are satisfied with
removing the thick sediment collected at the bottom of the vessel,
and use their spirits over and over again without removing from it by
filtration the decomposing matter with which it has been
impregnated, and which entirely neutralises the preserving property
of the spirits. The result is generally the loss of the collection on its
journey home. The collector can easily detect the vitiated character
of his spirits by its bad smell. He must frequently examine his
specimens; and attention to the rules given, with a little practice and
perseverance, after the possible failure of the first trial, will soon
insure to him the safety of his collected treasures. The trouble of
collecting specimens in spirits is infinitely less than that of preserving
skins or dry specimens of any kind.
When a sufficient number of well-preserved examples have been
brought together, they should be sent home by the earliest
opportunity. Each specimen should be wrapped separately in a piece
of linen, or at least soft paper; the specimens are then packed as
close as herrings in the zinc case, so that no free space is left either
at the top or on the sides. When the case is full, the lid is soldered
on, with a round hole about half an inch in diameter near one of the
corners. This hole is left in order to pour the spirit through it into the
case. Care is taken to drive out the air which may remain between
the specimens, and to surround them completely with spirits, until
the case is quite full. Finally, the hole is closed by a small square lid
of tin being soldered over it. In order to see whether the case keeps
in the spirit perfectly, it is turned upside down and left over night.
When all is found to be securely fastened, the zinc case is placed
into the wooden box and ready for transport.
Now and then it happens in tropical climates that collectors are
unable to keep fishes from decomposition even in the strongest
spirits without being able to detect the cause. In such cases a
remedy will be found in mixing a small quantity of arsenic or
sublimate with the spirits; but the collector ought to inform his
correspondent, or the recipient of the collection, of this admixture
having been made.
In former times fishes of every kind, even those of small size,
were preserved dry as flat skins or stuffed. Specimens thus prepared
admit of a very superficial examination only, and therefore this
method of conservation has been abandoned in all larger museums,
and should be employed exceptionally only, for instance on long
voyages overland, during which, owing to the difficulty of transport,
neither spirits nor vessels can be carried. To make up as much as
possible for the imperfection of such specimens, the collector ought
to sketch the fish before it is skinned, and to colour the sketch if the
species is ornamented with colours likely to disappear in the dry
example. Collectors who have the requisite time and skill, ought to
accompany their collections with drawings coloured from the living
fishes; but at the same time it must be remembered that, valuable as
such drawings are if accompanied by the originals from which they
were made, they can never replace the latter, and possess a
subordinate scientific value only.
Very large fishes can be preserved as skins only; and collectors
are strongly recommended to prepare in this manner the largest
examples obtainable, although it will entail some trouble and
expense. So very few large examples are exhibited in museums, the
majority of the species being known from the young stage only, that
the collector will find himself amply recompensed by attending to
these desiderata.
 Scaly fishes are skinned thus: with a strong pair of scissors an
incision is made along the median line of the abdomen from the
foremost part of the throat, passing on one side of the base of the
ventral and anal fins, to the root of the caudal fin, the cut being
continued upwards to the back of the tail close to the base of the
caudal. The skin of one side of the fish is then severed with the
scalpel from the underlying muscles to the median line of the back;
the bones which support the dorsal and caudal are cut through, so
that these fins remain attached to the skin. The removal of the skin
of the opposite side is easy. More difficult is the preparation of the
head and scapulary region; the two halves of the scapular arch
which have been severed from each other by the first incision are
pressed towards the right and left, and the spine is severed behind
the head, so that now only the head and shoulder bones remain
attached to the skin. These parts have to be cleaned from the inside,
all soft parts, the branchial and hyoid apparatus, and all smaller
bones, being cut away with the scissors or scraped off with the
scalpel. In many fishes, which are provided with a characteristic
dental apparatus in the pharynx (Labroids, Cyprinoids), the
pharyngeal bones ought to be preserved, and tied with a thread to
the specimen. The skin being now prepared so far, its entire inner
surface as well as the inner side of the head are rubbed with
arsenical soap; cotton-wool, or some other soft material is inserted
into any cavities or hollows, and finally a thin layer of the same
material is placed between the two flaps of the skin. The specimen is
then dried under a slight weight to keep it from shrinking.
The scales of some fishes, as for instance of many kinds of
herrings, are so delicate and deciduous that the mere handling
causes them to rub off easily. Such fishes may be covered with thin
paper (tissue-paper is the best), which is allowed to dry on them
before skinning. There is no need for removing the paper before the
specimen has reached its destination.
Scaleless Fishes, as Siluroids and Sturgeons, are skinned in the
same manner, but the skin can be rolled up over the head; such
skins can also be preserved in spirits, in which case the traveller
may save to himself the trouble of cleaning the head.
 Some Sharks are known to attain to a length of 30 feet, and
some Rays to a width of 20 feet. The preservation of such gigantic
specimens is much to be recommended, and although the difficulties
of preserving fishes increase with their size, the operation is
facilitated, because the skins of all Sharks and Rays can easily be
preserved in salt and strong brine. Sharks are skinned much in the
same way as ordinary fishes. In Rays an incision is made not only
from the snout to the end of the fleshy part of the tail, but also a
second across the widest part of the body. When the skin is removed
from the fish, it is placed into a cask with strong brine mixed with
alum, the head occupying the upper part of the cask; this is
necessary, because this part is most likely to show signs of
decomposition, and therefore most requires supervision. When the
preserving fluid has become decidedly weaker from the extracted
blood and water, it is thrown away and replaced by fresh brine. After
a week’s or fortnight’s soaking the skin is taken out of the cask to
allow the fluid to drain off; its inner side is covered with a thin layer of
salt, and after being rolled up (the head being inside) it is packed in a
cask, the bottom of which is covered with salt; all the interstices and
the top are likewise filled with salt. The cask must be perfectly water-
tight.
Of all larger examples of which the skin is prepared, the
measurements should be taken before skinning so as to guide the
taxidermist in stuffing and mounting the specimens.
Skeletons of large osseous fishes are as valuable as their skins.
To preserve them it is only necessary to remove the soft parts of the
abdominal cavity and the larger masses of muscle, the bones being
left in their natural continuity. The remaining flesh is allowed to dry
on the bones, and can be removed by proper maceration at home.
The fins ought to be as carefully attended to as in a skin, and of
scaly fishes so much of the external skin ought to be preserved as is
necessary for the determination of the species, as otherwise it is
generally impossible to determine more than the genus.
A few remarks may be added as regards those Faunæ, which
promise most results to the explorer, with some hints as to desirable
information on the life and economic value of fishes.
 It is surprising to find how small the number is of the freshwater
faunæ which may be regarded as well explored; the rivers of Central
Europe, the Lower Nile, the lower and middle course of the Ganges,
and the lower part of the Amazons are almost the only fresh waters
in which collections made without discrimination would not reward
the naturalist. The oceanic areas are much better known; yet almost
everywhere novel forms can be discovered and new observations
made. Most promising and partly quite unknown are the following
districts:—the Arctic Ocean, all coasts south of 38° lat. S., the Cape
of Good Hope, the Persian Gulf, the coasts of Australia (with the
exception of Tasmania, New South Wales, and New Zealand), many
of the little-visited groups of Pacific islands, the coasts of north-
eastern Asia north of 35° lat. N., and the western coasts of North and
South America.
No opportunity should be lost to obtain pelagic forms, especially
the young larva-like stages of development abounding on the
surface of the open ocean. They can be obtained without difficulty by
means of a small narrow meshed net dragged behind the ship. The
sac of the net is about 3 feet deep, and fastened to a strong brass-
ring 2 or 2½ feet in diameter. The net is suspended by three lines
passing into the strong main line. It can only be used when the
vessel moves very slowly, its speed not exceeding three knots an
hour, or when a current passes the ship whilst at anchor. To keep the
net in a vertical position the ring can be weighted at one point of its
circumference; and by using heavier weights two or three drag-nets
can be used simultaneously at different depths. This kind of fishing
should be tried at night as well as day, as many fishes come to the
surface only after sunset. The net must not be left long in the water,
from 5 to 20 minutes only, as delicate objects would be sure to be
destroyed by the force of the water passing through the meshes.
Objects found floating on the surface, as wood, baskets,
seaweed, etc., deserve the attention of the travellers, as they are
generally surrounded by small fishes or other marine animals.
It is of the greatest importance to note the longitude and latitude
at which the objects were collected in the open ocean.
 Fishing in great depths by means of the dredge, can be practised
only from vessels specially fitted out for the purpose; and the
success which attended the “Challenger,” and North American Deep-
sea explorations, has developed Deep-sea fishing into such a
speciality that the requisite information can be gathered better by
consulting the reports of those expeditions than from a general
account, such as could be given in the present work.
Fishes offer an extraordinary variety with regard to their habits,
growth, etc., so that it is impossible to enumerate in detail the points
of interest to which the travellers should pay particular attention.
However, the following hints may be useful.
Above all, detailed accounts are desirable of all fishes forming
important articles of trade, or capable of becoming more generally
useful than they are at present. Therefore, deserving of special
attention are the Sturgeons, Gadoids, Thyrsites and Chilodactylus,
Salmonoids, Clupeoids. Wherever these fishes are found in sufficient
abundance, new sources may be opened to trade.
Exact observations should be made on the fishes the flesh of
which is poisonous either constantly or at certain times and certain
localities; the cause of the poisonous qualities as well as the nature
of the poison should be ascertained. Likewise the poison of fishes
provided with special poison-organs requires to be experimentally
examined, especially with regard to its effects on other fishes and
animals generally.
All observations directed to sex, mode of propagation, and
development, will have special interest: thus those relating to
secondary sexual characters, hermaphroditism, numeric proportion
of the sexes, time of spawning and migration, mode of spawning,
construction of nests, care of progeny, change of form during growth,
etc.
If the collector is unable to preserve the largest individuals of a
species that may come under his observation he should note at least
their measurements. There are but few species of fishes of which the
limit of growth is known.
 The history of Parasitic Fishes is almost unknown, and any
observations with regard to their relation to their host as well as to
their early life will prove to be valuable; nothing is known of the
propagation of fishes even so common as Echeneis and Fierasfer,
much less of the parasitic Freshwater Siluroids.
The temperature of the blood of the larger freshwater and marine
species should be exactly measured.
Many pelagic and deep-sea fishes are provided with peculiar
small round organs of a mother-of-pearl colour, distributed in series
along the side of the body, especially along the abdomen. Some
zoologists consider these organs as accessory eyes, others (and it
appears to us with better reason) as luminous organs. They deserve
an accurate microscopic examination made on fresh specimens; and
their function should be ascertained from observation of the living
fishes, especially also with regard to the question, whether or not the
luminosity (if such be their function) is subject to the will of the fish.

Fig. 321.—Scopelus boops, a pelagic fish, with luminous organs.