Climatology

 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEATHER AND CLIMATE

 WEATHER - Is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place recorded over a
short period of time.
 CLIMATE – Is the average weather conditions of the atmosphere recorded over a long
period of time usually, 20 to 30 years.
 CLIMATOLOGY – Is the study of climate.

The features of Stevenson Screen are:

 It is painted white why? To reflect sunlight
 It’s made of wood why? Because wood is bad contactor of heat.
 It is stands on stilts about 1.2m above the ground why? To prevent the heat from the
ground.
 It has a double roof why? To insulate it from sunlight.
 The sides are made of double louvers why? To allow the free movement of air.
 The door opens to the south why? To prevent sunlight from reaching the instruments.

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Weather Elements Instruments and their Units

Identifying and reading instruments

Weather element Instrument Units

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 1. Temperature Maximum and minimum Degrees Celsius (0C)
thermometer
- A maximum and minimum thermometer is placed in a Stevenson screen for protection.

How does Maximum and Minimum thermometer works?

o When temperature increase Alcohol expands and pushes the mercury to the
right side to show maximum temperature.
o When temperature decrease Alcohol contracts and pushes the mercury to the
left side to show the minimum.
How to read a maximum and minimum thermometer
 1.Maximum temperature
o (Below the metal index on the right side of the instrument) = 30 0C
 2.Minimum temperature
o (Below the metal index on the left side of the instrument) = 24 0C
 3.Actual temperature
o (On the right side of the instrument where the mercury ends)=18 0C
 NB. Temperature range (Daily range)
o Maximum - minimum = 30 0C – 24 0C = 6 oC
o The magnet is used to reset the instrument to zero degrees.

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How to read a rain gauge
1. Visit the weather station at 08:00 everyday
2. Pour the water from the container into the measuring cylinder
3. Read the volume of water below the meniscus.
4. Pour out the water and prepare the rain gauge for the next day after recording the
reading.
o Where a rain gauge should be placed at a weather station to get the correct
rainfall readings?
 Answer = at an open space far away from trees and buildings.
 A rain gauge should be one meter above the ground to prevent splashes from
the ground to enter into the rain gauge .

Barometer / barograph

How does the Barometer works?

o As the pressure increase the pointer shows the high numbers.
o As the pressure decrease the pointer shows lower numbers.
o Where a barometer should be placed at a weather station to get the correct air
pressure and for protection?
 Answer = Inside the Stevenson screen
 Air pressure measuring units are called millibars or hectapascals.

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A wind vane and wind Sock

How to read a wind vane and wind Sock

o The arrow on the wind vane shows the direction where the wind is blowing
from.
o Example fig. 3
o Where a wind vane should be placed at a weather station to get the correct
wind direction?
 Answer = at open space away from trees and building

A wet and dry bulb thermometer and a hygrometric table

A cup anemometer

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How to read a cup anemometer
o The cup anemometer has a digital counter or a Speedo meter inside.
o As the wind blows it get caught in the cups and the cups starts rotating.
o The digital counter then counts the wind speed measured in km/hours.
Where a cup anemometer should be placed at a weather station to get the correct wind
speed?
 Answer = at an open space away from trees on top of the buildings or tall pole

Cloud cover and symbols

How to read cloud

o Clouds do not have an instrument to measure but we observe them with eyes.
o Units of measurement: Octas
Sunshine Recorder

How Sunshine record works

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o A sunshine recorder comprises of a glass lens and a recording card.
o The recording card has divisions that are burned off by the glass lens during sunshine
periods.
o Each division burned off is one hour of sunshine.
o Where sunshine should be placed at a weather station to get the correct sunshine?
Answer =Outside at an open space away from trees and buildings

Types of graphs
1. Temperature graph (Line graph)
2. Rainfall graph (Bar graph)
3. Wind direction graph (wind rose)
4. A Composite graph (a combination of temperature and rain)

Example of temperature graph (Line Graph

35
30
25
Temp )C

20 Max
Temp
15 Min
10 Temp
5
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Months

Rainfall graph Bar graph

35
30
Rain mm

25
20
15 Rainfall
10
5
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Months

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A Composite graph (a combination of temperature and rai

Graph calculations
1a. daily mean temperature
0
Maximum temperature = 32 C
0
Minimum temperature = 14 C
Daily mean temperature = Maximum + minimum temperature
2
0 0
= 32 C + 14 C
2
0 0
= 46 C = 23 C
2

 1b. Daily range = Maximum – Minimum

0
32-14 = 20 C
2. Average (or mean) monthly temperature
-Add average daily temperature
Number of days in a month
3. Total annual rainfall
-Add monthly rainfall
4. Annual temperature range
-Highest temperature month – lowest temperature month
5. Wind direction graph (wind rose)
Complete the wind rose below by indicates the following:
 A southwesterly wind blew most frequently (8 days) and is therefore the prevailing
wind;
 A northeasterly wind blew least frequently (1 day);
 There was no wind on three days.

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The different layers that make up atmosphere
1. The Troposphere
2. The stratosphere
3. The mesosphere
4. The thermosphere

Layers of the atmosphere

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 1. The Troposphere
o This layer is close to the earth
o It is 10-16 km above the earth’s surface
o It consists of a mixture of gases, of which nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
o Different types of clouds (e.g. cirrus, stratus, cumulus are found here.
2. The stratosphere
o It is above troposphere
o It is about 50 km above the earth’s surface
o The important ozone layer also found here
3. The mesosphere
o This third layer is about 80 km high
o where the temperature decreases until we reach the boundary
o The temperature drops to about -100 ºC in the mesosphere.
4. The Thermosphere
o This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
o It is about 180km high
o It has risen temperature about 1500ºC

The heating of the Atmosphere

The sun, the only source of energy in our solar system. This radiant energy is known as
insolation (incoming solar radiation.
o Terrestrial (earth) radiation: This is short wave radiation from the sun which
radiated back to the atmosphere as long wave radiation.
Energy can be transferred in three ways
o Radiation
o Conduction
o Convection
Radiation: when heat passes from one body to another by means of waves
Conduction: when heat is transferred from one molecules to another.
Convection: transferring of heat from one molecule to another.

Where sunlight does from the sun goes to?

o Either absorbed by water
o Reflected back by clouds, dust or into the atmosphere.
o Scattered by air molecules, dust and smoke particles.
Short and Long waves
o Short waves: The isolation Solar radiation from (sun)
o Long waves: This is the heat that reflected back to the atmosphere.
o NB: An area heat up during the day but cools down at night when there is no
sunlight is available.
How humans cause the earth to overheat
o Is when we produce too much carbon dioxide

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 o Burning too much fossil fuels.
o Cutting down trees
Greenhouse effect: is when carbon dioxide absorb heat and raise into the atmosphere.

How greenhouse gases cause global warming

SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS

-The word synoptic means summary of the weather for a particular date and time.

Symbols on Synoptic Weather Maps

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Definitions
o Saturated: When the air contains the maximum amount of water vapour.
o Saturation point: When the air reached, condensation.
o Dew-point temperature: The temperature at which air becomes saturated.
o Precipitation: all liquid and solid water particles that fall from clouds and
reach the ground.
For condensation to take place and for precipitation to occur the air should be as follows:
o There must be sufficient water vapour in the air.
o Dust or other particles must be present for water vapour to condense around.
o Dew-point temperature must be reached.
o Air must be cooled to reach dew-point temperature and to become over-
saturated.
Characteristics of clouds

Name of the cloud Appearance Height Rainfall

Cirrus Thin and transparent 7-15km from the No rain
earth
Stratus layered appearance that cover 2000 m from the yes
the whole sky earth
Cumulus They have a flat base Any height When they brought
together

Different clouds types

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Types of Rain
1. Cyclonic (Frontal) Rain
2. Convection Rain
3. Relief (Orographic) Rain

1. Convection Rain
o Convection rain occurs in conjunction with strong rising air currents.
o The air cools as it rises, and when dew-point temperature is reached
o Water vapour condenses into droplets of water.
o Flat-based cumulus clouds formed.
o If the rising air currents are very strong, cumulonimbus clouds develop from the cumulus
clouds.
o These updrafts and downdrafts cause the water vapour droplets to collide, and bigger
droplets are formed.
o Electrical charges build up in the cloud and lightning is experienced.
2. Cyclonic (Frontal) Rain
o This type of rain occurs with low-pressure systems
o Here the warm air and the cold air meet.
o The heavier, cold air wedges in under the lighter, warm air, forcing the warm air to rise
over the cold air.
o The boundary between the warm and cold air is called a front.
o The warm air rises slowly, and the expansion and cooling which lead to precipitation
o The rainfall is therefore gentle, longer-lasting and more widespread.
3. Relief (Orographic) Rain

o Relief rain falls when vapour air is forced to rise as it comes into contact with
mountains, or a plateau
o The air is forced to rise, expands, cools down, and condensation takes place.

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 o The air becomes over-saturated, and precipitation is formed.
o The highest rainfall occurs on the windward side of mountains.
o Very little precipitation occurs on the leeward side
o The leeward side of mountains is known as a rain-shadow area

Definitions

o Hail: This is frozen rain which fall from Cumulonimbus.

o Snow: This is water ice that fall from clouds.
Pressure Systems

o High pressure cells

o Lower pressure cells
1. The high pressure System cells (H)
o This is the cold descending air starts anti-crockwise.
o It causing the air to move from the inside to outside.
o It cannot hold any water vapour
o It is associated with clear skies and no rain.
2. The lower pressure Systems or cell (L)
o This is warm rising (ascending) air.
o It move up clockwise.
o It cause the air move from the outside to inside.
o It is warm rising air.
o It can hold water vapour
o As the air rising it will cools down, condenses.

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Why does air Rise?
o When it hits mountain the air rises against it.
o When the warm air meets cool air. (The lighter warm air will be forced to rise over
the cooler air).
o When two warm air masses meet them will both rise.
The END of climatology
TEST ON

THE CLIMATE OF NAMIBIA

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General Factors Influencing Namibia’s Climate
 Latitude
 Altitude
 High-Pressure Systems and Low-Pressure Systems
 The Benguella current
 Distance From the Sea
Latitude
 The highest (warmest) temperatures on earth are normally found in the low
latitudes, in the vicinity of the equator,
 While the lowest (coldest) temperatures occur in the high latitudes, near the
poles.
 Therefore, places near the equator receive more sunshine than places near the
poles

Equator receive more sunshine

Altitude
 The temperature of the troposphere decreases as the altitude increases.
 High-lying areas are colder than low-lying areas.
High-Pressure Systems
The Atlantic and Kalahari High Pressure system cell
 Cause clear dry conditions
 Dry conditions
 Prevents the formation of rain
The Atlantic, Kalahari and Indian high pressure cells

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Low-Pressure Systems
 During Namibia winter lower pressure cells develop along the coast.
 Air from interior to the coast heated as it is descends it lead to dry East winds.
The Benguella current
 The cold water from benguella current causes poor evaporation and therefore no
rain at the coast.
Distance from the Sea
 Places that are closer to the sea are cooler than those that are far.
 Example Windhoek has greater range of temperature than Walvis Bay.
Rainfall pattern in Namibia
1. Rainfall distribution in Namibia
o Rainfall decreases from north-east to south-west across the country.
Highest rainfall is in Caprivi (Zambezi), Kavango and near Otavi.
The west coastal region receives little rain or no rain.
2. Rainfall Variability in Namibia
Variability – describes how much rainfall can differ from the average for an area.
• Most consistent rain is in northeast.
• The greatest variability is in the south, southwest and far west (along
coast).
• High variability makes planning and farming difficult.
Winds of Namibia

Wind- is moving air that blows from a high pressure system to a low pressure system.
Namibia main winds are:
o The east wind,
o The south
o South-westerly winds and

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 o The north-easterly winds.
Easterly wind
o The wind blows from east to west.
o It is known as a “Berg wind”.
o It occurs throughout the year but most common between April and July.
o It blows out of the Kalahari H.P.S across Namibia.
o It causes hot, dry unpleasant conditions at the coast.
o People call this the “east weather.”

South and south-westerly winds

o The south-west wind is caused by the South Atlantic H.P
o The south-west wind pushes cool dry air towards Namibia.
o The south-west wind causes fog along the coastal of Namibia.
o The south wind blows during winter.
o The south wind brings rain to southern part of the Western Cape and sometimes
rain as it reach as far as Windhoek.
o The south wind bring along cold conditions and even snow to the Auas Mountain
peaks.
North-easterly wind
o This wind blows during summer.
o It is a warm and moist air that rises in convection currents and form clouds for
convection rainfall.
o The north and north-east winds are known as the rain-bearing winds.

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 A ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY t
the end of this chapter learners should be able to:
 Indicate the position of the Earth in the solar system.
 Describe its geoidal shape with reference to polar and equatorial circumferences
 Describe how day and night occur
 Explain the varying length of day and night.
 Define constant parallelism
 Explain by using diagram on how season occur.
 Be able to draw and interpret diagrams to illustrate the revolution of earth and
explain
(a) Equinox
(b) Neap tide
 Explain the occurrence of lunar and solar eclipse.

The Position of the Earth in the Solar System

 The Earth is the third planet from the sun.

 The only planet in our solar system that can support life.
 In order of their distance from the sun they are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

ASTEROID BELTS

DEFINITION OF TERMS

o Galaxy: Is a group of starts held together by gravity.

o Planet: A larger heavily body that moves in a fixed orbit around a star.
o Star: A mass of gas that produces its own light and heat.
o Our solar system: The sun and its nine planets.
o Orbit: The fixed path followed by objects around other objects in space.
o Asteroid: A lump of rock or metal in an orbit around the sun.
o The Asteroids are believed to be the pieces that left during the formation of the
planets.
o Astronomy: The study of the positions of the stars and planets.
o Equinox: Occasions of a year where day and night are equal in length.

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 The Shape and Size of the Earth

-The earth is neither completely round nor spherical in shape.

What caused Earth to be spherical in shape?

Answer: This was a result from earth’s rotation around its own axis.

Features of the Earth

o It is slightly flattened at the poles.
o This nearly spherical shape of the earth is called a geoid.
o The earth has a surface area of about 510 million square kilometers.
o The circumference of the earth at the equator is 40 075 km.
o While the circumference through the poles is 40 008 km.
o The equatorial diameter of the earth is 12 757 km and the polar diameter is 12 714
km.
The Rotation of the Earth on its Axis

o The earth rotates from west to east around its own imaginary axis.
o It takes 24 hours to complete one rotation.
o The surface speeds during this rotation decrease from the equator towards the poles
Why? Because, the earth becomes smaller towards the poles.
What cause day and night?
o This is the most important result of the earth’s rotation.
o The earth is spherical in shape, so only the half that faces the sun while the other
half is in shadow.
o The illuminated part has day, while the shadowed part has night.
o The division between day and night is called the illumination circle.
o Each new day starts at midnight (24:00) and lasts for 24 hours.
o The day ends the following midnight, which is also the start of the following day.
o Because the earth rotates from west to east, the sun’s rays first reach those places
situated in the east.
o That is why we say the sun ‘rises’ in the east and ‘sets’ in the west.

The Revolution of the Earth around the Sun

o Our calendar year has 365 days.

o Every fourth year one day is added to the month of February. This is called a leap
year, and has 366 days.
1
o It takes the earth one year (365 / days) to travel once around the sun.
4
o The earth’s orbit around the sun is elliptical. As a result, the earth is not always the
same distance from the sun.
o In January, the earth reaches its closest position to the sun, known as perihelium,
when it is about 147 million kilometers from the sun.

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 o In July, the earth is at its greatest distance from the sun, known as aphelion, when it
is about 152 million kilometers from the sun.

The Revolution of the Earth around the Sun

The Seasons

o The occurrence and succession of the seasons are :

(Spring, summer, autumn, winter)
The reasons why do we have seasons:
o The revolution of the earth around the sun.
o The inclination of the earth’s axis.
o The constant parallelism of the earth’s axis.
o The spherical shape of the earth.
o The rotation of the earth around its own axis.
How the season occur using diagram

o On 22/23 December, the perpendicular rays of the sun fall on the Tropic of Capricorn
1 o
o (23 / S). Due to the inclination of the earth’s axis, the southern hemisphere now
2
receives more heat from the sun than the northern hemisphere.
o It is now autumn in the southern hemisphere
o And spring in the northern hemisphere.
o The illumination circle passes exactly through the poles, thus the length of day and
night are the same all over the world (12 hours each).
o In the southern hemisphere this is called the autumn day-and-night equinox.
o While in the northern hemisphere it is the spring day-and-night equinox.

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 The Tides
-Tides: The periodic rise and fall of the water of the ocean.
What cause tides?
Answer: Attraction of moon and sun.
-Two types of tides are :

o Spring and Neap tides

Spring tides: Due to its greater size, the gravitational pull of the sun on the earth is stronger
than that of the moon.
Neap tides: This happen during the first and last quarters of the moon.
 The sun, earth and moon are more or less at right angles to each other.
 The gravitational pull of the moon and the sun now work against each other, which
lessens their influence on the earth.

Eclipses of the moon and Eclipse of the sun

Eclipse of the Sun:

o A total eclipse of the sun only occurs during new moon, when the moon is at the cut-
lines of the earth and the moon.
o Then the moon is close enough to the earth to allow its shadow to fall on the earth.
o The earth also in the perigee
o The sun is then totally eclipsed for certain parts of the earth.
o (The shadow of the moon only falls on certain parts of the earth’s surface.
o As a result a total eclipse of the sun is not experienced all over the earth.)

Eclipse of the Moon:

o A total eclipse of the moon only occurs during full moon.
o It only happens when the sun, moon and earth then lie in a straight line.
o The moon must also be close to the earth so that it can be completely within the
earth’s shadow.

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 The end of Astronomical Geography
The end of term on

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 GEOMORPHOLOGY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
The Learning Objectives of this module is that you should be introduced to:

o The different parts of the internal structure of the earth;

o Discover the basic rock types, namely: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify on a simple diagram the Earth's:

a. crust
b. mantle
c. core
 Describe the basic composition of each layer
 list for each of the three rock groups:
a. their origin
b. two basic characteristics
c. two examples

What is geomorphology?
o Geomorphology is the study of the physical or natural features of the surface of the
earth and forces that affect the earth both inside and outside.
o These layers are called the
o Core,
o Mantle and
o Crust.

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

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 Mantle

Crust
Inner core

Outer core

The Core
It is divided into an inner and outer part.

The basic composition/ Characteristics of inner core

o It have a radius of about 1 220 km

o It is solid.
o It is extremely hot.
o
o It has temperature of about 4 000 C.

The basic composition/ Characteristics of the outer core

o It is under less pressure.

o It is in a molten state.

The basic composition/ Characteristics of the Mantle

o The mantle is the earth’s middle layer, surrounding the core and below the
crust,
o It is about 2 900 km thick.
o It is generally in a solid state,
o Its outer part, is probably in a plastic-like state.
o It is estimated to be between 100 km and 700 km deep.
o The solid upper mantle is about 100 km thick.
o Mantle together with the entire crust, are called the lithosphere.

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 o Remember: The boundary between the mantle and the crust is know as the
Moho plane.

The basic composition/ Characteristics the Crust

o It is Solid.
o The highest point on the earth’s crust is Mount Everest in Asia at 8 848 m
above sea level,
o While the lowest point is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean at 11 022 m
deep below sea level.

Distinction is made between continental crust and oceanic crust.

Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

o It is lighter o It is denser.
o It is manly made of granitic rocks o It is mainly made of basaltic
locks
o

THE COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH'S CRUST

Igneous Rocks
Rocks Origin and Types:
o It is calculated that igneous rocks account for about 95% of the volume of the
crust of the earth.
o Igneous are originated from magma.
o Magma, which pours out onto the ground through volcanoes, is called lava.
o Magma that does not reach the surface of the earth and solidifies underneath the
surface forms internal bodies that are exposed after millions of years of erosion

Characteristics of Igneous rocks

o
o Igneous rocks are crystalline in texture.
o They are uniform and massive.
o Igneous rocks are extremely hard.

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 o They weather very slowly.
The use of igneous rocks
o We use the on road construction material because they are hard.
o To cut and polished for buildings

Sedimentary Rocks

Origin and

Types.
o These rocks originate as sediments deposited by wind, water and ice.
o They are formed on the earth’s surface.
o Mainly formed from transported particles of other existing rocks.
o These sedimentary rocks are thus formed from other existing igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
o Originated from other rocks on the earth’s surface that broken up into smaller
particles.
o These sedimentary rocks are formed from the deposits of living organisms.
o The remains of plants or animals.

Use of Sedimentary rocks

-Are used in the production of cement and bricks.

Metamorphic Rocks

Origin and Type

o When magma is forced to the earth’s surface.
o When existing igneous or sedimentary rock changes (undergoes
metamorphosis) far below the earth’s surface as a result of this pressure and
heat, metamorphic rock is formed.
The use of Metamorphic Rocks

o Are used in buildings.

o Are used to build roofs because of its hardness.
o Minerals found in metamorphic rock include uranium, zinc, and silver,
platinum, copper and lead.
Rocks types and their examples

Igneous Rock Sentimental Rock Metamorphic

 Granite  Sandstone  Marble
 Basalt  Limestone/ Dolomite  Slate

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Igneous Rock Sentimental Rock Metamorphic

Quartzite Sandstone Marble

END OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

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