The Value of Research in Psychology
The Differences Between Natural and Social Sciences
Differences
Purpose and Origin of
Research:
Focus and Complexity:
Role of Ethics:
Controversies Regarding Scientific Methods:
Defenders of Social Sciences:
Argue that social sciences are "natural sciences of individuals in society."
Natural Sciences
 Investigates the properties and
laws of natural phenomena.
 Development often determined
by the needs of production,
commerce, and industry.
 Examples:
Astronomy needed for
agriculture
Geometry for navigation
Mechanics for construction
Chemistry, physics, and
biological sciences for medicine,
mining and sport.
Deal with natural phenomena
with a focus on precision and
accuracy.
More straightforward predictions
and laws.
Controlled experiments with a
focus on isolating variables.
 Ethics are still relevant but
may have a different emphasis.
Social Sciences
 Investigate properties and laws
of social phenomena.
 Development rooted in the
need for general management
and control of social affairs.
 Shaped by the needs, values,
aspirations, and characteristics of
the particular society in which
they take place.
 Example: addressing issues
like the spread of malaria in
Africa, focusing on different
aspects in psychology in different
regions.
 Deal with complex social
realities.
 Predictions are often
probabilistic rather than
deterministic.
 Difficulty in controlling all
relevant variables.
 Results are often expressed as
probability statements,
reflecting a level of doubt.
 Greater emphasis on ethics
due to involvement with human
participants.
Believe that social disciplines, while different, can be understood using scientific methods adjusted to social
reality.

Adaptation of Methods: Advocate for modifying and adapting methods according to the characteristics of
social processes. Believe that, with adjustments, these methods are correct for understanding social issues
and building theories.

Critics:

Argue that rigid scientific methods may not grasp the fluidity of many social phenomena.

Reluctance to consider social disciplines as sciences may stem from the analysis of failures of the
empirical, scientific approach.

Adaptation of Methods: Highlight dangers of over-dependence on methods of natural science.

Emphasize the need to avoid inadequate, mechanistic transfer of methods from natural sciences to social
sciences.

The Relationship Between Fact and Theory

Facts

® an indisputable set of statements about reality.

One does not need to embark on a research process to establish a fact; it has been established and can be
demonstrated daily.

Example: it is a fact that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

A fact is often not an explanation; it is a statement about observable reality.

Theories

® a set of ideas or statements that explain a particular social phenomenon.

A theory is often made up of a set of facts. While facts are not explanations, a theory should explain
something.

Facts give rise to theory since they raise a need for explanations of the observed phenomena.

Theory serves as a basis for gathering facts. Observations in scientific research are often guided by theory
(deductive research).

A scientific explanation or theory must undergo empirical testing to determine whether it corresponds to
observed reality.

Theories allow facts to be predicted. If observed facts do not align with the predictions of a theory, the
theory must be reconsidered or abandoned.

Theory reformulation is essential for scientific progress. Theories must be tested, improved, and discarded
if necessary for more accurate understanding.
Theories are typically not proved; they remain plausible or useful if they are tested and not proven false.
This is different from proving that they are correct.

Theories allow us to classify and conceptualize facts. They summarize and provide explanations of how
relevant facts relate to each other.

Theories predict facts.

Example: social identity theory considers certain facts, explains how they relate, and
predicts future observations based on this understanding. If the predictions do not align with
reality, the theory may need adjustment.

[summary: while facts are statements about observable reality, theories are explanatory frameworks
that incorporate facts, guide research, make predictions, and undergo testing and reformulation to
enhance our understanding of the world]

Aspect Facts Theory

Nature Indisputable statements about reality Set of ideas explaining phenomena
Validation Process Established, daily observable Requires empirical testing
Foundation of
Perceptual knowledge through senses Rational knowledge, logic, judgment
Science
Relationship Raise need for explanations Guides systematic observation
Predictive, guides systematic
Role in Observation Support, improve, disprove theories
observation
Continuous refinement and
Theory Reformulation Not proved, subject to falsification
improvement
Classification of
Allows conceptualization Summarizes and explains relations
Facts
Predictive Power Enables intervention and influence
Theories offer interpretation.
Scientific Progress Facts provide the foundation Predict future phenomena.
Constant refinement is essential

Approaches to Research in Psychology

Quantitative, Qualitative & Mixed Methods Approaches
Quantitative Methods:

Belief in natural laws governing the world.

Assumes truth is absolute and independent of human perspectives.

Relies on numbers and statistics.

Analysis and interpretation based on generalized findings from samples to populations.

Research Process: Emulates natural scientists by collecting data in specific steps. Aims for objectivity and
neutrality.

Data Analysis: Statistical procedures applied for generalization.

Qualitative Methods:

Emerged from the belief in relative truth.

Acknowledges that knowledge is constructed by individuals with their assumptions, biases, and prejudices.

Recognize the impossibility of complete objectivity but emphasize the development of shared knowledge.

Often used for unexplored problems.

Utilizes smaller samples for in-depth understanding.

Research Process: Flexible and circular research plan. Investigates problems from respondents'
perspectives.

Focus: Understanding what respondents think and feel about a phenomenon. Interpretation from the
respondent's frame of reference. Studies phenomena in their natural context.

Mixed-Methods Approach:

® Combines quantitative and qualitative methods in the same study.

Structured questionnaires (quantitative) and open-ended interviews (qualitative).

Surveys (quantitative) and case studies (qualitative).

Questionnaires (quantitative) and observations (qualitative).

Purpose: Confirms or elaborates findings from both approaches.

 Social science benefits from the use of either approach or their combination.
 Knowledge generated through these approaches contributes to the understanding and improvement of
the quality of life.

Criterion Quantitative Qualitative

Structure/design Rigid Flexible
Size of the study Often big Likely small
Personal involvement of the
Objective/ neutral Subjective
researcher
Seeks to generate findings and Seeks to understand the
Reasoning generalise from the sample to the phenomenon under study from
population (deductive) the sample
Not representative of the
Samples Representative of the population
population
Oral and written expressions of
Types of data collected Measurements; scores; counts
opinions feelings, etc
Theory emerges as the study
Theory Tests a theory continues or as a product of the
study
Tests whether a statement of
May generate more theories and
Hypothesis relationship between variables
hypothesis
can be confirmed
Data analysis Statistics Coding, text analysis
 Analysis Use numbers and statistics
Variables Seeks to find relationships
between variables [dependent
and independent]
Literature study
Extensive literature study is done
at the beginning of the study
Data Collection Collected using structured
methods such as surveys,
experiments, or observations
with predefined variables.
Data Analysis Statistical techniques are
applied, providing numerical
results and patterns.
Interpretation Findings are interpreted to draw
conclusions and answer specific
research questions.
Uses recurrence of themes
Seeks to understand the
variables
Literature study is sometimes
delayed until data has been
collected
Gathered through interviews,
focus groups, or open-ended
surveys to capture in-depth
insights, opinions, and
experiences
Thematic analysis, content
analysis, or grounded theory to
identify themes, patterns, and
meanings
Findings are interpreted in a
context-rich manner, providing a
deeper understanding of the
research problem

The steps in quantitative research

1. Selection and Formulation of the Research Problem:

 Identify an area of study.

 Specify clear research questions.

2. Reviewing Literature:

 Acquire knowledge of current theory and research in the field.

 Review existing literature on the subject.

 Identify necessary variables.

 Develop conceptual and operational definitions.

 Formulate testable hypotheses.

3. Developing a Research Method:

 Clarify research questions, variables, and hypotheses.

 Choose a research design.

 Select a sampling method.

4. Developing a Data Collection Instrument:

 Develop an instrument based on the chosen research method.

 Test the appropriateness and quality (validity and reliability) through a pilot study.

5. Sampling:

 Use the identified sampling method to draw an actual sample from the general population.

 Develop a detailed description of the sample.

6. Data Collection:

 Administer the research instrument to the sample.

 Gather or collect data.

7. Data Analysis:

 Organize and check collected data for accuracy and completeness.

 Use arithmetic and statistical tests to describe the sample data.

 Generalize findings from the sample to the population.

8. Interpretation of Results:

 Consider what the results of the statistical analysis reveal about the research questions.

 Evaluate the extent to which the research has answered the questions.

 Assess the trustworthiness of the answers.

9. Conclusions and Recommendations:

 Draw conclusions based on the interpretation of results.

 Make considered recommendations.

 Recommendations may pertain to social policy, action, or suggest areas for further research.

10. Dissemination of Results:

 Present results in various forms, such as research reports, seminars, conference papers, books,
and peer-reviewed journal articles.

It's important to note that these steps are iterative and interconnected. The process may involve revisiting
earlier steps based on findings and insights gained during the later stages of the research. Additionally,
ethical considerations and the use of appropriate research ethics must be integrated throughout the entire
research process.

The steps in qualitative research

1. Selection and Formulation of the Research Problem:

 Start with a descriptive research question.

 Define the components at a conceptual level without operational definitions and hypotheses.

2. Reviewing Literature:

 Explore existing studies related to the research question.

 Increase understanding of the concept under investigation.

 Literature study may coincide with data collection in qualitative research.

3. Developing a Research Method:

 Determine the most appropriate method for gathering data.

 In qualitative research, commonly used data collection tools are interviews and focus group
discussions.

4. Developing a Data Collection Instrument:

  If using interviews, design an interview guide.

5. Sampling:

 Unlike quantitative studies, representative samples are not a strict requirement.

 Aim to deeply understand the phenomenon by selecting participants with characteristics

associated with the research focus.

6. Data Collection and Analysis:

 Often occur simultaneously or in alternating cycles.

 Data includes words (written and spoken), artifacts, pictures, and video.

 Methods like audio tape recorders and video cameras may be used for interviews.

 The process is flexible and cyclic, with data collection and analysis informing each other.

7. Interpretation of Results:

 Study the results to gain an overview.

 Assess the extent to which research questions have been addressed and answered.

 Consider the trustworthiness of the answers.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations:

 Draw conclusions based on the interpretation of results.

 Make recommendations, which could be related to social policy, action, or further research.

9. Dissemination of Results:

 Share findings through reports, seminars, conference presentations, books, or peer-reviewed

journal articles.

This framework highlights the non-linear and iterative nature of qualitative research, where various stages
may overlap and inform each other. It also emphasizes the importance of flexibility and adaptability in
response to emerging insights during the research process.

The steps in mixed methods research

Mixed-methods research may involve quantitative data collection (a big sample using questionnaires, for
example) and then move onto a qualitative data collection separately, using a sample made up of a limited
number of participants from the original sample

® involves combining both methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem.

® researchers may choose to emphasize either the quantitative or qualitative aspect based on the nature
of the research question and the objectives of the study.

Mixed-methods researchers decide when and how to integrate quantitative and qualitative data. This can
occur at different stages, including during data collection, data analysis, or at the interpretation phase.

Researchers should clearly articulate why they chose to combine both types of data and how this
enhances the overall study. This rationale should align with the research question and objectives.
Researchers are required to provide a detailed account of the entire research process, from formulating the
research problem to reaching the final results and conclusions.

Emphasize the scientific rigor in both the quantitative and qualitative aspects, ensuring transparency in
methods, data collection, and analysis procedures.

Mixed-methods research aligns with the scientific method by systematically addressing a research problem,
collecting and analysing data, and deriving conclusions. The combination of quantitative and qualitative
approaches enriches the overall research process.