386 Numerical Methods

x y ∆ ∆2 ∆3 ∆4

−1 −2
3
0 1 0
3 8
1 4 8 −8
11 0
2 15 8 12
19 12
3 34 20
39
4 73

The fourth differences must vanish for a polynomial of degree 3. The error terms propagate
in a Binomial manner (for fourth differences ε(1, –4, 6, –4, 1)). It is easy to see that in
( )
fourth differences, we have (−8, 12)  2 ..., −4, 6,...,... . Hence we have an error, ε = 2,
which is corresponding to x = 2­ .

Hence, the correct value for y2 is given by

y2 = 15 – 2 =13
On using this value of y2, we have a correct table as follows
x: −1 0 1 2 3 4
y: −2 1 4 13 34 73

Exercise 9
1. Use the definitions of various finite differences to prove the following results
a) ∆ 3f1 = ∇3f4 = δ 3f5/2 ,
2
 δ 2
b) 1+ δ 2 µ 2 ≡  1+  ,
 2
δ
c) E 1/2 ≡ µ +
,
2
∆ ∇
d) ∆ + ∇ = − .
∇ ∆
Finite Operators 387

 ∆2 
2. Find the value of the expression,   x 2 . Ans. 2h2
 E 
3. Prove that, if the polynomial Pn(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then ∆ 2 Pn ( x ) is of degree ≤ n − 2.
4. Show that for the polynomial, Pn ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2 x 2 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ + an x n ; the nth order difference is
constant and higher order differences are zero. Is the converse true?
5. Prepare the finite difference table for the polynomial P3 ( x ) = x 3 + 3 x − 1 for the points x = –1, 0,
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Verify that the third differences are constants and fourth and higher differences
are zeroes.
Ans.

x y ∆(∇ , δ ) ∆ 2 (∇ 2 , δ 2 ) ∆ 3 (∇ 3 , δ 3 ) ∆ 4 (∇ 4 , δ 4 ) ∆ 5 (∇ 5 , δ 5 ) ∆ 6 (∇ 6 , δ 6 )
–1 –5 4 0 6 0 0 0
0 –1 4 6 6 0 0
1 3 10 12 6 0
2 13 22 18 6
3 35 40 24
4 75 64
5 139

 f ( x )  g( x )∆f ( x ) − f ( x )∆g( x )
6. Prove that ∆ = g( x ) g( x + h)
and use this result to verify that
 g( x ) 

 1  −∆g( x )
∆
g( x )  = g( x )g( x + h) provided g( x ) ≠ 0.
 

7. Find the nth forward differences of the functions sin(ax + b ), cos(ax + b ) and eax+b.
Ans.
n
  ah    n 
 2 sin  2   sin  ax + b + 2 ( ah + π )
n
  ah    n 
2 sin    cos  ax + b + ( ah + π )
  2   2 

(e )
n
ah
− 1 e ax +b

8. ( )(
Evaluate ∇ 6 (1− x ) 1− 2 x 2 1− 3 x 3  at h = 2. )
Ans. –6(6!26) = –276480
∆2
9. Evaluate 2 ( sin( x + h)).
E
Ans. sin( x + h) − 2 sin( x ) + sin( x − h)
388 Numerical Methods

1
10. Prepare the finite difference table for the function f ( x ) = at x = −2 (0.5) 2.
1+ x 2
Ans.

x f(x) ∆(δ , ∇ ) ∆ 2 (δ 2 , ∇2 ) ∆ 3 (δ 3 , ∇3 ) ∆ 4 (δ 4 , ∇ 4 ) ∆ 5 (δ 5 , ∇5 ) ∆ 6 (δ 6 , ∇ 6 ) ∆ 7 (δ 7 , ∇7 ) ∆ 8 (δ 8 , ∇ 8 )

–2 0.2
–1.5 0.307692 0.107692
–1 0.5 0.192308 0.084615
–0.5 0.8 0.3 0.107692 0.023077
0 1 0.2 –0.1 –0.20769 –0.23077
0.5 0.8 –0.2 –0.4 –0.3 –0.09231 0.138462
1 0.5 –0.3 –0.1 0.3 0.6 0.692308 0.553846
1.5 0.307692 –0.19231 0.107692 0.207692 –0.09231 –0.69231 –1.38462 –1.93846
2 0.2 –0.10769 0.084615 –0.02308 –0.23077 –0.13846 0.553846 1.938462 3.876923
11. The population of Haryana state during census years is given below
Years Population (in Lakh)
1951 52.8
1961 75.9
1971 100.4
1981 129.2
1991 ?
2001 211.4
2011 253.5
Compute the missing population data and compare with the exact population of Haryana in
1991.
Ans. 164.6 Lakh.
12. Change the following data, such that the data follows a certain fourth-degree polynomial.
x: −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y: 25 8 6 4 17 80 253
Ans. Change the value of variable y at x = 0, from 6 to 5.
x: −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y: 25 8 5 4 17 80 253
Note that we can also compute the interpolating polynomial x 4 − 2 x + 5 from Lagrange or NDD
formula.