BOTANY LECTURE SECOND EXAM REVIEWER
Topic 4: Plant Hormones
Plant Hormones (aka Phytohormones)
-produced by plants in very small amounts
-organic substances (other than nutrients)
that in minute amounts modify a plant
physiological process
-unrelated chemical substances that affect
plant growth, development, and other
physiological processes.
-produced in nearly every part of the plant
which are transported to various locations
as needed.
explanation: the plant hormone is received
by a receptor in the plasma membrane which
will lead to reactions that will produce
secondary messenger, thus transduction
occurs in the cytoplasm. After which, the
hormones are induced via activation of
cellular response.
EXAMPLES OF PLANT HORMONES AND
THEIR SOURCES
1.) Auxins (indole)
2.) Gibberellins (terpenes)
3.) Abscisic Acid (ABA) (carotenoids)
4.) Ethylene (gases)
5.) Cytokinin (adenine)
Auxin Hormone
-from Greek word “auxein” which
means to grow
-function: plant hormones that
promote growth specifically:
1.) Tropisms – phototropism
(regulate the bending of plant
stems towards light) and
gravitropism (roots: positive
gravitropism since the auxin
accumulates on the lower side
causing cell elongation and the
root to grow downward;
shoots: negative gravitropism
since the auxin accumulates at
the upper side which inhabits
cell elongation and causing the
shoot to grow upward)
2.) Growth and Development –
a.) embryo development; b.)
vascular differentiation; c.) leaf
development and
arrangement; d.) root initiation
and development; e.) shade
avoidance; f.) interactions with
other growth-regulating
hormones
3.) Apical Dominance – suppress
the growth of lateral buds.
4.) Flowering and Fruit
Development – promote
flowering and fruit ripening; as
the seeds mature, they release
auxin to the surrounding
flower parts, which develop
into the fruit that covers the
seeds.
5.) Prevention of Abscission –
happens because of
interactions between auxin
BOTANY LECTURE SECOND EXAM REVIEWER
and ethylene. They prevent the when regulating shoot
premature fall of leaves, and root development
flowers, and fruits. (inhibit apical
dominance and the
-produced in: apical meristems, formation of lateral
young leaves, and developing seeds roots while auxin
before moving to other parts of the initiates lateral roots.)
plant. 3.) Gravitropism – similar
-transport mechanism: polar or to that of auxin; when a
nonpolar transport through the root is turned on its
phloem side, cytokinins
-commercial applications: accumulate on the
propagation, fruit setting and lower side which
dropping, and herbicides. inhabits cellular
elongation there. As
Cytokinins Hormone the upper surface of
-derivatives of the purine, adenine the root elongates, it
-function: promote cytokinesis (cell bends downwards.
division), furthermore it aids as well
-produced in: root tips and other young
in:
tissues.
-transport mechanism: xylem
1.) Seed Germination –
endosperm of monocot
Gibberellin (GA) (Gibberellic Acid) Hormone
seeds (e.g corn)
contains large stores of -growth-promoting substance isolated from
the precursor to they cultures of a fungus that parasitizes rice
cytokinin zeatin in plants by Japanese scientists in the 1930s.
which when the corn
-function: growth-promoting, furthermore:
germinates, zeatin
moves from the 1.) Shoot Elongation – promote
endosperm to the root stretching of cells, resulting in
tip where it stimulates increased growth and
vigorous mitosis. elongation of plant organs,
2.) Plant Development – primarily in stem and leaves.
involved in leaf 2.) Seed Germination – it breaks
formation; delays dormancy (state of inhibited
senescence (natural growth and development) in
aging of plants) in leaf the seeds of plants that require
tissues; chloroplast exposure to cold or light to
development; counter germinate.
the effects of auxin
 BOTANY LECTURE SECOND EXAM REVIEWER
3.) Bolting – GA play a significant
role in bolting (the
phenomenon where the plants
rapidly elongates its stem,
often just before flowering) by
stimulating cell elongation in
the stem of the plant when
triggered by environmental
conditions.
-produced/synthesized in: root and
stem apical meristems, young leaves,
and seed embryos.
-transport mechanism: vascular
tissue
-commercial applications: fruit
production and bolting and flowering
Abscisic Acid (ABA) Hormone
-response to stressful environmental
conditions such as dehydration, cold
temperatures, shortened day lengths,
exposure to saltwater or salinated soil.
furthermore:
1.) Seed maturation and
inhibition of germination –
ABA induces seed dormancy
and prevents premature seed
germination, ensuring that
seeds germinate under optimal
conditions.
2.) Bud dormancy – ABA induces
bud dormancy in plants by
promoting the formation of
bud scales, inhibiting bud
growth, and regulating gene
expression to withstand
environmental stresses.
3.) Response to water stress –
ABA triggers various
mechanisms such as stomatal
closure, reduced transpiration,
and altered gene expression, to
conserve water and survive
drought conditions.
-produced/synthesized in: mature leaves
and roots
-transport mechanism: vascular tissues
Ethylene Hormone
-smaller and simpler molecule that is a
volatile gas.
-function: known for its role in fruit ripening.
Furthermore:
1.) Fruit Ripening – ethylene
triggers the breakdown of cell
walls in fruits, leading to
softening and color changes. It
stimulates the conversion of
starch and acids to sugars
during fruit ripening.
2.) Abscission - ethylene
promotes abscission (shedding
of leaves, flowers, or fruits) in
plants by stimulating the
production of enzymes like
cellulase and pectinase, which
weaken cell walls, leading to
the separation of the
abscission zone and eventual
detachment of the organ from
the plant.
-produced/synthesized in: stressed, wilting,
or ripening tissues
-transport mechanism: moves through the
air as a gas
OTHER SIGNALING MOLECULES
 BOTANY LECTURE SECOND EXAM REVIEWER
1.) Brassinosteroids 7.) Florigen
-a systemic signal that initiates flowering
-do not travel far from their site of synthesis
involved in the formation of storage organs
-produced/synthesized in: young tissues
and contributes to plant architecture.
-function: inhibit root growth and fruit
-function: promotes flowering in response
dropping; positively influence apical
to daylength cues.
dominance, seed germination, gravitropism,
-produced/synthesized in: leaves and
lateral root formation, differentiation of cells
transported to the shoot apical meristem
in the vascular tissue, and resistance to
freezing.

2.) Systemin
-distributed systematically (everywhere) in
the plant body upon production
-a short polypeptide that activates plant
responses to wounds from herbivores.
-causes the plant to produce jasmonic acid.

3.) Jasmonates
-also work with systemin
-mediate responses to drought, damage by
ground-level ozone, and UV light.

4.) Salicylic Acid

-function: initiates a systemic (whole body)
response called “systemic acquired
response” as a response to infection caused
by parasites or pathogens.

5.) Oligosaccharins
-short chains of simple sugars
-play a role in plant defense against bacterial
and fungal infections
-act locally at the site of injury and can also
be transported to other tissues.

6.) Strigolactones
-function: promote seed germination (in
some species) and inhibit lateral apical
development in the absence of auxins.
 BOTANY LECTURE SECOND EXAM REVIEWER
Topic 5: Environmental Responses and
Defense Mechanisms
Tropism
-directional growth in response to a stimulus.
-positive tropism: when a plant (part of a
plant) grows towards the stimulus
-negative tropism: growth away from the
stimulus
Comprised of:
1.) Phototropism – directional growth in
response to light
2.) Gravitropism – directional growth in
response to gravity
3.) Hydrotropism – directional root growth
towards water
4.) Thigmotropism – directional growth in
response to constant directional pressure
Flowering
-signals that change the fate of the apical
meristem include the following:
1.) maturity of the plant
2.) temperature
3.) the plant hormone Gibberellin
4.) photoperiod
Photoperiodism
-biological response to the timing and
duration of day and night
Circadian Rhythms
-changes based on a 24-hour cycle
Etiolation and Shade Avoidance
-etiolation happens in low-light conditions,
causing elongated stems and pale leaves to
maximize light capture. Shade avoidance
occurs when plants sense neighboring
vegetation, prompting rapid stem elongation
and other changes to compete for light.
Dormancy - a state of reduced activity
triggered by environmental factors like
temperature or water availability. It helps
conserve energy and resources during
unfavorable conditions until conditions
improve for growth.
Plant Defense: Constitutive vs Induced
-constitutive defenses are always present
and provide baseline protection; induced
defenses are activated in response to threats
like herbivore attack or pathogen infection.
Physical or Structural Defense
-physical or structural defenses, such as
thorns, tough cell walls, or thick cuticles, are
typically constitutive defenses.
-cutin, suberin, and waxes: variety of lipids
associated with the wall for strength,
waterproofing, and pathogen attack.
-spinescence: collective term for plant
structures thorns, spines, and prickles.
-pubescence: collective term used to
describe the layers of trichomes on stems,
leaves, or even fruiuts
Chemical Defense
-can be both constitutive and induced,
depending on the specific compounds
involved and their production. Some
chemical defenses, such as toxins stored in
plant tissues, are constitutive and are
present regardless of external threats.
Others, like the production of defensive
compounds in response to herbivore feeding
or pathogen attack, are induced and
triggered by specific stimuli.
 BOTANY LECTURE SECOND EXAM REVIEWER
Phenological Defense
-phenological defense, which involves timing
life cycle events to minimize exposure to
environmental threats, is primarily
constitutive (e.g plants may flower or
produce fruits at specific times of the year to
avoid periods when herbivores or pathogens
are most active).