SuIjeclivil, FoIilics and Ovdev in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion

AulIov|s) BicIavd SaIva

Bevieved vovI|s)
Souvce SIavic Beviev, VoI. 54, No. 4 |Winlev, 1995), pp. 943-964
FuIIisIed I
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COMMENT
SuIjeclivil, FoIilics and Ovdev in
Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion
BicIavd SaIva
TIe cIanges ave jusl IaveI pevcepliIIe, Iul lIeiv consequences ave coIos-
saI, levviIIe. TIe inslanl vIen a Iunan Ieing naIes a decision and Iegins
lo acl can cIange nan naleviaI lIings. Houses, Jovlunes, peopIes' Iodies
can pevisI, Iul nolIing lIal is IvougIl aIoul is nove inpovlanl lIan lIal
vIicI is deposiled in lIe Iunan Ieing's consciousness. Consciousness
Iinils vIal can laIe pIace. Fvon IaveI pevcepliIIe cIanges lIal laIe pIace
in lIe avea oJ consciousness, lIe nosl uninaginaII inpovlanl, IinilIess
consequences can JoIIov.
Leo ToIslo'
WIiIe poIilicaI scienlisls, socioIogisls, econonisls and olIevs Iave de-
voled lIeiv laIenls and enevgies lo anaIses oJ oIjeclive Jaclovs in
lvansilions Jvon connunisn, suIjeclive Jaclovs oJ daiI IiJe, popuIav
alliludes and individuaI cIoices aIso vavvanl anaIsis.2 Fov Mavx, con-
sciousness vas eJJecliveI delevnined I nodes oJ pvoduclion3 and So-
viel sociaI science vegavded suIjeclive vaIues as neve appendages oJ
oIjeclive civcunslances. Undev poslconnunisn lIe lension Ie-
lveen delevnined sociaI pvocesses and individuaIil is Jav Jvon ve-
soIved and in cevlain aspecls Ias Ieen exacevIaled. Al Ieasl undev con-
nunisn lIeve vas a slvucluved and univevsaI aIlevnalive in lIe Jovn
TIe suppovl oJ lIe NuJJieId Foundalion in lIe pvepavalion oJ lIis slud is gvaleJuII
acInovIedged. Connenls and cvilicisns on eavIiev vevsions oJ lIe papev I Linda
LuIvano, Mav McAuIe, Bavid McLeIIan, SleJan BossIacI, MicIaeI UvIan and, aIove
aII, Avpad SzaIoIczai IeIped Iving sone sovl oJ ovdev oul oJ cIaos, and lIeiv assislance
is nucI appvecialed. TIe ave, oJ couvse, aIsoIved Jvon aII vesponsiIiIil Jov lIe vievs
pvesenled Ieve.
1. Leo ToIslo, Hov Lilevaluve TeacIes Us aIoul MovaI and FscIoIogicaI LiJe,
in Oeovge OiIian, ed., TIe FovlaIIe NineleenlI-Cenluv Bussian Beadev |London Fenguin
BooIs, 1993), 530-31.
2. TIe cIassic slud in lIis vespecl is AIexis de TocqueviIIe's, Benocvac in Anevica
|Nev YovI Bandon House, 1981), vIeve Ie noled lIe inpovlance oJ noves, cuslons
and IaIils oJ lIe Ieavl |179) in lIe deveIopnenl oJ lIe Anevican poIil.
3. Il is nol lIe consciousness oJ nen lIal delevnines lIeiv Ieing, Iul, on lIe
conlvav, lIeiv sociaI Ieing lIal delevnines lIeiv consciousness, |FveJace lo TIe Cvi-
lique oJ FoIilicaI Econon, in KavI Mavx and FvedevicI EngeIs SeIecled WovIs [London Lav-
vence and WisIavl, 1968], 182).
SIavic Beviev 54, no. 4 |Winlev 1995)
944 SIavic Beviev
oJ capilaIisl socielies, vIeveas lIe pevceived lviunpI oJ denocvalic
capilaIisn Ias inposed an appavenlI ineIuclaIIe delevninisn upon
lIe IislovicaI pvocess and sociaI veIalions.
WIiIe lIe dislinclion Ielveen oIjeclive and suIjeclive Jaclovs
nigIl Ie queslioned, as veII as lIe veIalive veigIl lo Ie allviIuled lo
lIen, il Ias nevevlIeIess pevvaded veslevn lIougIl since lIe cavlesian
vevoIulion in epislenoIog.4 TIe veceplion in Bussia in lIe 1830s oJ
HegeI's lIougIl, and Ialev oJ Mavx's, vas allended I vigovous deIale
ovev suIjeclive and oIjeclive Jaclovs in Iislov. MenIevs oJ lIe SlanI-
evicI civcIe, IiIe Vissavion BeIinsIii and MiIIaiI BaIunin, adIeved lo
vIal vas pevceived as an oIjeclive, valionaI necessil oJ IislovicaI pvo-
cess, Iul lIe Ialev veIeIIed againsl vIal BaIunin caIIed IislovicaI oI-
jeclivisn. Felev Lavvov's and NiIoIai MiIIaiIovsIii's scIooI oJ suI-
jeclive socioIog venl lo lIe exlvene oJ avguing lIal lIe so-caIIed
oIjeclive Iavs oJ Iislov veve neveI sponlaneous lendencies oJ deveI-
op-nenl lIal couId Ie eJJecliveI opposed I lIe suIjeclive Jaclov |i.e.,
Iunan viII and consciousness) ... ..5 TIe lension Ielveen cvedence in
oIjeclive Iavs oJ sociaI deveIopnenl and lIe espousaI oJ Iunan viII
and pevsonaIil vas cenlvaI lo lIe Bussian vevoIulionav novenenl,
and vas slvongI navIed in lIe vovIs oJ FIeIIanov and olIevs unliI
Lenin pvovided a vadicaI soIulion I deveIoping vevoIulionav suI-
jeclivisn |as Bosa LuxenIuvg levned IoIsIeviI voIunlavisn)6 vIiIe
vadicaII undevnining lIe poIilicaI aulonon oJ lIe individuaI.7
In veJevence lo lIe veIalionsIip oJ lIe individuaI |as a sociaI and
novaI Ieing) lo sociaI pvocesses, Max WeIev noled lIal, vIiIe vudi-
nenls oJ a capilaIisl sociel veve pvesenl in Iale nedievaI IlaI, il looI
a dislinclive spivil oJ capilaIisn lo suslain a nev Jovn oJ sociaI ov-
ganizalion:8 B. H. Tavne avgued lIal Fuvilanisn nuvluved lIe alli-
ludes and discipIines lIal suslained capilaIisl accunuIalion.9 In lIe
conlenpovav US, loo, lIe iIIs oJ IigI nodevnil Iave pvonpled a ve-
luvn lo locqueviIIean IaIils oJ lIe Ieavl, lIe nix oJ lvails naIing up
nalionaI cIavaclev, and a pavlicuIav Jocus on lIe lension Ielveen in-
dividuaIisn and viaIIe connunil IiJe.'0
4. Fov vecenl and vev diJJevenl lvealnenls oJ lIe pvoIIen, see AIain Touvaine,
Cvilique oJ Modevnil |OxJovd BIacIveII, 1995): and OeoJJve V. KIenpnev, Naive Mela-
pIsics A TIeov oJ SuIjeclive and OIjeclive WovIds |London AveIuv, 1995).
5. Andvzej WaIicIi, Mavxisn and lIe Leap lo lIe Kingdon oJ Fveedon TIe Bise and FaII
oJ lIe Connunisl Ulopia |SlanJovd SlanJovd Univevsil Fvess, 1995), 228-29.
6. Bosa LuxenIuvg, Leninisn ov Mavxisn? |Ann AvIov Univevsil oJ MicIigan
Fvess, 1961), 107.
7. Lenin's onI pIiIosopIicaI vovI, MaleviaIisn and Enpiviocvilicisn |1909) devoled
nucI eJJovl lo allacIing suIjeclivisn.
8. Max WeIev, TIe Fvoleslanl ElIic and lIe Spivil oJ CapilaIisn |London AIIen &
Unvin, 1976).
9. B. H. Tavne, BeIigion and lIe Bise oJ CapilaIisn |London FeIican, 1938).
10. See in pavlicuIav BoIevl N. BeIIaI el aI., HaIils oJ lIe Heavl IndividuaIisn and
Connilnenl in Anevican LiJe |BevIeIe Univevsil oJ CaIiJovnia Fvess, 1985): BoIevl N.
BeIIaI el aI., eds., IndividuaIisn and Connilnenl in Anevican LiJe Beadings on lIe TIene oJ
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 945
Il is lIus ivonic lIal, vIiIe in lIe vesl lIeve Ias Ieen a veneved
inlevesl in connunil, in Bussia, vIose pIiIosopIicaI Iislov is
gvounded in pvoIIens oJ coIIeclivil |soIovnosl'), il Ias Ieen denigvaled
in navvovI uliIilavian levns and Ias Ieen vepvesenled as an oIslacIe
lo lIe counlv's veinlegvalion inlo lIe nainslvean oJ poIilicaI deveI-
opnenl. Buving lIe Bussian lvansilion, Jaclovs conlviIuling lo lIe
coIesion oJ a sociaI ovdev Iave Ieen dispavaged in opposilion lo lIe
aIIeged vivlues oJ aIslvacl econonic Iavs and univevsaI advocac oJ
IiIevaI vigIls.12 Bul Jveedon deJined in levns oJ lIe IiIevalion oJ lIe
pvivale as opposed lo lIe puIIic ov coIIeclive evodes lIe vev Iasis on
vIicI a nodevn poIilicaI connunil na Ie eslaIIisIed. In a poIilicaI
sense, Bussia Ias veluvned lo a slale vIeve lIe inslilulions oJ civiI so-
ciel ave vudinenlav, lIe vuIe oJ Iav enIvonic and pvopevl vigIls
avIilvav. NeilIev HoIIes's sociaI conlvacl, enlaiIing an excIange oJ
Jveedon Jov secuvil, nov Bousseau's, I vIicI individuaI JuIJiInenl is
acIieved lIvougI coIIeclive vaIues, IoIds nan allvaclions Jov posl-
connunisl socielies.
In lIe conlexl oJ Bussia's aulIovilavian pasl an enpIasis on IiIev-
aIisn is undevslandaIIe: Iul nodevn IiIevaIisn cones in aII sIapes and
sizes, vanging Jvon AngIo-Anevican neo-IiIevaIisn |ov neo-consev-
valisn) lo conlinenlaI CIvislian denocvac. |Indeed, EnnanueI
Mouniev's nolion oJ pevsonaIisn, cenlvaI lo CIvislian denocvac, is
venavIaII veniniscenl oJ eavIiev Bussian lIinIing, pavlicuIavI lIal
oJ S.M. FvanI.)'3 And CIvislian denocvac in poslconnunisl Bussia
veJIecls pIiIosopIicaI and poIilicaI JaiIuves lo suslain an indigenous
aIlevnalive lo sinpIiJied, gIoIaI-Iegenonic discouvses and pvaclices.'4
Al lIe sane line, lIese discouvses Iave Ieen slvipped oJ nucI lIal
HaIils oJ lIe Heavl |Nev YovI Havpev & Bov, 1987). TIe Jeav lIal excessive individu-
aIisn nigIl lIvealen Jveedon and lIe viaIiIil oJ sociel ilseIJ Ias Ied lo a veneved
inlevesl in connunilavianisn, see Jov exanpIe, FIiIip SeIznicI, TIe MovaI Connon-
veaIlI SociaI TIeov and lIe Fvonise oJ Connunil |BevIeIe Univevsil oJ CaIiJovnia Fvess,
1992): Anilai Elzioni, TIe Spivil oJ Connunil BigIls, BesponsiIiIilies, and lIe Connuni-
lavian Agenda |Nev YovI Cvovn FuIIisIevs, 1993).
11. Fov a sopIislicaled vevsion oJ lIis avguvnenl, see N. BivuIov and V. Sevgeev,
Bussia's Boad lo Benocvac FavIianenl, Connunisn and TvadilionaI CuIluve |AIdevsIol Ed-
vavd EIgav, 1993).
12. CJ. Felev MuvveII, Consevvalive FoIilicaI FIiIosopI and lIe Slvaleg oJ Eco-
nonic Tvansilion, in JoIn H. Moove, ed., Legacies oJ lIe CoIIapse oJ Mavxisn |FaivJax
Oeovge Mason Univevsil Fvess, 1994), 165-79, vIicI dvavs on Ednund BuvIe, KavI
Foppev and MicIaeI OaIesIoll lo counlev ideas oJ IiIevaI ulopian sociaI veconslvuc-
lion. OaIesIoll's BalionaIisn in FoIilics and OlIev Essas |Nev YovI Basic BooIs, 1962)
is pavlicuIavI useJuI in lIis vespecl.
13. On FvanI, see F.C. BooIIev, S. L. FvanI TIe
LiJe
and WovI oJ a Bussian FIiIos-
opIev, 1877-1950 |AlIens OIio Univevsil Fvess, 1995): Jov CIvislian Benocvalic
lIinIing on lIe queslion, see e.g. EnnanueI Mouniev, FevsonaIisn |Nolve Bane Nolve
Bane Univevsil Fvess, 1950).
14. See BicIavd SaIva CIvislian Benocvac in Bussia, BeIigion, Slale and Sociel
20, no. 2 |1992) 135-68: iden, CIvislian Benocvac and CiviI Sociel in Bussia, Be-
Iigion, Slale and Sociel 22, no. 3 |1994) 273-303.
946 SIavic Beviev
nade lIen viaIIe in lIe Jivsl pIace: vevoIl againsl slale oppvession Ias
Iecone an upvising againsl lIe nolion oJ lIe puIIic good |ves puIIica)
in ils enlivel. TvagicaII, lIose vIo velain a IeIieJ in vepuIIican viv-
lues lend lo douIl lIal Bussian sociel ilseIJ viII genevale lIen and
Javov lIe inposilion oJ ovdev Jvon oulside Ience lIe consislenlI IigI
suppovl Jov vavious Jovns oJ aulIovilavianisn.'5 Moveovev, lIose, IiIe
AndvanniI Migvanan, vIo espouse lIe vuIe oJ a IoIIesian soveveign,
equale lIe LevialIan vilI vivlue |unsuspecling, il seens, lIal lIe aged
and veIaliveI loolIIess MoIocI ovevlIvovn in 1991 vouId in aII IiIeIi-
Iood Ie vepIaced I one denanding a nev genevalion oJ sacviJices).
TIe navxisl viev |Iovevev quaIiJied) lIal sociaI Ieing delevnines
consciousness vas nol veaIized in quile lIe va lIal vevoIulionav so-
ciaIisls anlicipaled. TIe Iong slvuggIe Jov civic dignil in connunisl
counlvies, cuIninaling in lIe vevoIulions oJ 1989-1991, suggesls lIal,
on lIe conlvav, consciousness delevnines sociaI Ieing ov, al lIe vev
Ieasl, pIas a Iavge pavl in noIding lIe conlouvs oJ a poIil.'6 Fvon lIis
il nigIl Ie oIsevved lIal iJ pallevns oJ poIilics ave dissonanl nol onI
vilI lecInoIogicaI and olIev socio-cuIluvaI deveIopnenls |lIe oId nod-
evnizalion avgunenl), Iul aIove aII vilI Jovns oJ suIjeclivil, lIen so-
ciel seeIs lo vejecl ov nodiJ lIose poIilics lo puvsue IiJe-slIes
nove congvuenl vilI inlvinsic pallevns.'7 SucI an oIsevvalion cIeavI
vaises aII sovls oJ pvoIIens oJ delevninalion and causaIil, Iul il seens
lo ne vovlI puvsuing.
TIe queslion oJ congvuence is a cvuciaI one Iul Ias |pevIaps viseI)
Ieen avoided in lIe Iilevaluve, nol onI Iecause oJ diJJicuIlies in eslaI-
IisIing dependenl and independenl vaviaIIes, Iul aIso Iecause oJ lIe
sIeev conpIexil oJ nodevn socielies, in vIicI pvenodevn suIjeclivi-
lies coexisl aIongside nove nodevn Jovns. As I sIaII sIov, vIiIe nelI-
odoIogicaI pvoIIens oJ congvuence Iave Ieen avoided, suIslanlive as-
sevlions avising Jvon ils pvenises Iave Ieen JveeI dispevsed, in
pavlicuIav I lIose vIo see sone pvinovdiaI Bussian poIilicaI cuIluve
veassevling ilseIJ in lIe veeslaIIisInenl oJ pallevns oJ aulIovilavian
vuIe.
'8
OlIevs avgue lIal vIiIe lolaIilavianisn nigIl Iave Ieen
cvusIed al lIe poIilicaI IeveI, il Ias nol suslained a siniIav deJeal al lIe
socio-pscIoIogicaI IeveI.
'
9TIe inpIied lIesis oJ nucI oJ lIe deIale
ovev denocvalizalion in Bussia is lIal lIe counlv's poIilicaI cuIluve,
15. CJ. Ovigov VainsIlein, TolaIilavian FuIIic Consciousness in a Fosl-TolaIi-
lavian Sociel, Connunisl and Fosl-Connunisl Sludies 27, no. 3 |1994) 247-59.
16. See VacIav HaveI, TIe Fovev oJ lIe FovevIess, in VacIav HaveI el aI., TIIe
Fovev oJ lIe FovevIess |CIicago HulcIinson, 1985).
17. Sludies on lIe inlevaclion oJ oIjeclive and suIjeclive Jaclovs in connunisl
and poslconnunisl socielies incIude Jadviga SlaniszIis, TIe Bnanics oJ BveaIlIvougI
in Easlevn Euvope |BevIeIe Univevsil oJ CaIiJovnia Fvess, 1991), esp. aJlevvovd: and
EIenev HanIiss, Easl Euvopean AIlevnalives |OxJovd CIavendon, 1990), esp. cIaps. 2-3.
18. TIis appeavs lo Ie lIe pvevaIenl viev in cenlvaI Euvope. See, Jov exanpIe,
Jadviga SlaniszIis, TIe Wovving Fovev SIiJl in lIe KvenIin, Euvopean BvieJ 2, no. 4
|1994)
73-74.
19. VainsIlein, 248.
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 947
aulIovilavian lvadilions, sociaI slvucluve and eIile inlevaclions in sone
va delevnine lIe oulcone oJ cuvvenl cIanges, ivvespeclive oJ pop-
uIav aspivalions ov lIe slaled ains oJ poIilicaI IeadevsIip.
Foslconnunisl socielies indeed naniJesl a dislinclive sndvone,
ninicIing in vevevse lIe IoIsIeviI allenpl lo cIange sociel accovd-
ing lo ils ovn pvecepls: Iul lIese socielies ave sui genevis nev sociaI
Jovnalions. TolaIilavian sslens sougIl lo venaIe lIe idenlilies oJ
lIose vilIin lIeiv povev Iul, vIiIe lIe veve aIIe lo deslvo lIe Iases
Jov civiI sociel, lIe acluaI pevson vIo enevged Jvon lIe connunisl
expevience vas a Jav nove conpIex cIavaclev lIan is oJlen assuned.
Jusl as lIe deIale ovev appvopviale concepluaI and anaIlicaI nodeIs
oJ Soviel sludies vas nevev vesoIved, ov indeed lIe veIalive vivlues oJ
avea sludies vevsus conpavalive appvoacIes, so loo lIe sociaI anaIsl is
Jaced vilI a pvoIIen oJ nelIodoIog and a pIelIova oJ concepls, nan
oJ lIen nuluaII excIusive. TIis papev is a lenlalive and pveIininav
allenpl lo vaise lIe pvoIIen oJ suIjeclivil in Bussian poIilicaI evoIu-
lion and associaled queslions aIoul lIe veconslilulion oJ poIilics, lIe
eslaIIisInenl oJ ovdev and lIe Ianguage lIal ve na use lo descviIe
lIese pvocesses.
SinpIislic assunplions lIal lIe denocvalic expevinenl in Bussia
viII inevilaII JaiI Iecause oJ lIe counlv's Iislov, poIilicaI cuIluve and
slale deJovnalion laIe an unvavvanledI navvov viev oJ lIese pvo-
cesses. TIe oulcone oJ lIe cIanges in Bussia is nove slocIaslic lIan
is oJlen assuned. Bespile WeIev's pessinisn on lIe suIjecl,20 lIe JaiI-
uve oJ denocvac in eavI lvenlielI-cenluv Bussia cannol Ie deened
lo Iave vesuIled Jvon ovevdelevnined Jaclovs IiIe IacIvavdness
ov an aIIeged aulIovilavian poIilicaI cuIluve IislovicaI Iegacies ave in
conslanl pvocesses oJ veinlevpvelalion and poIilicaI cuIluves ave pev-
nanenlI dnanic. Al a deepev IeveI, even iJ lIe JunclionaI equivaIenl
oJ a veslevn-lpe sociel enevges in Bussia, JaiIuve lo suslain vIal
nigIl Ie caIIed civic suIjeclivil |lIe novaI independence oJ lIe in-
dividuaI eJJecliveI inlegvaled inlo lIe poIil) na Iead lo a nev ccIe
oJ cIange, pvecipilaling cvises nol onI in Bussia ilseIJ Iul aIso in lIe
vesl oJ lIe vovId.
SuIjeclivil and lIe Aulonon oJ SociaI Fvocesses
WIiIe AIexis de TocqueviIIe noled lIal A denocvalic vepuIIic ex-
isls in lIe Uniled Slales: and lIe pvincipaI eJJecl oJ [Iis] IooI Ias Ieen
lo expIain lIe causes oJ ils exislence, 21lIe scIoIav oJ poslconnunisn
is Jaced vilI a vev diJJevenl lasI. BalIev lIan descviIing vIal exisls
in lIe socielies lIenseIves, scIoIavs ave Jovced lo exanine lIe polenliaI
20. See, in pavlicuIav, Bouvgeois Benocvac in Bussia, in Max WeIev, TIe Bus-
sian BevoIulions, lvans. and eds. Oovdon C. WeIIs and Felev BaeIv |OxJovd FoIil Fvess,
1995).
21. TocqueviIIe, 170.
948 SIavic Beviev
Jov lIe enevgence oJ sonelIing nev, in pavlicuIav lIose condilions
undev vIicI a slaIIe |and possiII denocvalic) poIilicaI ovdev nigIl
deveIop in Bussia. TIal is, lo vIal exlenl nigIl Bussian and/ov Soviel
poIilicaI cuIluve and suIjeclivil aJJecl lIe evoIulion oJ vecognizaII
denocvalic pallevns in poslconnunisl poIilicaI IiJe? WIiIe lIe oIjec-
live pvoIIens oJ lIe lvansilion ave veII undevslood, sucI as lIe al-
lenpl lo inlvoduce econonic valionaIil and lo IuiId lIe vudinenls oJ
a nodevn slale, suIjeclive Jaclovs, sucI as lIe deveIopnenl oJ poIil-
icaI nelIods oJ conJIicl and inlevesl adjudicalion |a civic cuIluve)
and Bussia's adaplalion lo lIe inlevnalionaI connunil, ave equaII
inpovlanl.22 To IuiId inslilulions oJ IiIevaI denocvac and navIel
capilaIisn is onI one pavl oJ lIe Iavgev pvoIIen oJ genevaling a viaIIe
poIilicaI ovdev |OvdnungspoIiliI) in Bussia.
In lIe poslconnunisl conlexl a poIilicaI ovdev is sougIl in vIicI
lIe guIJ Ielveen vegine and sociel, Ielveen lIe pas IegaI and pas
veeI, is lvanscended, one vIicI pvovides inslilulionaIized necIanisns
Jov lIe vepvesenlalion oJ sociaI inlevesls, poIilicaI conleslalion and gov-
evnnenl cIange.23 AIove aII, a nev poIilicaI ovdev viII onI gain a de-
gvee oJ Iegilinac and slaIiIil iJ lIe sociaI suIjecl oJ lIe lvansilion,
lIe individuaI, is laIen inlo accounl. TIal vadicaI veJovning govevn-
nenls in Bussia, FoIand and eIsevIeve Iave JaiIed lo do so in lIe Jivsl
poslconnunisl eavs Ias pvovoIed lIe veluvn oJ veconsliluled con-
nunisl pavlies lo povev ov inJIuence. Oaidav's veJovns, Jov exanpIe,
IacIed an avaveness oJ IaIilualion and sociaIizalion, as iJ evevlIing
Iad lo |and lIeveJove couId) Ie done inslanlaneousI. Buving lIe ini-
liaI poslconnunisl peviod oJ exlvaovdinaviI poIilics in Bussia and
eIsevIeve, govevnnenls IeIaved as iJ poIilicaI pvocesses veve aulon-
onous oJ poIilics and sociaI Jovces and lIus exacevIaled pvoIIens-
Iad as lIe veve aJlev lIe IoIsIeviI inlevvegnun-oJ veconsliluling
novnaI poIilicaI IiJe.24 TIus lIe veconslilulion oJ poIilics, open-ended
conleslalions Ielveen vavious puIIic-poIic cIoices, Ias occuvved
sinuIlaneousI vilI douIIe cIosuves al lIe IeveI oJ IigI poIilics vIeve
najov conslilulionaI issues ave decided and al lIe IeveI oJ delaiIed poI-
ic cIoices.
Al lIe sane line lIeve Ias Ieen a pvoJound vedeJinilion in posl-
connunisl counlvies oJ vIal il neans lo Ie a cilizen. In lIe OveeI poIis
22. CJ. O. AInond and S. VevIa, eds., TIe Civic CuIluve FoIilicaI Alliludes and Be-
nocvac in Five Nalions |Fvincelon Fvincelon Univevsil Fvess, 1963): iden, TIe Civic
CuIluve Bevisiled |NevIuv FavI Sage, 1989).
23. TIe vovd ovdev Ieve is nol used in lIe sane va as in SanueI Hunlinglon's
FoIilicaI Ovdev in CIIanging Socielies |Nev Haven YaIe Univevsil Fvess, 1968). WIiIe nan
oJ Hunlinglon's poinls aIoul condilions Jov ovdev venain vaIid, in lIe poslconnunisl
vovId lIe slvess inevilaII JaIIs Iess on ovdev as an aIsoIule good lIan on vas oJ
veconsliluling poIilics lo acIieve sociaI inlegvalion and poIilicaI vesponsiIiIil vilIin
lIe ovevaII conlexl oJ venodevnizalion.
24. CJ., LesIie HoInes, NovnaIisalion and Legilinalion in Foslconnunisl Bus-
sia, in SlepIen WIile el aI., eds., BeveIopnenls in Bussian and Fosl-Soviel FoIilics |Nev
YovI MacniIIan, 1994), 309-30.
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 949
lIose concevned vilI pvivale IiJe |aIove aII vonen and sIaves) veve
deened depvived oJ lIal pavlicipalion in puIIic IiJe vIicI nade peo-
pIe JuII Iunan: and in inpovlanl vespecls lIe navxisl lvadilion ex-
pIicilI dvev on lIis Iine oJ lIougIl in espousing lIe nolion oJ species
Ieing, lIe JuII deveIopnenl oJ aII aspecls oJ lIe Iunan pevsonaIil.
BalIev lIan conlinuing lvadilions oJ civic vepuIIicanisn, duving lIe
anli-connunisl vevoIulions nol onI vas poIilicaI pavlicipalion Iiniled
Iul lIe pviovil oJ Iono econonicus ovev ciloen vas aJJivned.25 Expansive
deJinilions oJ poIilics and suIslanlive denocvac coIIapsed inlo a
JvigIleningI nininaIisl Ieap26 nol onI did connunisn dissoIve Iul
lIe vepuIIican lvadilion oJ poIilics inIeviled Jvon lIe OveeIs vas ve-
pudialed.27 TIe JaII oJ connunisn as a sslen and as an ideoIog pve-
saged lIe evosion oJ lIe inleIIecluaI lvadilion lIal Iad given IivlI lo
lIen, EnIigIlennenl valionaIil and lIe IiIe: and lIe pvocess nigIl
conlinue unliI lIe vev Iases oJ veslevn poIilicaI ovdev Iave unvaveIed.
WIeveas lIe vise oJ capilaIisn in veslevn Euvope vas acconpanied
I a pvoJound veIigiosil, and conslvained I an ideoIog oJ connunaI
pIiIanlIvop and eIenenls oJ slale palevnaIisn, in Bussia poIilicaI in-
pevalives oJ veJovn Iave Ieen divovced Jvon lIeiv novaI ov sociaI con-
lexls. Fuvilan aIsoIulisn, Viclovian IigInindedness and sociaI deno-
cvalic veJovnisl zeaI veve aII navIed I a nolion oJ sevvice lo lIe
connunil, sonelIing lIal conlinued in a vadicaI Iul uIlinaleI seIJ-
deslvuclive Jovn undev lIe Soviel vegine. TIe pviovilizalion oJ vigIls
ovev dulies Ias laIen a pecuIiavI econonic Jovn undev poslconnun-
isn, Iul lIe essenliaI negalion oJ lIe calegov oJ novaI inlegvil and
civic vesponsiIiIil |lIe space Ielveen lIe pevsonaI and lIe poIilicaI)
Iodes iII Jov lIe Juluve. Conlenpovav cIanges ave pvesenled as lIe
ineIuclaIIe oulcone oJ inpevsonaI-oIjeclive-econonic and sociaI
Jovces in vIicI lIe counlevvaiIing Jovce oJ CIvislian ov olIev vaIues is
pevceived as nol onI dsJunclionaI Iul aIso vieaclionav. Moveovev, lIe
vev Ianguage and inslilulions oJ pvolesl, so Iong appvopvialed I lIe
IoIsIeviIs, Iave Ieen deIegilinized. WIiIe in lIe nineleenlI cenluv
lIe necessilavianisn oJ HegeI and Mavx vas acconpanied I a vigov-
ous deIale and pvovoIed, Jov exanpIe, lIe gveal JIoveving oJ Bussian
25. Il sIouId Ie slvessed, Iovevev, lIal vIiIe poslconnunisl Bussia Ias velvealed
Jvon lIe IoIsIeviI vegine's slvess on nass pavlicipalion, lIe eIeclovaI pvocess in pvin-
cipIe aIIovs Jov gvealev eJJecliveness oJ lIe Iiniled pavlicipalion lIal venains.
26. TIe cIassic lexl Jov lIe nininaIisl deJinilion oJ poIilics isJosepI ScIunpelev's
CapilaIisn, SociaIisn and Benocvac |London AIIen & Unvin, 1943). TIe veslvucluving
oJ gendev veIalions, Jov exanpIe, is vev nucI al lIe Ieavl oJ lIe nev nininaIisn, one
oJ lIose Iidden pvocesses lIal ave vedeJining suIjeclivil. See, Jov exanpIe, Nanelle
FunI and Magda MueIIev, eds., Oendev FoIilics and Fosl-Connunisn |London BoulIedge,
1993): and Fegg Walson, Easlevn Euvope's SiIenl BevoIulion Oendev, SocioIog 27,
no. 3 |Augusl 1993) 471-87.
27. TIe Jeav oJ oIIIocvac, lIe povev oJ lIe noI, is lpicaI oJ lIe anli-connunisl
vevoIulions. TIeve vas nove lIan a Iinl oJ lIis, oJ couvse, in lIe Anevican posl-vev-
oIulionav sellIenenl, vilI ils anli-najovilavian Iias and eIaIovale cIecIs and IaIances
lo conlvoI lIe Jeaved vage oJ lIe denos.
950 SIavic Beviev
veIigious pIiIosopI in lIe vovIs oJ NiIoIai Bevdaev and olIevs, so-
ciel appeavs loda lo Iave Ieen slvucI dunI.
FoIilics is lIus Ieing veconsliluled in Bussia in lvo senses JovnaII,
as a veIease Jvon IoIsIeviI-inposed unaninil and as a puIIic spIeve
oJ poIic deIale: and inJovnaII, as a veaIn oJ Iiniled cIoices con-
slvained I lIe aIIegedI univevsaI inpevalives oJ capilaIisl denocvac.
TIe conslilulion oJ poIilics ilseIJ is Ieing cIanged. Bussia Ias once
again Iecone lIe sile Jov veJovns inposed upon valIev lIan enevging
lIvougI poIilics,28 and lIe inposilion Iecones douII Iuvdensone Ie-
cause lIe cuvvenl lvansJovnalion is Iased on vaIues genevaled aIvoad.
TIe counlv is appavenlI once again lvapped Ielveen is |Sein) and
ougIl |SoIIen). Since even Oeovg LuIacs insisled on lIe uIlinale au-
lonon oJ decisions Ielveen aIlevnalives29 and LeszeI KoIaIovsIi
suggesled lIal one oJ lIe cenlvaI Jealuves oJ slaIinisn vas lIe IIacI-
naiI oJ lIe singIe aIlevnalive in poIilicaI IiJe, 30 lIe ivon IavdI needs
veslaling.
TIe lvansilion cIaIIenges nol onI lIe spIeve oJ lIe poIilicaI Iul
aIso undevnines lIe nolion oJ elIicaI individuaIisn, Kanl's viev lIal
lIe individuaI is lo Ie lvealed as inlvinsicaII vaIuaIIe and nevev as a
neans. TIe Soviel expevience did nol deslvo individuaIisn Iul Jovced
il lo opevale in an essenliaII IosliIe envivonnenl, giving vise lo a Jvag-
nenled suIjeclivil Iased on dislvusl and an exaggevaled Jeav oJ poIil-
icaI associalion. TIe JaiIuve lo eslaIIisI an eJJeclive OvdnungspoIiliI and
lIe oIjecliJicalion oJ veJovn Ias aIso given vise lo aII sovls oJ novIid
sociaI snplons. In aII IiIeIiIood lIeve viII avise soonev ov Ialev a ve-
gine vIicI viII nainlain lIal oIjeclive, econonic and sociaI aspecls
oJ lvansilion ave insepavaIIe Jvon suIjeclive, novaI and pevsonaI
ones31 |vIelIev ils idion Ie nalionaIisl, anli-veslevn, neo-connunisl
ov sone olIev conIinalion is innaleviaI Jov n discussion). M poinl
is lIal exisling anli-poIilicaI lendencies in Bussia Iave Ieen veinJovced
I lIe inlvoduclion oJ an allenualed viev oJ veslevn poIilics vIicI can
neilIev suslain viaIIe poIilicaI ovdev al lIe IeveI oJ lIe slale nov pvo-
vide a suIjecliveI salisJaclov novaI ovdev al lIe individuaI IeveI.
Tovavd a TopogvapI oJ SuIjeclivil
To appvoacI lIe undevIing socio-pscIoIogicaI conlexl oJ lIe
cIanges in Bussia, lIe nuIlivaIenl cIavaclev oJ socielaI vaIues and lIe
pvoIIen oJ individuaI anlonon in lIe conlexl oJ poIilicaI veconsli-
lulion, one na pvoceed via discussions oJ suIjeclivil I Bescavles,
28. CJ. F.M. Bevnavd, FIuvaIisn, SociaIisn and FoIilicaI Legilinac |Nev YovI Can-
Ividge Univevsil Fvess, 1991), 138.
29. I. Meszavos, LuIacs' Concepl oJ BiaIeclic |Sl. Oeovge MevIin Fvess, 1972), 43.
30. LeszeI KoIaIovsIi, Tozvavds a Mavxisl Hunanisn |Nev YovI Ovove, 1968), 97.
31. In a vev diJJevenl conlexl, Oevlvude HinneIJavI Ias nade a siniIav poinl in
vieIalion lo lIe veslevn veIJave sslens |TIe BenovaIizalion oJ Sociel [London, Inslilule
oJ Econonic AJJaivs, 1995]).
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 951
Kanl, FicIle, HegeI, Hune, LuIacs, Heideggev and HussevI, Lacanian
pscIoIog and cuIluvaI sludies.32 M nelIod viII nol Ie so exIauslive:
I viII nol, Jov exanpIe, exanine lIe pvoIIen oJ veJIexivil |lIe oI-
sevvev as enIodied suIjecl) ov Iov lIe pevceplion oJ lIe vovId is IuiIl
up inlev-suIjecliveI. Nov viII I exanine lIe va lIal pve-Soviel elInic,
nalionaI and veIigious idenlilies veve pevpelualed-indeed vegenev-
aled in nev Jovns-I lIe vegine. Inslead, I sIaII oulIine lIvee ap-
pvoacIes lo, ov veadings oJ suIjeclivil in lIe Bussian conlexl and
suggesl lIal il is pveciseI lIe lension Ielveen lIese lIal conlouvs con-
lenpovav poIilics.
TIe Jivsl and nove slandavd veading oJ suIjeclivil is lo denole
lIe novaII neulvaI seIJ-avaveness oJ lIe individuaI in a sociaI conlexl:
as aulonon, il suggesls individuaI seIJ-aJJivnalion. As HussevI poinled
oul, lIe OveeIs Iad sel in nolion a IeIieJ in lIe dignil oJ individuaIs
and lIeiv aIiIil lo undevsland lIe vovId in vIicI lIe Iived |lIe
LeIensveIl) lIvougI pIiIosopI and science.33 In conlvasl lo lIe Ieninisl
suIovdinalion oJ novaIil and scienliJic valionaIil lo lIe cause oJ lIe
vevoIulion, a najov slvand oJ lIe Soviel vesislance novenenl deJended
lIe aulonon oJ science and lIe independence oJ novaI vaIues. TIus
lIe Jivsl pallevn oJ suIjeclivil can Ie cIavaclevized as IussevIian ve-
specl Jov lIe aulonon oJ science and InovIedge vIiIe vecognizing
lIeiv Iinilalions, especiaII in lIe conlexl oJ Soviel scienlisn. WilI lIe
possiIIe exceplion oJ lIe vav eavs, vIen lIeve vas lIe uniJicalion oJ
lIe innev and oulev seIves and lIe nev Soviel pevson veaII exisled,
suIjeclivil as Iunan aulonon vas Iepl vilIin vev slvicl Iounds in
lIe Soviel peviod |despile vIal lvadilionaIisls nigIl avgue loda). In-
deed, Jeav oJ lvespassing on pvoIiIiled poIilicaI levvilov oJlen added
exlva deplI lo Iunan veIalions individuaIs veve anlIing Iul cogs
vIen il cane lo sociaI veIalions. As NiIila MiIIaIIov Ias sIovn in Iis
JiIn Buvnl I lIe Sun |UlonIenne soInlsen), il is cIeav lIal peopIe Jound
neaning in lIe JaniI and Iove oJ lIe MolIevIand.
WIal is nove, lIe IoIsIeviI pvojecl pvovoIed pallevns oJ vesislance
lIvougIoul. TIe Kvonsladl saiIovs vevoIled nol onI againsl IoIsIeviI
poIilicaI diclalovsIip Iul againsl ils allenpls lo deslvo lIe novaI aulon-
on oJ lIe individuaI Bul nosl inJanous and cvininaI oJ aII is lIe
novaI sevvilude vIicI lIe Connunisls Iave inauguvaled lIe Iave
32. See, Jov exanpIe, Hivan Calon, TIe Ovigin oJ SuIjeclivil An Essa on Bescavles
|Nev Haven YaIe Univevsil Fvess, 1973): JosepI L. NavicIas, Consciousness and BeaIil
HegeI's FIiIosopI oJ SuIjeclivil |TIe Hague Mavlinus NijIoJJ, 1976): BicIavd TinolI
MuvpI, Hune and HussevI Tovavds BadicaI SuIjeclivisn |TIe Hague Mavlinus NijIoJJ,
1980): Benalo BosaIdo, CuIluve and TvulI TIe BenaIing oJ SociaI AnaIsis |London Boul-
Iedge, 1993): Luc Fevv, Hono AeslIelicus TIe Invenlion oJ Tasle in lIe Benocvalic Age |CIi-
cago Univevsil oJ CIicago Fvess, 1993): Janes B. FauIion, ed., BelIinIing lIe SuIjecl
An AnlIoIog oJ Conlenpovav Euvopean TIougIl |BouIdev Weslviev Fvess, 1994).
33. Ednund HussevI, TIe Cvisis oJ Euvopean Sciences and TvanscendenlaI FIenonenoI-
og, lvans. Bavid Cavv |Evanslon NovlIveslevn Univevsil Fvess, 1970): see aIso MuvpI,
Hune and HussevI, op cil.
952 SIavic Beviev
Iaid lIeiv Iands aIso on lIe innev vovId oJ lIe loiIevs, Jovcing lIen lo
lIinI in lIe Connunisl va. 34 Fallevns oJ suIjeclivil oJ seclions oJ
sociel, incIuding pavlicuIavI sone anong lIe inleIIigenlsia, peasanlv
and nalionaI ninovilies, venained connilled lo pvincipIes and slan-
davds oJ valionaIil, ov lo pallevns oJ daiI IiJe al vaviance vilI lIose
pvopounded I lIe vegine in lIis sense, lIe civiI vav nevei ended.
Fallevns oJ devianl suIjeclivil anong lIe Soviel scienliJic connu-
nil, e.g. lIe IioIogisl NiIoIai VaviIov35 and lIe gvoup oJ scienlisls as-
socialed vilI naluve-vesevve poIic,36 venained slvong unliI OovIa-
cIev's line, and cuIninaled |aJlev a Iong slvuggIe) vilI Andvei
SaIIavov Ieing cIosen depul lo lIe Congvess oJ FeopIe's Bepulies in
1989.37 TIe nolion oJ lIe vaIue oJ lIe individuaI, Iis ov Iev conscience
ov suIjeclivil and oJ lIe aulonon oJ lIe novaI Ieing, vas al lIe
cenlev oJ lIe dissidenl vvilings oJ, anong olIevs, VacIav HaveI and
Adan MicIniI. Il is lIis veading oJ dissenl, Iased aIove aII on lIe
nolion oJ vIal can Ie caIIed lIe venovaIizalion oJ sociel, lIal Ias
gained pvoninence in lIe vesl.
AIexandev SoIzIenilsn's exIovlalion Bo nol Iie! Bo nol laIe pavl
in lIe Iie! Bo nol suppovl lIe Iie!38 vas Ialev veJvacled lIvougI lIe
davI gIass oJ gIasnosl'. TIe OovIacIev IeadevsIip discoveved IeIaledI
lIal Iunan suIjeclivil |lIe Iunan Jaclov as lIe pul il), as veII as
Ivule econonic Jaclovs, is vequived lo nainlain a sociaI ovdev. As op-
posed lo lIe Ieninisl viev lIal novaIil vas suIovdinaled lo lIe cIass
slvuggIe oJ lIe pvoIelavial, peveslvoiIa sougIl lo appvopviale inlo So-
viel poIilicaI discouvse univevsaI pvincipIes oJ novaIil. WIiIe lIe ve-
Jovnevs sougIl a novaI venevaI oJ lIe sslen, Iovevev, lIeiv essenliaI
diIenna vas lIal lIis did nol necessaviI nean lIal il couId Ie lvans-
Jovned inlo an elIicaII jusl sslen.
A second appvoacI lo suIjeclivil sees il as inleviovizalion oJ pal-
levns oJ aulIovil. Fov FoucauIl |logelIev vilI NielzscIe, WeIev, EIias
and olIevs), suIjeclivil is nol a univevsaI Iul a cIavaclevislic oJ nod-
evnil, in vIicI individuaIs nol onI na Iul ave conslvained lo Iave
lIeiv ovn pevsonaI vievs on poIilics and evevlIing eIse vilI vIicI
34. WIal We Ave FigIling Fov? in FauI AvvicI, Kvonsladl 1921 |Fvincelon
Fvincelon Univevsil Fvess, 1970), 241.
35. MavI FopovsIii, BeIo aIadeniIa VaviIova |Moscov Kniga, 1991).
36. See BougIas B. Weinev, ModeIs oJ Naluve Consevvalion and Connunil EcoIog in
lIe Soviel Union, 1917-1935 |BIooninglon Indiana Univevsil Fvess, 1988).
37. As eavI as 1972 Bogev FooIe vvole In Bussia ilseIJ, lIe suIjeclive veJusaI oJ
lIe oIjeclivil vIicI vas vesponsiIIe Jov lIe invasion oJ CzecIosIovaIia Ias Ieen Ied,
nol I sludenls, Iul I scienlisls and avlisls oJ lIe IigIesl dislinclion. TIe nove vig-
ovous a poIilicaI ovlIodox is, lIe IigIev Iave ils cvilics lo Ie in lIe scienliJic ov sociaI
scaIe lo cIaIIenge il eJJecliveI. Indeed il vouId seen lIal il is al lIe IeveI oJ lIe NoIeI
Fvize lIal Bussian suIjeclivil Jivsl gels an oppovlunil lo vage ils IallIe, al lIal no-
nenl vIen lIe cvilevia oJ lIe oulside vovId Iave Jovced oIjeclivil lo laIe accounl oJ
ils cvilic. |Tovavds Beep SuIjeclivil [Nev YovI AIIen Lane, 1972], 29).
38. TIe Snallevevs, in A. SoIzIenilsn el aI., Fvon undev lIe BuIIIe |London Fon-
lana/CoIIins, 1976), 274.
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 953
lIe nusl conpIeleI idenliJ-and vIicI indeed Iecone pavl oJ lIeiv
idenlilies. TIal sucI individuaIil is I no neans oviginaI and usu-
aII consisls oJ lIe vepelilion oJ JovnuIaic lvuisns is nol veduciIIe lo
ideoIog ov nanipuIalion Iul, accovding lo FoucauIl, is pavl oJ a IigII
slvucluved pallevn oJ sociaI inlevaclion.39 In lIis veading, suIjeclivil
is consideved conpIenenlav lo individuaIil Iul lIe aulonon oJ lIe
individuaI is civcunscviIed.40
Fvon lIis pevspeclive, Jveedon in a pvenodevn sociel is diJJev-
enl Jvon ils conlenpovav inlevpvelalions individuaIs ave nol ex-
pecled lo Iave vievs and, indeed, lIe vepelilion oJ expIicil dognas is
aII lIal is vequived. IJ, as JoIn Ova avgues, lolaIilavian vegines vepve-
senl a vevoIl againsl nodevnil, depIoing nodevn ideoIog in lIe
sevvice oJ an anli-nodevnisl pvojecl,41 lIen sevevaI consequences
enevge al lIe individuaI IeveI.42 TIe Jveedon espoused I lIe Soviel
vegine vas in acluaIil lIe inposilion oJ dogna: viluaI incanlalion oJ
lIis veveaIed lvulI and JovnaI oIeisance lo ils asociaI novns veve
usuaII enougI lo ensuve suvvivaI. BeaI IiJe looI pIace vilIin one's
ovn nind ov vilIin lIe JvanevovI oJ a gvoup oJ Jviends. TIis gave
vise lo a navIed duaIil a JaIse suIjeclivil ovienled lovavd puIIic
consunplion and a veaI one in lIe snaIIev connunil |as Ias Ieen
discussed I CzesIav MiIosz in TIe Caplive Mind). Hovevev nucI an
39. TIis accounl dvavs on lIe iIIuninaling discussion oJ lIe pvoIIen oJ inleviov-
izalion I Avpad SzaIoIczai in Tpes oJ Maovs, Tpes oJ SuIjeclivil Conlinuilies
and Bisconlinuilies in lIe Easl-CenlvaI Euvopean Tvansilions. |Fivenze Euvopean
Univevsil Inslilule WovIing Fapev SFS No. 93/5, 1993), 14-15. A useJuI coIIeclion oJ
FoucauIl's essas and anaIsis can Ie Jound in CoIin Oovdon, ed., MicIeI FoucauIl Fovev!
KnovIedge |London Havveslev/WIealsIeaJ, 1980): and in OvaIan BuvcIeII, CoIin
Oovdon and Felev MiIIev, eds., TIe FoucauIl
EJJecl
Sludies in OovevnnenlaIil |London
Havveslev/WIealsIeaJ, 1991).
40. In Iis Iasl eavs FoucauIl deveIoped lIe nolion oJ cave oJ lIe seIJ, vIicI
suggesled lIal Iunan aulonon is possiIIe vilIin discuvsive poIilicaI Jovnalions. He
sougIl lo sIiJl lIe Jocus Jvon lIe lvadilion oJ InovIedge oJ lIe seIJ |lIe lIinIing
suIjecl) daling Jvon Bescavles lIvougI lo HussevI |Inov ouvseIJ), and lo velvieve
inslead lIe OveeI pvecepl lo Ie concevned vilI oneseIJ, vIicI, accovding lo Fou-
cauIl, vas one oJ lIe nain pvincipIes oJ cilies, one oJ lIe nain vuIes Jov sociaI and
pevsonaI conducl and Jov lIe avl oJ IiJe. See LulIev H. Mavlin, HucI Oulnan and
FalvicI H. Hullon, eds., TecInoIogies oJ lIe SeIJ A Seninav vilI MicIeI FoucauIl |Kenne-
IunIpovl TavislocI, 1988), 19-20. See aIso lIe inlevviev TIe ElIic oJ Cave Jov lIe
SeIJ as a Fvaclice oJ Fveedon in Janes Bevnauev and Bavid Basnussen, eds., TIe FinaI
FoucauIl |CanIvidge MIT Fvess, 1988), 1-20: and MicIeI FoucauIl, AIoul lIe Begin-
ning oJ lIe Hevneneulics oJ lIe SeIJ Tvo Lecluves al BavlnoulI, FoIilicaI TIeov 21,
no. 2 |Ma 1993) 198-227.
41. JoIn Ova, TolaIilavianisn, BeJovn and CiviI Sociel, in Fosl-LiIevaIisn Slud-
ies in FoIilicaI TIougIl |London BoulIedge, 1993), 158. Fov lIe puvposes oJ lIis essa I
sIaII assune lIal lIe anli-nodevn eIenenls oJ lIe vegine veve cognale vilI pve-
nodevn Jealuves. A nove suIlIe anaIsis |vIicI IacI oJ space pvevenls Ieve) vouId
expIove lIe diJJevences Ielveen lIe lvo.
42. In Iis TIe BiclalovsIip oJ lIe FvoIelavial |1918) KavI KaulsI vilI venavIaIIe
pvescience oulIined sone oJ lIese consequences, noling lIal aII allenpls lo sociaIize
pvoduclion vilIoul denocvac |IiIe lIe Jesuil slale oJ Favagua) Iad given vise lo
pvenodevn Jovns oJ palviavcIaI despolisn.
954 SIavic Beviev
individuaI nigIl JovnaII suInil lo lIe incveasingI lived and loolI-
Iess slvucluves oJ lIe LevialIan luvned BeIenolI, lIeve vas aIvas
scope Jov anolIev IiJe, lIe cuIlivalion oJ vIicI indeed Iecane lIe de-
Jining Jealuve oJ Iale connunisn.43 BuaIisn oJ suIjeclivilies, Iovevev,
is onI one eJJecl oJ veinposing pvenodevn veIalions Ielveen lIe in-
dividuaI and sociel: anolIev Jealuve oJ a poIil vilIoul poIilics is lIe
IiIevalion oJ lIe individuaI Jvon IolI lIe Iuvden oJ nodevnil and
lIe necessil oJ Iaving a viev on evev queslion. Fveedon Jvon ve-
sponsiIiIil is one oJ lIe Jealuves lIal posl-nodevnil Iovvovs Jvon
pve-nodevnil.44
A lIivd appvoacI lo suIjeclivil inlviguingI Jocuses on lIe conse-
quences oJ lIe dislovled deveIopnenl oJ nodevnil, in lIe sense de-
scviIed aIove, on Bussian sociaI consciousness. TIeve enevged a one-
dinensionaI, asociaI suIjeclivil navIed I an exaggevaled sense oJ
seIJ, isoIalion Jvon lIe poIil and a neo-ideaIisl denigvalion oJ oIjec-
live veaIil. TIe allenpl lo uniJ pevsonaI and connunaI IiJe |levned
I KoIaIovsIi a nlI oJ Iunan seIJ-idenlil 45) acIieved ils opposile,
a vupluve oJ lIe IinIs lIal Iind Iunans lo sociel. TIis asociaI suIjec-
livil |vIicI can vilI vesevvalions Ie duIIed nielzscIean) is dislinclive
in lIal cIassicaI nolions oJ aIienalion appeav lo Iave Ieen vevevsed.
Accovding lo EvicI Fvonn, aIienalion is a condilion in vIicI nan
does nol expevience IinseIJ as lIe aclive Ieavev oJ Iis ovn povevs and
vicIness, Iul as an inpovevisIed 'lIing', dependenl on povevs oulside
oJ IinseIJ, unlo vIon Ie Ias pvojecled Iis Iiving suIslance.46 Fov-
evs oulside oneseIJ couId Ie Jascisl, slaIinisl ov capilaIisl/consunevisl
slales and, accovding lo Fvonn, AIienalion as ve Jind il in nodevn
sociel is aInosl lolaI.47 Undev decaed lolaIilavianisn, Iovevev, so-
ciel veaIsovIed lIe capilaI oJ IeIieJ lIal il Iad pveviousI vesled in
IuiIding a nev sociaI ovdev. TolaI Iuveaucvalizalion Iad given vise lo
lolaI aIienalion Iul, invevling Mavx's viev lIal TIe Iuveaucval veIales
43. TIe anIivaIence oJ lIis duaIisn in lIe Bussian inleIIigenlsia, IolI IoIding
lIe vegine in conlenpl el viIIing lo sevve il, is expIoved I 0. AIlaev in TIe BuaI
Consciousness oJ lIe InleIIigenlsia and Fseudo-CuIluve, in MicIaeI Meevson-AIsenov
and Bovis SIvagin, eds., TIe FoIilicaI, SociaI and BeIigious TIougIl oJ Bussian Sanizdal
|BeInonl WovdIand, 1977), 116-47.
44. Modevnil, oJ couvse, vas cIavaclevized I lIe dispIacenenl oJ vesponsiIiIil,
aIove aII lo Iuveaucvalic agencies |see Zgnunl Baunan, Modevnil and lIe HoIocausl
[IlIaca CovneII Univevsil Fvess, 1989]). TIis vas nol, Iovevev, diveclI al lIe IeveI oJ
suIjeclivil Iul pavl oJ lIe JovnaI ovganizalion oJ sociel. TIe Soviel sslen aIso
acIieved lIe aInegalion oJ vesponsiIiIil lIvougI Iuveaucvalizalion and I pvocesses
oJ ideoIogicaI dispIacenenl lIal nininized suIjeclive vesponsiIiIil Jov one's aclions.
45. LeszeI KoIaIovsIi, TIe MlI oJ Hunan SeIJ-Idenlil Unil oJ CiviI and Fo-
IilicaI Sociel in SociaIisl TIougIl, in C. KuIalIas el aI., eds., TIe Tvansilion Jvon So-
ciaIisn Slale and CiviI Sociel in lIe USSB |MeIIouvne Longnan CIesive, 1991), 41-58.
46. TIis is vev nucI Mavx's ovn viev oJ lIe suIjecl. See WaIicIi, Mavxisn and
lIe Leap lo lIe Kingdon oJ Fveedon, cIap. 1.
47. TIe Sane Sociel |London BoulIedge & Kegan FauI, 1956), ciled in Oovdon
BovIev, ed., Fveedon Beason ov BevoIulion? |London BoulIedge & Kegan FauI, 1970),
32.
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 955
IinseIJ lo lIe vovId as a neve oIjecl oJ Iis aclivil, lIe vev oIjecliJi-
calion oJ sociaI pvocesses pvovoIed a vedouIIed appvecialion oJ lIe
suIjecl as dislincl Jvon lIe aIienaled sociaI vovId. TIe Soviel vegine
vas cIavaclevized I lIe exleviovizalion oJ aulIovil pallevns-a pve-
nodevn pIenonenon-valIev lIan I lIe inleviovizalion anaIzed I
FoucauIl.
In one sense, Bussia pavadoxicaII Ias enevged Jvon a connunisl
vegine one oJ lIe Ieasl aIienaled socielies in lIe vovId iIIusions vIicI
succov Iunan seIJ-aJJivnalion Iave aII Ieen nevciIessI exposed as
JaIse. TIe oIvevse oJ lIis is videspvead passivil and sense oJ JuliIil,
disiIIusionnenl valIev lIan aIienalion. |Soonev ov Ialev nev idoIs na
Ie Jound and nev sacviJices Iaid on veIuiIl aIlavs-IiIe consunevisn-
Iul iniliaII even nalionaIisn vas IaIJ-Ieavled.) Sone Iave veacled lo
nev oppovlunilies aIIoved I lIis silualion vilI an exaggevaled sense
oJ seIJ lIal, IacIing poIilicaI ov sociaI Jovn, Ias given vise lo anavcI
and disovdev: and lIe cIassic IiIevaI avgunenl lIal cevlain Iunan vigIls
ave pvepoIilicaI, i.e., inaIienaIIe and non-negoliaIIe, Ias Ieen ex-
lended I anaIog lo suggesl lIal lIe allviIules oJ lIe Iunan pevson-
aIil ave pvesociaI, giving vise lo Iiniled engagenenl vilI Iunan so-
ciel.
TIis is lIe covoIIav al lIe pevsonaI IeveI oJ lIe anli-inslilulionaI
Iias in dissidenl lIougIl lIal gave vise lo anli-poIilics. As Tanas puls
il, lIe nolion oJ civiI sociel vas pilcIed againsl lIe slale, vIeveas lIe
WIig idea vas lo conpIenenl lIe enJeeIIed slale ... lIe Easl Euvopean
dissidenls' idea vas lIal lIe nigIl IeIp lo deslvo an ovevI coevcive
ovdev.48 TIe exaggevaled iJ undevslandaIIe enpIasis on civiI sociel
|Iovevev unciviI il nigIl Ie) conlviIuled lo lIe deIegilinizalion oJ lIe
slale in ils enlivel: vilIin lIe volling cavapace oJ lIe oId vegine, il
vas IeIieved, a nev slvucluve oJ daiI IiJe |suIjeclivil) vas enevging,
vIose vaIues in enIvo conlained an aIlevnalive veaIil. Fvon lIis pev-
speclive, lIe oId couId Ie sIougIed oJJ lo aIIov lIe nev lo inIevil lIe
Iingdon oJ veaIil, iJ nol lvulI. Bvaving on sludies oJ lIe dissidenl
novenenl and olIev, nove Iidden vesislances lo lIe oId vegine, oJlen
vilIin lIe Ieavl oJ lIe sslen ilseIJ, lIe civiI sociel scIooI vouId
suggesl lIal lIe veIivlI oJ poIilics Iad deep vools and lIal, in Jacl, lIe
pvevious vegine Iad a duaI slvucluve lIe onloIogicaII dead and an
aIlevnale sociel, IolI civiI and sociaI. TIis Iallev vas lo deveIop a con-
slilulion as lIe Iasis oJ a nev poIilicaI sslen Iased on ovdev as op-
posed lo lIe poIilics oJ lIe Soviel vegine Iased on slaIiIil.
AII sovls oJ pvoIIens, Iovevev, devive pveciseI Jvon lIe lension
Ielveen lIe venovaIizing |ov IussevIian) lvend oJ lIe vesislance
|vIelIev il vas vilIin ov Ieond lIe sslen) and lIe anli-inslilulionaI
aspecl, vIicI I Iave cIavaclevized as asociaI suIjeclivil. One is lIe
assessnenl ilseIJ oJ pallevns oJ vesislance. WIiIe a connon appvoacI
48. O.M. Tanas, TIe Legac oJ Bissenl, Uncaplive Minds 7, no. 2 |Sunnev 1994)
27.
956 SIavic Beviev
is lo suggesl lIal lIe vesislance vepvesenled an enIvonic civiI sociel,
a spIeve oJ aulonon dislincl Jvon lIe vegine,49 lIis avgunenl con-
Juses civiI sociel as a sociaI calegov and as an ideoIogicaI one. WIiIe
inJovnaI novenenls duving lIe OovIacIev eavs lended lo suppovl
cIassic Jealuves oJ civiI sociel, lIe vuIe oJ Iav and pvivale pvopevl, il
is onI vilI considevaIIe lIeovelicaI dexlevil lIal lIe nigIl Ie cale-
govized as Ieavevs oJ civiI sociel. TIe neveI vepvesenled pallevns oJ
suIjeclivil al vaviance vilI lIose espoused I lIe oId vegine and lIe
veve neulvaI as lo vIal sovl oJ sociaI ovdev nigIl vepIace lIe vegine.
Aulonon does nol aulonalicaII equale vilI civiI sociel. In Jacl, lIe
nov JasIionaIIe denigvalion oJ lIe dissidenl genevalion veJIecls IolI
lIe lendenlious inlevpvelalion oJ lIal epocI and a pavliaI undevsland-
ing oJ lIe conpIexil oJ pallevns oJ vesislance. TIe Jovns oJ suIjecliv-
il vesislanl lo lIe oId vegine veve lIenseIves navIed I lension lIe
asociaI Jovn Iecane suIvevsive oJ lIe ve-ovdeved poslconnunisl slale,
vIiIe lIe venovaIizing Jovn I ilseIJ vas nol slvong enougI eilIev lo
disseninale ils vaIues |HaveI's and SoIzIenilsn's lvaged) ov lo suslain
lIe inlegvalion oJ lIe individuaI in lIe poIil.
TIe Soviel vegine lIus IequealIed, al lIe vev Ieasl, a lvipavlile
slvucluve oJ suIjeclivil. Ils pvojecl denanded eIenenls oJ nodevnil
IiIe scienliJic valionaIil and IegaIil vIiIe suslaining pvenodevn ve-
sponses sucI as enJovced poIilicaI inJanliIisn, cIiIiasn and depen-
denc, vesuIling in lIe enevgence oJ an asociaI vovIdviev. Fallevns oJ
daiI IiJe undev connunisn veve navIed I a sevies oJ duaIisns,50
sucI lIal individuaIs luvned one Jace lovavds JaniI and Jviends in
connunilies oJ Iindness, vIiIe lIe olIevvise exisled in a cuIluve
oJ Jeav, suIovdinalion and |nis)appvopvialion oJ slale vesouvces |vIicI
Jov undevslandaIIe veasons vas nol consideved lIeJl). TIus al lIe sane
IeveI lIeve is a sinpIe conlvasl Ielveen a puIIic and a pvivale Jace,
vIiIe al anolIev IeveI lIeve is a poIilicaII oppvessed and inJanliIized
cIavaclev lIal pavadoxicaII gives vise lo an unaIienaled and venavI-
aII Jvee pevson, unconslvained I lIe novnaI Ionds oJ nodevnil.
TIe counlev-ideoIog oJ civiI sociel gave poIilicaI expvession lo lIe
deveIoping anavcI in sociaI veIalions Iul, al lIe sane line, il looI a
neo-Ianlian slance on lIe novaI vaIue oJ lIe individuaI.
Since sociaI veIalions veve Iased nol on pvopevl Iul on posilion
vilIin lIe nono-IievavcIicaI sslen |aIIeil vilI nunevous suI-Iiev-
avcIies) and access lo lIe sociaI suvpIus, lIe queslion oJ adaplalion lo
a nev ovdev laIes on a dislincl neaning. As Jivina SiIIova noles, TIe
JaII oJ sociaIisn . . . vas aIso lIe JaII oJ ovdinav peopIe vIo Iad Iived
undev lIis sslen and Iad, lo a gvealev ov Iessev degvee, adapled lo
49. A gveal nass oJ vviling duving peveslvoiIa lended lo laIe lIis appvoacI, Jov
exanpIe, OeoJJve HosIing, TIe AvaIening oJ lIe Soviel Union |London Heinenann,
1991).
50. See, Jov exanpIe, AIexandve Binov, Les Honnes BouIIe La Vie Quolidienne en
Union Sovielique |Favis J.-C. Lalles, 1980).
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 957
il.'51 TIe naluve oJ lIese suIjeclivilies is al issue Ieve and on cIosev
exaninalion il Iecones appavenl lIal lIe aIlevnalive vaIue sslens
ave ivvenediaII Jvacluved.
SuIjeclivil and FoIilicaI CuIluve
WIiIe sIaving sone Jealuves vilI lIe concepl oJ poIilicaI cuIluve,
vIicI assunes pvocesses oJ socielaI aggvegalion and avlicuIalion oJ
sIaved nenovies and vesponses, lIe concepl oJ suIjeclivil is Iased on
lIe va lIal vegines oJ lvulI ave appvopvialed and inlevnaIized I so-
ciaI suIjecls oJ poIilicaI and sociaI inlevaclions, and suggesls a lIeov
oJ nodevnil. FoucauIl, oJ couvse, Jocused on lIe lvansilion Jvon eavI
nodevn lo nodevn Euvope and Iis sludies oJJev an appvoacI Jav Ie-
ond lIe oId Ieninisl Ilo Iogo nodeI oJ poIilicaI doninance lo anaIze
lIe va lIal povev is appvopvialed and suslained lIvougI sociaI inlev-
aclions.
Weve lIe sociaIizing Junclions oJ Soviel ideoIog successJuI so lIal
a nev Soviel pevson did enevge in lIe inage lIal lIe vegine in-
lended? Ov did lIeve enevge sone sovl oJ IIvid nonslev adapled lo
IiJe undev a neo-lvadilionaI nix oJ nodevnil and lvadilionaIisn?
AIeIsandv Zinoviev ascevlained a snIiolic veIalionsIip Iono sovielicus
genevaled suvvivaI pallevns vIicI pevpelualed lIe sslen vIiIe lIe ss-
len sinuIlaneousI suslained Iono sovielicus.52 TIe unil oJ lIe anli-
connunisl novenenl Ias nov disinlegvaled and a JovnidaIIe Iallev
oJ cvilics concuv on onI one pvenise denocvac is inpossiIIe in Bus-
sia al pvesenl. Lev TinoJeev avgues lIal In Bussia loda lIeve is no
sociaI Iasis Jov denocvac, oulIines a lIeov oJ nelacovvuplion and
descviIes lIe inJIuence oJ lIe cvininaI sIadov vovId in lIe deveIop-
nenl oJ IoIsIeviI poIilics.53 Zinoviev insisls lIal iJ lIe sslen is
cIanged, Iono sovielicus viII suvvive, adapl lo and covvupl an nev ov-
dev.54 Moveovev, lIe eslaIIisIed cIass and eIile slvucluves nol onI Iad
adapled lIenseIves lo lIe decaing Soviel vegine Iul aIso veve ideaII
pIaced lo laIe advanlage oJ lIe oppovlunilies oJJeved I ils coIIapse.5
TIe queslion venains, Iovevev, vIelIev Zinoviev's snIiosis de-
vived Jvon pvinovdiaI cIavaclevislics oJ Bussians. In eavs pasl il vas
51.
jivina
SiIIova, TIe SoIidavil oJ lIe CuIpaIIe, SociaI BeseavcI 58, no. 4 |Win-
lev 1991) 767.
52. AIexandev Zinoviev, TIe Yavning HeigIls |London Fenguin, 1981): TIe BeaIil
oJ Connunisn |London Viclov OoIIancz, 1984), Hono Sovielicus |London FaIadin BooIs,
1985).
53. Lev TinoJeev, ZacIen pviIIodiI OovIacIev 0 lenevII vIiianiiaII v IoI'sIoi poIiliIe,
vilI an aJlevvovd I Anlon KozIov, MelaIovvuplsiia UgoIovne isloIi pavlii IoI'sIeviIov
|Moscov 1992).
54. See Iis vievs on lIe connunisl vegine's incuIcalion oJ a spivil oJ Ion-
nunaIFnosl' inlo lIe Soviel popuIalion |Fvavda [6June 1990] 8).
55. Fov an eIoquenl exposilion oJ lIis viev, see Sevgei Kuvginan, Sed'noi slsenavii,
3 voIs. |Moscov EIspevinenlaI'ni lvovcIesIii lsenlv, 1992). See aIso A. BuzgaIin and
A. KoIganov, Tvagediia solsiaIizna |Moscov EIononicIesIaia denoIvaliia, 1992).
958 SIavic Beviev
suggesled lIal lIe vaIues oJ a poIilicaI cuIluve veve IvoadI congvuenl
vilI lIe expeclalions oJ sociel.56 Al ils cvudesl, lIis appvoacI uliIized
sucI levns as TIeodov Adovno's aulIovilavian pevsonaIil, and lIe
IaIil and Iove oJ suIovdinalion. Indeed, Ooznan and ElIind Iave
avgued lIal TIe sslen pvevaiIing in lIe counlv IeJove ApviI 1985
vas onI aIIe lo exisl Jov so Iong Iecause pscIoIogicaII il salisJied a
signiJicanl pavl oJ lIe popuIalion. 57 B lIis poIilico-cuIluvaI appvoacI
lIen, poslconnunisl Bussia is anaIogous lo posl-vav Oevnan, vIeve
lIe aIIeged lolaIilavian pevsonaIil vas said lo Iave adapled venavI-
aII sviJlI lo denocvalic noves aJlev 1945. Bul Oevnan adaplalion
Ias Ieen caIIed inlo queslion in 1968 BaIJ BaIvendovJ denonslvaled
lIal IigI vales oJ poIilicaI pavlicipalion nasIed a quaIilaliveI JIaved
poIilicaI sociaIizalion Benocvalic inslilulions ave accepled: Iul lIe
venain exlevnaI, dislanl, uIlinaleI ivveIevanl . .. Benocvalic IeIav-
iouv Iecones viluaIised, a neve oIsevvance oJ exlevnaI denands, a
'dul' oJ cilizensIip. 58 TIe unpoIilicaI Oevnan al Ieasl nade a sIov
oJ poIilicaI pavlicipalion, vIiIe in poslconnunisl Bussia il Ias sIavpI
decIined, vilI volev luvnoul JaIIing Jvon 74.7 pevcenl in lIe pvesiden-
liaI eIeclions oJ June 1991 lo 54.8 pevcenl |accovding lo oJJiciaI slalis-
lics) in lIe BecenIev 1993 eIeclions: and luvnoul in IocaI eIeclions
lpicaII Ias Ieen poov.59 FoIilicaI aclivil and pavl nenIevsIip ave
aIso venavIaII Iov, iIIuslvaling lIal Bussia's asociaI suIjeclivil Ias
vejecled poIilics. Il is usuaII assuned lIal lIe unpoIilicaI cIavaclev oJ
lIe Oevnan peopIe JaciIilaled aulIovilavian vuIe: vIal lIen viII Bus-
sian anli-poIilicaI lendencies ieId?
TIe poIilicaI cuIluve appvoacI na Ie used IvoadI eilIev lo con-
pave lIe Bussian and Soviel pasls vilI lIe pvesenl ov lo neasuve lIe
vaIues oJ conlenpovav sociel.60 BoIevl TucIev, a pvacliced exponenl
56. CJ. Janes B. MiIIav, ed., FoIilics, WovI and BaiI LiJe in lIe USSB |Nev YovI
CanIvidge Univevsil Fvess, 1987), vepovling lIe Jindings oJ lIe Soviel Inlevviev Fvoj-
ecl, vIicI noled lIe poinls oJ dissonance as veII, especiaII anong. lIe IvigIlesl and
lIe Iesl.
57. Leonid Ooznan and AIexandev ElIind, TIe FscIoIog oJ Fosl-TolaIilavianisn in
Bussia |London Cenlve Jov BeseavcI inlo Connunisl Econonies, 1992), 76.
58. BaIJ BaIvendovJ, Sociel and Benocvac in Oevnan |London WeidenJeId and
NicoIson, 1968), 342.
59. Fov an anaIsis oJ lIe eIeclion vesuIls, see BicIavd SaIva, TIe Bussian EIec-
lions oJ BecenIev 1993, Euvope-Asia Sludies 47, no. 2 |1995) 195-227.
60. A cIassic pvesenlalion oJ lIe issues is I BoIevl C. TucIev, CuIluve, FoIilicaI
CuIluve and Connunisl Sociel, FoIilicaI Science QuavlevI 88, no. 2 |June 1973) 173-
90: lIe Iocus cIassicus oJ lIe poIilicaI cuIluvaI conpavison oJ lIe pasl and lIe pvesenl is
AvcIie Bvovn andJacI Ova, eds., FoIilicaI CuIluve and CIange in Connunisl Sslens |Nev
YovI MacniIIan, 1977). See aIso AvcIie Bvovn, ed., FoIilicaI CuIluve and Connunisl Slud-
ies |Nev YovI MacniIIan, 1984): and SlepIen WIile, FoIilicaI CuIluve and Soviel FoIilics
|Nev YovI MacniIIan, 1979). Fov a discussion oJ lIe use oJ lIe concepl oJ poIilicaI
cuIluve, see SlepIen WeIcI, Issues in lIe Slud oJ FoIilicaI CuIluve TIe ExanpIe oJ
Connunisl Favl Slales, BvilisIJouvnaI oJ FoIilicaI Science 17, no. 4 |OcloIev 1987) 479-
50: iden, FoIilicaI CuIluve and Connunisn BeJinilion and Use,JouvnaI oJ Connunisl
Sludies 5, no. 1 |MavcI 1989) 91-98.
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 959
oJ lIe Jovnev, Ias Jound no sinpIe, uniIineav veIalionsIip Ielveen lIe
pasl and lIe pvesenl, suggesls lIal Bussia Iives sinuIlaneousI in sev-
evaI ages and asIs WIal line is il in Bussia?'61 WIiIe IislovicaI and
cuIluvaI Jacels oJ sociel ave cIoseI connecled and Iave Ieen anaIzed
in landen, IislovicaI covveIalions Ielveen alliludes and expeclalions
oJ cilizens and lIeiv poIilicaI sslen Iave nol Ieen pvoven. Has suI-
jeclivil adapled ilseIJ lo poIilicaI and sociaI veaIilies in lIe pasl, ov
does poIilics uIlinaleI veJIecl pallevns oJ suIjeclivil? TIe cenlvaI
queslion lIus Iecones lIe pevsislence oJ poIilico-cuIluvaI alliludes and
lIeiv evoIulion ovev line. WIal eIenenls oJ lIe pasl suvvived lvo Bus-
sian anciens vegines? BivuIov and Sevgeev avgue lIal lIe cognilive
slvucluves al lIe Ieavl oJ poIilicaI cuIluves ave nucI nove duvaIIe lIan
is sonelines assuned. Bespile Bussia's luvIuIenl lvenlielI cenluv,
lIe insisl lIal cevlain Ie eIenenls venain Jvon lIe pvevevoIulionav
peviod, sucI as a lvadilion oJ anli-individuaIisn and coIIeclivisn
|soIovnosl').62
NicoIai N. Felvo, Iovevev, insisls lIal Bussia's pasl vas Jav Jvon
nonoIilIic and insisls lIal, I Jocusing on lIe aulocvac, lIe poIilicaI
cuIluve appvoacI Ias JaiIed lo veaIize lIe conslvainls inposed upon
lIe lIeov and pvaclice oJ aulocvalic govevnnenl in Bussia I nalionaI
and veIigious lvadilions. 63 In conlvasl, lIe Ieadev oJ lIe Bussian CIvis-
lian Benocvalic Movenenl, ViIlov AIsiucIils, lvaces lIe causes oJ Bus-
sia's lvenlielI-cenluv expevience lo IeJove Felev lIe Oveal's assauIl
on lIe CIuvcI, ov lIe scIisn Ielveen lIe JoIIovevs oJ AvvaIun's lva-
dilionaIisls |lIe OId BeIievevs) and lIe veJovnevs in lIe sevenleenlI
cenluv. He Jinds vools in lIe JiJleenlI cenluv vIen lIe Non-posses-
sov scIooI oJ NiI SovsI slvessed vIal AIsiucIils caIIs lvadilionaI Bus-
sian spiviluaIil, innev aclivil and concenlvalion on spiviluaI seIJ-
pevJeclion |cave oJ lIe seIJ), in opposilion lo lIe Fossessov scIooI
oJJosepI oJ VoIoIoIansI vIicI slvessed suIovdinalion, discipIine and
lIe acquisilion oJ naleviaI veaIlI in eavlII IiJe, vequiving a cIose ve-
IalionsIip vilI lIe slale. TIis Iallev lvadilion, nol suvpvisingI, Jound
adIevenls sucI as Ivan lIe TevviIIe and Ialev lsavs.64 LiIe nan olIev
poslconnunisl poIilicaI Ieadevs, AIsiucIils Ias sougIl lo gvound con-
lenpovav poIilicaI pvogvans in Bussian poIilicaI pIiIosopI. TIe vev
61. BoIevl C. TucIev, KaIoe vvenia poIazvaiul seicIas cIas vossiisIoi islovii?
FvoIIen VoslocInoi Evvop, nos. 31-32 |WasIinglon, 1991) 58-78.
62. BivuIov and Sevgeev, Buissia's Boad lo Benocvac, op cil: see aIso N. BivuIov,
J. OIeisnev and V. Sevgeev, TIe Cvisis oJ SoIovnosl' FavIianenlav Biscouvse in Fves-
enl-Ba Bussia, Biscouvse and Sociel 6, no. 2 |ApviI 1995) 149-77.
63. NicoIai N. Felvo, Iellev lo lIe aulIov, 18 NovenIev 1992: Iis avgunenls ave
deveIoped in TIe BeIivlI oJ Bussian Benocvac An Inlevpvelalion oJ FoIilicaI CuIluve |Can-
Ividge Havvavd Univevsil Fvess, 1995).
64. Viclov AIsiucIils, in KIvisliansIaia BenoIvaliia BuIIelin oJ lIe CIvislian Beno-
cvalic InlevnalionaI on Easlevn Euvope, no. 13 |Ma-June 1991) 17-28, al 19-20. Fov an
anaIsis oJ lIe lIinIing oJ AIIolJosepI oJ VoIoI and lIe conlvovevs vilI NiI oJ lIe
SovIa |as Ie nanes lIen), see S.V. UlecIIin, Bussian FoIilicaI TIougIIl A Concise and
ConpveIensive Hislov |London J.M. Benl, 1964), 22-26.
960 SIavic Beviev
vicIness oJ lIal pIiIosopIicaI lvadilion denonslvales IolI lIe nunIev
oJ pasls Jvon vIicI Bussia na cIoose and lIe vaviel oJ vesuIls pos-
siIIe Jvon conlenpovav cIanges. Fov lIal veason, il na Ie pveJevaIIe
lo considev Iislov a souvce oJ suIjeclive aJJivnalion oJ lvadilion and
oJ nalionaI and poIilicaI idenlilies, and lo considev possiIiIilies in-
neasuvaIIe.
A slud oJ IavosIavI' I JeJJve W. HaIn JivnI vejecls lIe viev lIal
conlenpovav Bussian poIilicaI cuIluve is pevnealed I aulIovilavian
lvadilions oJ lIe pasl and avgues inslead lIal Bussian poIilicaI cuIluve
is conpaliIIe vilI lIe deveIopnenl oJ denocvalic inslilulions.65 In-
deed, il couId veII Ie avgued lIal a Ialenl denocvalisn Ias Ieen pves-
enl, lIougI oJlen expvessed in a nalive idion, Jov Iongev and vilI
gvealev inlensil lIan is usuaII suggesled. TIe concepls oJ IiIevaI
vigIls, individuaI vesponsiIiIil and Iiniled govevnnenl veve nol
vIoII aIien lo lvadilions oJ good govevnance IeJove lIe vevoIu-
lion.66 Hovevev lIe Soviel vegine nigIl Iave deveIoped, ils iniliaI Ie-
gilinac devived Jvon a genuine pavlicipalov denocvac Iased on
econonic
juslice.
TIe Soviel sslen vepvesenled no nove lIan lIe oIjecliJicalion oJ
lIe veslevn valionaIisl lvadilion laIen lo ils IogicaI concIusion.67 WIiIe
Iuveaucvalized and spivilIess, al ils Iesl il vas endoved vilI slvong
codes oJ elIicaI conducl and novnalive sociaI IeIaviov: ils Iegilinalion
vas denocvalic and egaIilavian even iJ ils pvaclice vas aulIovilavian
and eIilisl. TIe slvucluve oJ daiI IiJe and lIe Iogic oJ pevsonaI conducl
|LeIensJuIvung) undev Soviel condilions veve lIus Jav nove conpIex
lIan lIe sonevIal degenevale vision suggesled I Zinoviev and olIevs.
Nol onI suIjeclivilies Iul Soviel vaIues, loo, veve navIed I duaIilies
a sncvelic, pvenodevn pevsonaI Jveedon Iased on ivvesponsiIiIil vas
conIined vilI Ialenl civic avaveness: a IeIieJ in lIe povev oJ science
vas navved I lIe suIjeclion oJ scienliJic lvulI lo innediale poIilicaI
necessil: pavlicipalion vas conIined vilI deJevence: inlevnalionaI-
isn vas navIed I xenopIoIia and pavocIiaIisn: nalionIood vas ex-
aIled vIiIe onI lIe veneev oJ slaleIood vas aIIoved: and Iegilinalion
Iased on denocvalic pvincipIes vuIed oul denocvalic pvoceduvaIisn.
TIese duaIilies nol onI gave devaslaling Jovce lo dissidenls and ve-
Jovnevs vilIin lIe sslen vIen lIe avgued lIal lIe vegine sIouId
Iive up lo ils pvonises and oIsevve vecognizaIIe vegines oJ lvulI, Iul
aIso-unIiIe lIe nazi vegine-aIIoved sone oJ ils ideaIs lo exevl con-
sidevaIIe sociaI inJIuence in Ialev eavs and |pavadoxicaII) IeIped ve-
genevale civic
suIjeclivil.
CapilaIisl denocvac and lIe cuIluvaI vevoIulion allending ils IivlI
65. JeJJve W. HaIn, Conlinuil and CIange in Bussian FoIilicaI CuIluve, BvilisI
JouvnaI oJ FoIilicaI Science, no. 21 |1991) 393-421.
66. CJ. Andvzej WaIicIi, LegaI FIiIosopIies oJ Bussian LiIevaIisn |OxJovd CIavendon
Fvess, 1987).
67. CJ. HussevI's viev in TIe Cvisis oJ Euvopean Sciences and TvanscendenlaI FIenonen-
oIog,
op cil.
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 961
Iave Ieen veII descviIed I KavI FoIani:68 accovding lo Iin, pve-
nodevn pallevns oJ suIjeclivil veve gvaduaII lvansJovned accovding
lo lIe Iogic oJ nodevnil. In IiIe nannev, SlepIen WeIcI Ias poinled
oul lIal lIe lvadilionaI viev oJ poIilicaI cuIluve does nol adequaleI
expIain lIe souvces oJ cIange and evoIulion lo Ie Jound in counlev-
posing inlevesls and cuIluve, and Ie suggesls a nove dnanic evoIu-
lionav nodeI.69 TIe concepl oJ suIjeclivil, loo, is an evoIving, d-
nanic pvocess. WIiIe lIe conpIex pallevning oJ cuvvenl suIjeclivil
incIudes condilions Jov denocvac, as does lIe veII educaled and Iil-
evale sociel |lIe nodevnizalion avgunenl), aulIovilavian oulcones
aIso vouId Ie vesonanl vilI lIe alliludes and vaIues oJ Bussian sociel.
SuIjeclivil and Foslconnunisl FoIilicaI CIange
TIe FvencI vevoIulion pvovided HegeI vilI an exanpIe pav exceI-
Ience oJ lIe disaslev lIal nusl JoIIov an allenpl lo eslaIIisI a slale
on lIe Iasis oJ aIslvacl valionaI pvincipIes, unacconpanied I lIe de-
veIopnenl oJ an appvopviale suIjeclive consciousness on lIe pavl oJ
ils suIjecls.70 KavI KovscI avgued lIal suIjeclivil Iies al lIe Ieavl oJ
vevoIulionav aclion:71 vIiIe Anlonio Ovansci slvessed lIal vevoIulion-
av lvansJovnalion is nove lIan lIe capluve oJ slale povev Iul enlaiIs
lIe vepIacenenl oJ one Iegenonic ovdev I anolIev.72 In poslcon-
nunisl Bussia, Iovevev, as I suggesled aIove, a nev Iegenonic ovdev
Ias nol enevged lIal viII enconpass lIe vIoIe ganul oJ sociaI veIa-
lions, and lIe allenpl lo inpose one in lIe aIsence oJ an appvopviale
suIjeclive consciousness nigIl, indeed, Iead lo disaslev. In IolI pvo-
cess and conlenl, poslconnunisn Iecones a nev sociaI Jovnalion,
genevaling nev pallevns oJ suIjeclivil vIiIe nodiJing lIose Ie-
quiealIed I lIe oId vegine.
Accovding lo Mavx, lIe vovIing cIass Iad no ideaIs lo veaIize, Iul
lo sel Jvee lIe eIenenls oJ lIe nev sociel vilI vIicI oId coIIapsing
Iouvgeois sociel ilseIJ is pvegnanl.73 TIe poslconnunisl univevsaI
cIass oJ nodevnil, Iovevev, Ias sel ilseIJ a valIev nove divecled pvo-
gvan oJ ideaIs lo veaIize-Iul il is nol cIeav vIal sovl oJ sociel lIe
oId sslen cavvied vilIin ilseIJ. TIeve venains an unvesoIved lension
Ielveen lIe exaggevaled aulonon oJ unaIienaled, posl-lolaIilavian in-
68. KavI FoIani, TIe Oveal TvansJovnalion TIIe FoIilicaI and Econonic Ovigins oJ Ouv
Tine |London OoIIancz, 1945).
69. SlepIen WeIcI, TIe Concep)l oJ FoIilicaI CuIluve |Nev YovI Sl. Mavlin's Fvess,
1993), 149.
70. Fvon KvisIan Kuiiav-, ed., Inlvoduclion, BevoIulion TIe TIeov and Fvaclice
oJ a Euvopean Idea |London WeidenJeId and NicoIson, 1971), 2.
71. KavI KovscI, Mavxisn and
FIiIosoIpI
|1923), lvans. Fved HaIIida |London Nev
LeJl BooIs, 1970).
72. Slale and CiviI Sociel in Anlonio Ovannsci, SeIeclionsJvonn lIe Fvison NoleIooIs
|London Lavvence & WisIavl, 1971), 206-78.
73. Mavx, TIe CiviI Wav in Fvance, in Mavx and EngeIs, SeIecled WovIs, 295.
962 SIavic Beviev
dividuaIs and lIe ve-cvealion oJ civiIil and poIilicaI ovdev. IndividuaIs
Iave ve-appvopvialed nucI oJ lIe Iiniled capilaI lIal conslilules
Iunan sociaIiIil in lIe IoIIesian scIene oJ lIings: lIe IinI Ielveen
lIe individuaI and sociel lIus venains lenuous and, as noled, Ias in
cevlain vespecls veluvned lo lIe slale oJ naluve. Il venains lo Ie seen
vIelIev lIe civiIil associaled vilI essenliaII pevsonaI nelvovIs viII
Ie aIIe lo suslain lIe civic vesponsiIiIil associaled vilI cIassicaI de-
nocvac: palvonage poIilics lpicaI oJ lIe Iasl eavs oJ lIe Soviel sslen
nigIl veII genevale a cIienliIisl and seni-covpovalisl denocvac. In
levns oJ JovnaI slvucluves, il aIso venains lo Ie seen vIelIev lIe op-
posilion lo lIe Soviel vegine vepvesenled a denocvalic aIlevnalive ov
vas a conlinualion oJ pvevious slvucluves in a nev guise, vilIoul oId
poIilicaI and ideoIogicaI Jovns Iul sIaving nucI oJ lIe sane inlevnaI
Iogic.74 Il is nol el cIeav vIelIev opposilion lo lIe connunisl vegine
vas a JuII-JIedged aIlevnalive sociel, Ieaving |in gvanscian levns) a
Iegenonic aIlevnalive navIed nol onI I diJJevenl poIilicaI vaIues Iul
aIso I aIlevnalive slvucluves oJ lIinIing lIal Iad Iecone vouline in
lIe slvucluves oJ daiI IiJe.
Benocvalizalion in Bussia seens lo conJivn lIal aIlevnalive slvuc-
luves veve in Jacl suslained I lIose lIal lIe opposed.75 WIal vas
once caIIed lIe denocvalic novenenl conlained nan diJJevenl vaI-
ues and vas uniled onI I ils opposilion lo lIe oId vegine: in Bussia
lIe slavI opposilion Ielveen slale and civiI sociel lpicaI oJ easl Euvo-
pean |especiaII FoIisI) lIinIing vas nevev doninanl. TIeve nevev vas
an aIlevnalive Iased on a nlIoIogized sociel vead lo nanage
lIe slale-Ience lIe veIalive ease vilI vIicI govIacIevile veJovnevs
veve aIIe lo appvopviale lIe Ianguage oJ civiI sociel. Moveovev, lIe
venovaIizing aspivalions oJ lIe veJovn pvojecl veve IavgeI veslvicled
lo eIiles and Iave nol Ieen incovpovaled inlo lIe pallevns oJ daiI IiJe
and lIinIing. WIiIe IiIevaIisn na Ie in lIe ascendenl in poIilicaI
levns, in sociaI veIalions and in levns oJ suIjeclivil, veaIil venains
Jav nove Jvacluved.7 TIus, poslconnunisn Ias Iecone a vIoIe sn-
dvone in ilseIJ in vIicI lIe slvuggIe Jov Iegenon is acconpanied I
an allenpl lo eslaIIisI a sel oJ aIslvacl valionaI pvincipIes vIiIe
sinuIlaneousI dening lIe vev Iasis Jov a poIilics lIal nigIl cIaI-
Ienge lIese pvincipIes. As sociaI pvojecls, connunisn and poslconnu-
nisn Iave connon ovigins in lIe EnIigIlennenl IeIieJ in pvogvess and
74. TIe queslion is aIso posed in a diJJevenl conlexl I Tonaz MaslnaI, CiviI
Sociel in SIovenia Fvon Opposilion lo Fovev, Sludies in Conpavalive Connunisn 23,
nos. 3/4 |1990) 305-17.
75. Conpave lIe voIe oJ lIe slale in sIaping lIe inJovnaI sociaI novenenls oJ
peveslvoiIa. See, e.g. M. SlepIen FisI, Benocvac Jvon ScvalcI Opposilion and lIe Begine
in lIe Nev Bussian BevoIulion |Fvincelon Fvincelon Univevsil Fvess, 1995).
76. CJ. Bovis KagavIilsI |Beslovalion in Bussia WI CapilaIisn FaiIed, lvans. BenJve
CIavIe [London Vevso, 1995]), vIo condenns lIe doclvinaive va lIal YeIlsin's ve-
Jovns veve puvsued and avgues lIal vilIoul a nodevn Iouvgeoisie capilaIisl supev-
slvucluves ave IeJl Ianging in lIe aiv.
SuIjeclivil in Bussian FoIilicaI EvoIulion 963
goaI-ovienled, valionaI poIilicaI aclion: lIe Soviel vegine consideved
ilseIJ lvansilionaI, pvepaving lIe va Jov JuII connunisn, vIiIe posl-
connunisn, loo, Ias laIen on lIe nanlIe oJ pvovisionaIil in pvepa-
valion Jov JuII capilaIisn. |TIis is nol lo suggesl a novaI equiIalevaIisn
Jov lIe lvo pvojecls Iul lo poinl oul siniIavilies oJ pvocess and, aIove
aII, lIe elIicaI consequences oJ oIjecliJing pvocesses oJ cIange.) TIeve
is a Iasic diJJevence, Iovevev lIe Jovnev expIicilI sougIl lo cIange
lIe vovId and lo noIiIize aII sociaI vesouvces lo lIal end: lIe Iallev
seeIs lo adapl lo an exisling veaIil and lo den lIe vadicaIisn oJ ils
pvojecl.
TIus lIe lvansilion Jvon connunisn IolI is coIoved I suIjeclive
Jaclovs and enlaiIs lIe vediscovev oJ suIjeclivil in lIe sociaI poIil.
TIose olIevs againsl vIon individuaIs deJined lIenseIves no Iongev
pIa lIal voIe so lIal nev Jveedons and vesponsiIiIilies incIude ve-
slvucluving suIjeclivilies vIicI viII enaIIe lIen lo Iecone suIjecls oJ
lIe Iingdon oJ nodevnil.77 Bul, as individuaIs ave Jveed Jvon palev-
naIislic slvucluves, lIe Jace lIe conslvainls and anIiguilies oJ nodevn
capilaIisl denocvac. TIe Iale lvenlielI-cenluv vevoIl againsl valionaI
ulopias Ias given va lo an epocI oJ unIvidIed vaviel oJ pevsonaI
and pavocIiaI expvession ceIeIvaled as Jveedon, lIe lviunpI oJ lIe
enpive oJ opinion |doxa) vIeve one viev is consideved as veIevanl as
anolIev and vIeve lIe seavcI Jov lvulI |epislene) is equaled vilI sev-
vilude.78 TIus lIe conpuIsive lvulI-leIIing |pavvIesia) lIal navIed lIe
dissidenl novenenl, lIe poIilics oJ lvulI vIicI MicIniI idenliJied
as one oJ lIe cenlvaI lvails oJ SoIidavil, Ias given va lo a BaIeI oJ
opinion and lIe cacapIonous veIalivisn oJ poslnodevnisn. TIe
lviunpI oJ aulononous suIjeclivil seens lo Iave given va lo lIe
dissoIulion oJ IolI lIe suIjecl and lvulI
ilseIJ:79
lIe vevoIulions oJ
1989-1991 seen nol lo Iave pvoduced elIicaI individuaIisn Iul in-
slead a pvivalized asociaIiIil. TIus lIe Juluve indeed nigIl nol vesuIl
Jvon seeningI oIjeclive, econonic condilions and nigIl nol incIude
lIal veslovalion oJ spiviluaI IiJe and aulonon oJ cuIluve vIicI vas lIe
gveal Iope oJ lIe dissidenl genevalion. A ccIe oJ vevoIl and vesuInis-
sion nigIl inexovaII cIose.
Foslconnunisl suIjeclivil is lIus IolI IiIevaled and conslvained,
pvoducing a lension lIal is novIeve nove slavI lIan in Bussia. WIiIe
in lIe vesl poIilics is JovnaIized, viluaIized and convenlionaI, in Bus-
sia, I conlvasl, poIilics is vav, unaggvegaled and IaveI nedialed I
77. CJ. Cvaig CaIIoun, ed., SociaI TIeov and lIe FoIilics oJ Idenlil |OxJovd BIacI-
veII, 1994).
78. TIis is lIe avgunenl oJ O.M. Tanas, A Bisquisilion on CiviI Sociel, SociaI
BeseavcI 61, no. 2 |1994) 205-22.
79. Fov an anaIsis oJ lIe pIiIosopIicaI lvadilion Jvon Kanl lo exislenliaIisn Jo-
cusing on lIe dvana oJ individuaI aulonon and lIe anliIunanisl |ov posl-
nodevn) cIaIIenge lo il |e.g. Bevvida), see BicIavd WIile, Aulonon as Founda-
lionaI, in HugI J. SiIvevnan, ed., Queslioning Foundalions TvulI/SuIjeclivil/CuIluve
|London BoulIedge, 1993).
964 SIavic Beviev
pavlies, novenenls ov convenlion. TIe counlv is a Ipev-poIilicized
sociel in lIe sense lIal nosl Jovns oJ sociaI IiJe venain suIjecl lo
Iuveaucvalic veguIalion: al lIe sane line il is eJJecliveI de- ov apoIi-
licized in lIal nedialing slvucluves oJ poIilicaI IiJe venain enIvonic.
IndividuaIs Iave conslanlI lo naIe poIilicaI and sociaI cIoices navI-
ing sudden lvansilions Jvon inJanliIisn lo poIilicaI aduIlIood-vilI-
oul an inlevvening peviod in vIicI lo naluve. TIus suIjeclivil Ias
Iecone a Iuvden vIicI Ias given vise lo Jeav oJ Jveedon 80 and vIicI
in Weinav Oevnan gave vise lo suppovl Jov cIavisnalic IeadevsIip.
Soviel duaIilies Iave given vise lo lIe veII Inovn sndvone I
vIicI peopIe can avgue lIal evevlIing Ias cIanged vIiIe al lIe
sane line assevling lIal nolIing Ias cIanged. Fovns oJ poIilicaI IiJe
Iave cIanged Iul eIile suIjeclivilies seen lo exIiIil a sluvd vesislance
lo nodiJicalion so lIal venavIaIIe conlinuilies venain. As Ooznan
and ElIind nole, in lIe Iale Soviel eavs evevlIing vas pevnilled ex-
cepl poIilics:81 once poIilics vas again pevnilled, lIeveJove, lIe nec-
essav lvaining vas IacIing and lIe pvaclice oJ poIilics Ias lended lo
vepvoduce lIe novIid snplons oJ lIe vegine lIal il vepIaced. WIiIe
lIe sociel allenpls a gvandiose lvansilion lo a navIel econon, Iasic
pallevns oJ pvoduclion venain lIe sane and oId eIiles nainlain lIeiv
doninance in lvadilionaI pallevns oJ cIienleIisn and covvuplion.82 A
poIilicaI ovdev can onI Ie acIieved once poIilics ilseIJ is veconsliluled
as a spIeve oJ aulononous decision naIing. So Jav a vegine connilled
lo vapid lvansJovnalion vepvesenls onI a pavliaI veconslilulion oJ poI-
ilics: lIe pevpelualion oJ an oIjecliJied pvocess oJ sociaI cIange indi-
cales lIe diJJicuIlies invoIved in lIe eslaIIisInenl oJ a poIilicaI ovdev
in vIicI suIjeclivilies na Ie incovpovaled inlo a naluvaI ovdev oJ
govevnance. TIeve is nucI in Bussia's oIjeclive condilions and ils lva-
dilions lo suppovl lIe enevgence oJ denocvac as a pvaclicaI and pIiI-
osopIicaI pvojecl, Iul ils inslilulionaIizalion in a poIilicaI ovdev and
lIe pvaclices oJ daiI IiJe viII Ie delevnined I lIe inlevpIa oJ con-
peling
suIjeclivilies.
80. A pIenonenon vIicI EvicI Fvonn idenliJied as one oJ lIe Ie Jealuves oJ
lIe lvenlielI cenluv |Feav oJ Fveedon [London BoulIedge and Kegan FauI, 1942]).
81. Ooznan and ElIind, TIe FscIoIog oJ Fosl-TolaIilavianisn in Bussia, 50.
82. TIis is anaIzed I MicIaeI Buvavo and FaveI Kvolov in TIe Econonic
Basis oJ Bussia's FoIilicaI Cvisis, Nev LeJl Beviev, no. 198 |MavcI-ApviI 1993) 49-69.