Digital MW Communication Principle

Digital Microwave
Communication Principles
www.huawei.com
Copyright © 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Foreword
 This course is developed to meet the requirement of Huawei Optical

Network RTN microwave products.
 This course informs engineers of the basics on digital microwave

communications, which will pave the way for learning the RTN series
microwave products later.
Copyright © 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. Page 2
Learning Guide
 Microwave communication is developed on the basis of the
electromagnetic field theory.
Therefore, before learning this course, you are supposed to have
mastered the following knowledge:
 Network communications technology basics
 Electromagnetic field basic theory
Objectives
 After this course, you will be able to explain:
 Concept and characteristics of digital microwave communications
 Functions and principles of each component of digital microwave

equipment
 Common networking modes and application scenarios of digital

microwave equipment
 Propagation principles of digital microwave communication and

various types of fading
 Anti-fading technologies
 Procedure and key points in designing microwave transmission link
Contents
1. Digital Microwave Communication Overview
2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment
3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application
4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies
5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links
Transmission Methods
in Current Communications Networks
Coaxial cable communication
Microwave TE Optical fiber communication
Microwave TE
MUX/DEMUX Microwave MUX/DEMUX
communication
Satellite communication
Microwave Communication
vs. Optical Fiber Communication
Microwave Communication Optical Fiber Communication
Powerful space cross ability, little land Optical fiber burying and land
occupied, not limited by land privatization occupation required
Small investment, short construction

Large investment ,long construction period
period, easy maintenance
Strong protection ability against natural Outdoor optical fiber maintenance required
disaster and easy to be recover and hard to recover from natural disaster
Limited frequency resources (frequency Not limited by frequency, license not

license required) required
Transmission quality greatly affected by Stable and reliable transmission quality

climate and landform and not affected by external factors
Limited transmission capacity Large transmission capacity
Definition of Microwave
 Microwave
 Microwave is a kind of electromagnetic wave. In a broad sense, the
microwave frequency range is from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. But In
microwave communication, the frequency range is generally from 3
GHz to 30 GHz.
 According to the characteristics of microwave propagation, microwave

can be considered as plane wave.
 The plane wave has no electric field and magnetic field longitudinal
components along the propagation direction. The electric field and
magnetic field components are vertical to the propagation direction.
Therefore, it is called transverse electromagnetic wave and TEM wave
for short.
Development of Microwave Communication
Transmission
capacity SDH digital microwave
155M bit/s/ch) communication
system
34/140M PDH digital microwave

communication
system
2/4/6/8M Small and medium
capacity digital microwave
communication system Late 1990s to now
480 voice
channels Analog microwave
communication
system 1980s
1970s
1950s
Note:
Small capacity: < 10M
Medium capacity: 10M to 100M
Large capacity: > 100M
Concept of Digital
Microwave Communication
 Digital microwave communication is a way of transmitting digital information in
atmosphere through microwave or radio frequency (RF).
 Microwave communication refers to the communication that use microwave as carrier .
 Digital microwave communication refers to the microwave communication that adopts the
digital modulation.
 The baseband signal is modulated to intermediate frequency (IF) first . Then the
intermediate frequency is converted into the microwave frequency.
 The baseband signal can also be modulated directly to microwave frequency, but only
phase shift keying (PSK) modulation method is applicable.
 The electromagnetic field theory is the basis on which the microwave communication
theory is developed.
Microwave Frequency Band
Selection and RF Channel Configuration (1)
 Generally-used frequency bands in digital microwave transmission:
 7G/8G/11G/13G/15G/18G/23G/26G/32G/38G (defined by ITU-R Recommendations)
1.5 GHz 2.5 GHz

Regional network
3.3 GHz Long haul 11 GHz

trunk network
Regional network, local network,
2/8/34
Mbit/s and boundary network
34/140/155 Mbit/s
2/8/34/140/155 Mbit/s
GHz
1 2 3 4 5 8 10 20 30 40 50
 In each frequency band, subband frequency ranges, transmitting/receiving spacing
(T/R spacing), and channel spacing are defined.
Frequency range
f0 (center frequency)
Low frequency band High frequency band
T/R spacing
Protection T/R spacing
spacing
Channel Adjacent channel Channel

spacing T/R spacing spacing
f1 f2 fn f1’ f2’ fn’
Frequency range (7425M–7725M)
f0 (7575M)
T/R spacing: 154M
28M
f1=7442 f2=7470 f5 f1’=7596 f2’ f5’
7G Frequency F0 (MHz) T/R Spacing Channel Spacing Primary and Non-

Range (MHz) (MHz) primary Stations
Fn=f0-161+28n,
7425–7725 7575 154 28 Fn’=f0- 7+28n,
(n: 1–5)
7575 161 7
7110–7750 7275 196 28
7597 196 28
7250–7550 7400 161 3.5
… … … … …
Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (1)
 Digital baseband signal is the unmodulated digital signal. The baseband signal
cannot be directly transmitted over microwave radio channels and must be converted
into carrier signal for microwave transmission.
Baseband signal rate
Channel bandwidth
Modulation
Digital baseband signal IF signal
Service signal
transmitted
Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (2)
 The following formula indicates a digital baseband signal being converted into a digital
frequency band signal.
A*COS(Wc*t+φ) PSK and QAM are

most frequently
used in digital
microwave.
Amplitude Frequency Phase
 ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier
amplitude (A). Wc and φ remain unchanged.
 FSK: Frequency Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier
frequency (Wc). A and φ remain unchanged.
 PSK: Phase Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier phase
(φ). Wc and A remain unchanged.
 QAM: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. ). Use the digital baseband signal to change
the carrier phase (φ) and amplitude (A). Wc remains unchanged.
Microwave Frame Structure (1)
 RFCOH
171.072 Mbit/s
15.552 Mbit/s STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s
RFCOH SOH Payload
MLCM DMY XPIC ATPC WS RSC INI ID FA

11.84 Mbit/s 64 kbit/s 16 kbit/s 64 kbit/s 2.24 Mbit/s 864 kbit/s 144 kbit/s 32 kbit/s 288 kbit/s
RFCOH: Radio Frame Complementary Overhead

RSC: Radio Service Channel
MLCM: Multi-Level Coding Modulation
INI: N:1 switching command
DMY: Dummy
ID: Identifier
XPIC: Cross-polarization Interference Cancellation
FA: Frame Alignment
ATPC: Automatic Transmit Power Control
WS: Wayside Service
Microwave Frame Structure (2)
 RFCOH is multiplexed into the STM-1 data and a block multiframe is formed. Each
multiframe has six rows and each row has 3564 bits. One multiframe is composed of
two basic frames. Each basic frame has 1776 bits. The remaining 12 bits are used
for frame alignment.
Multiframe 3564 bits
FS Basic frame 1 FS Basic frame 2
6 bits
6 bits 6 bits
1776 bits（148 words） 1776 bits (148 words)
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I b I I C2 I I I I I a I I b I I C2
I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1
12 bits (the 1st word) 12 bits (the 148th word)

I: STM-1 information bit
C1/C2: Two-level correction coding monitoring bits
FS: Frame synchronization
a/b: Other complementary overheads
Questions
 What is microwave?
 What is digital microwave communication?
 What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency bands?
 What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?
 What are the frequently used modulation schemes? Which are the most
frequently used modulation schemes?
Contents
Microwave Equipment Category
System Digital microwave Analog microwave
MUX/DEMUX
Mode PDH SDH
Small and medium Large capacity

Capacity capacity (2–16E1, 34M) (STM-0, STM-1, 2xSTM-1)
(Discontinued)
Trunk radio
Structure
Split-mount radio
All outdoor radio
Trunk Microwave Equipment
• High cost, large BRU: Branch RF Unit

transmission capacity,
more stable
performance, applicable MSTU: Main Signal
Transmission Unit
to long haul and trunk
(transceiver, modem, SDH
transmission P electrical interface, hitless
switching)
• RF, IF, signal M1
processing, and SCSU: Supervision,
MUX/DEMUX units are M2 Control and Switching
all indoor. Only the Unit
…
antenna system is
outdoor. BBIU: Baseband
Interface Unit (option)
(STM-1 optical interface,
C4 PDH interface)
SDH microwave equipment
All Outdoor Microwave Equipment
• All the units are RF processing unit

outdoor.
IF cable
• Installation is easy.
IF and baseband
processing unit
• The equipment
room can be saved.
Service and power cable
All outdoor microwave equipment
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment (1)
 The RF unit is an outdoor unit (ODU).
The IF, signal processing, and Antenna
MUX/DEMUX units are integrated in
the indoor unit (IDU). The ODU and IF cable
IDU are connected through an IF cable.
ODU
 The ODU can either be directly
(Outdoor Unit)
mounted onto the antenna or
connected to the antenna through a
short soft waveguide.
IDU
 Although the capacity is smaller than (Indoor Unit)
the trunk, due to the easy installation
and maintenance, fast network
construction, it’s the most widely used
microwave equipment. Split-mount microwave
equipment
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment (2)
 Unit Functions
 Antenna: Focuses the RF signals transmitted by ODUs and increases the signal
gain.
 ODU: RF processing, conversion of IF/RF signals.
 IF cable: Transmitting of IF signal, management signal and power supply of ODU.
 IDU: Performs access, dispatch, multiplex/demultiplex, and
modulation/demodulation for services.
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment
– Installation
Separate Mount Direct Mount
antenna
(direct mount)
antenna
(separate mount)
ODU
Soft waveguide
ODU IF cable IF cable
中频口
IDU IF port
IDU IF port
Microwave Antenna (1)
Parabolic antenna
 Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.

Parabolic antennas is common type of microwave antennas.
Microwave antenna diameters includes: 0.3m, 0.6m, 1.2m, 1.8m,2.0m, 2.4m, 3.0m, 3.2metc.
Microwave Antenna (2)
 Different frequency channels in same frequency band can share one antenna.
Channe Channe
l l
1 1
T
x 1 1
R
x
n n
T
x n n
R
x
Antenna Adjustment (1)
Side lobe
Side view
Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe
Side lobe
Top view
Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe
 During antenna adjustment, change the direction
vertically or horizontally. Meanwhile, use a multimeter to
test the RSSI at the receiving end. Usually, the voltage
wave will be displayed as shown in the lower right corner.
The peak point of the voltage wave indicates the main lobe
position in the vertical or horizontal direction. Large-scope
adjustment is unnecessary. Perform fine adjustment on the
antenna to the peak voltage point.
AGC
 When antennas are poorly aligned, a small voltage may Voltage
be detected in one direction. In this case, perform coarse detection point
adjustment on the antennas at both ends, so that the VAGC
antennas are roughly aligned.
Angle
 The antennas at both ends that are well aligned face a
Side lobe position
little bit upward. Though 1–2 dB is lost, reflection Main lobe position
interference will be avoided.
 During antenna adjustment, the two
wrong adjustment cases are show here.
One antenna is aligned to another
antenna through the side lobe. As a
result, the RSSI cannot meet the
requirements.
Wrong Wrong Correct
– Antenna (1)
 Antenna gain
 Definition: Ratio of the input power of an isotropic antenna Pio to the input power of a
parabolic antenna Pi when the electric field at a point is the same for the isotropic antenna
and the parabolic antenna.
D 
2
Calculating formula of antenna gain: G  io  
P

 
Pi   
 Half-power angle
 Usually, the given antenna specifications contain the gain in the largest radiation (main lobe)
direction, denoted by dBi. The half-power point, or the –3 dB point is the point which is
deviated from the central line of the main lobe and where the power is decreased by half. The
angle between the two half-power points is called the half-power angle.

 Calculating formula of half-power angle:  0.5  (650 ~ 700 )
D
Half-power angle
– Antenna (2)
 Cross polarization discrimination
Suppression ratio of the antenna receiving heteropolarizing waves, usually, larger than 30 dB.
 XdB＝10lgPo/Px
 Po: Receiving power of normal polarized wave
 Px: Receiving power of abnormal polarized wave
 Antenna protection ratio
 Attenuation degree of the receiving capability in a direction of an antenna compared with

that in the main lobe direction. An antenna protection ratio of 180° is called front-to-back
ratio.
– ODU (1)
ODU system Uplink
architecture
IF/RF conversion
IF
Frequency Sideband Power RF
amplificat
mixing filtering amplification attenuation
ion
Local
oscillation Power
ATPC
(Tx) detection
Local
oscillation RF loop
(Rx)
IF Frequency Low-noise Bandpass

Filtering
amplification mixing amplification filtering
Supervi
sion and
control Downlink RF/IF conversion
signal
Alarm and control
– ODU (2)
 Specifications of Transmitter
 Working frequency band
Generally, trunk radios use 6, 7, and 8 GHz frequency bands. 11, 13 GHz and
higher frequency bands are used in the access layer (e.g. BTS access).
 Output power
The power at the output port of a transmitter. Generally, the output power is 15 to
30 dBm.
– ODU (3)
 Local frequency stability
If the working frequency of the transmitter is unstable, the demodulated effectived
signal ratio will be decreased and the bit error ratio will be increased. The value
range of the local frequency stability is 3 to 10 ppm.
 Transmit Frequency Spectrum Frame

The frequency spectrum of the transmitted signal must meet specified
requirements, to avoid occupying too much bandwidth and thus causing too much
interference to adjacent channels. The limitations to frequency spectrum is
called transmit frequency spectrum frame.
– ODU (4)
 Specifications of Receiver
 Working frequency band
Receivers work together with transmitters. The receiving frequency on the local
station is the transmitting frequency of the same channel on the opposite station.
 Local frequency stability

The same as that of transmitters: 3 to 10 ppm
 Noise figure
The noise figure of digital microwave receivers is 2.5 dB to 5 dB.
– ODU (5)
 Passband
To effectively suppress interference and achieve the best transmission quality, the
passband and amplitude frequency characteristics should be properly chosen. The
receiver passband characteristics depend on the IF filter.
 Selectivity
Ability of receivers of suppressing the various interferences outside the passband,
especially the interference from adjacent channels, image interference and the
interference between transmitted and received signals.
 Automatic gain control (AGC) range
Automatic control of receiver gain. With this function, input RF signals change within a
certain range and the IF signal level remains unchanges.
– ODU (6)
Frequency range (7425M–7725M)
f0(7575M)
T/R spacing: 154M ODUs are of rich
types and small
volume. Usually,
ODUs are
Subband A Subband B Subband C Subband A Subband B Subband C produced by small
manufacturers and
integrated by big
manufacturers.
7442 7498
Non-primary station Primary station
 ODU specifications are related to radio
frequencies. As one ODU cannot cover an entire
frequency band, usually, a frequency band will be Types of ODUs = Number
divided into several subbands and each subband of frequency bands x
corresponds to one ODU. Number of T/R spacing x
Number of subbands x 2
 Different T/R spacing corresponds to different
(ODUs of some
ODUs. manufacturers are also
 Primary and non-primary stations have different classified by capacity.
ODUs.
– IDU
Service
channel
IF unit
Tributary
unit
Microwave Tx IF
Modulat
frame
ion
multiplexing
Cross-
conne
Cable interface
ction Microwave From/to ODU
Rx IF
frame Demod
demultiplexing ulation
Line unit
Service
O&M channel
interface
Supervision and control
Power
interface
DC/DC conversion
Questions
 What types are microwave equipment classified into?
 What units do the split-mount microwave equipment have? And

what are their functions??
 How to adjust antennas?
 What are the key specifications of antennas?
 What are the key specifications of ODU transmitters and receivers?
 Can you describe the entire signal flow of microwave transmission?
Summary
 Classification of digital microwave equipment
 Components of split-mount microwave equipment and their

functions
 Antenna installation and key specifications of antennas
 Functional modules and key performance indexes of ODU
 Functional modules of IDU
 Signal flow of microwave transmission
Contents
Common Networking Modes of
Digital Microwave
Ring network Chain network
Add/Drop
network
Hub network
Types of Digital Microwave Stations
• Digital microwave stations are classified into Pivotal stations, add/drop relay stations,
relay stations and terminal stations.
Relay Add/Drop
station relay station
Terminal
station
Pivotal Terminal
station station
Terminal
station
Types of Relay Stations
Passive • Back-to-back antenna

• Plane reflector
Relay station
• Regenerative repeater
Active
• IF repeater
• RF repeater
Active Relay Station
 Radio Frequency relay station
 An active, bi-directional radio repeater system without frequency shift. The
RF relay station directly amplifies the signal over radio frequency.
 Regenerator relay station

 A high-frequency repeater of high performance. The regenerator relay station
is used to extend the transmission distance of microwave communication
systems, or to deflect the transmission direction of the signal to avoid
obstructions and ensure the signal quality is not degraded. After complete
regeneration and amplification, the received signal is forwarded.
Passive Relay Station
 Parabolic reflector passive relay station

 The parabolic reflector passive relay station is composed of two
parabolic antennas connected by a soft waveguide back to back.
 The two-parabolic passive relay station often uses large-diameter
antennas. Meters are necessary to adjust antennas, which is time
consuming.
 The near end is less than 5 km away.
Plane Reflector Passive Relay Station
 Plane reflector passive relay station: A metal board which has smooth surface,
proper effective area, proper angle and distance with the two communication
points. It is also a passive relay microwave station.
 Full-distance free space loss:

d1(km)
Ls  1421
.  20 log d1d2  20 log a 
d 2(km)
a  A cos 2
“a” is the effective area (m2) of the flat reflector.
Passive Relay Station (Photos)
Passive relay station Passive relay station

(plane reflector) (parabolic reflectors)
Application of Digital Microwave
Complementary
networks to optical
networks (access the
services from the last
1 km)
Special transmission
BTS backhaul conditions (rivers, lakes,
transmission islands, etc.)
Microwave
application
Emergency
communications
Redundancy backup (conventions, activities,
of important links danger elimination,
disaster relief, etc.)
VIP customer
access
Questions
 What are the networking modes frequently used for digital microwave?
 What are the types of digital microwave stations?
 What are the types of relay stations?
 What is the major application of digital microwave?
Contents
Contents
 4.1 Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
 4.2 Various Fading in Microwave Propagation
 4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Microwave
Key Parameters in
Microwave Propagation (1)
 Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Zone Radius
 Fresnel zone: The sum of the distance from P to T and the distance from P to R
complies with the formula, TP+PR-TR= n/2 (n=1,2,3, …). The elliptical region
encircled by the trail of P is called the Fresnel zone.
T O R
F1
P
d1 d2
 Fresnel zone radius: The vertical distance from P to the TR line in the Fresnel
zone. The first Fresnel zone radius is represented by F1 (n=1).
Key Parameters in
d1 (km)  d 2 (km)
 Formula of the first Fresnel zone radius: F1  17.32
f (GHz )  d (km)
 The first Fresnel zone is the region where the microwave transmission energy is
the most concentrated. The obstruction in the Fresnel zone should be as little as
possible. With the increase of the Fresnel zone serial numbers, the field strength of the
receiving point reduces as per arithmetic series.
Key Parameters in
A
 Clearance F
M
h3
hc B
h1 hp
hs
h5
h2
h4 h6
d1 d2
d
 Along the microwave propagation trail, the obstruction from buildings, trees, and
mountain peaks is sometimes inevitable. If the height of the obstacle enters the first Fresnel
zone, additional loss might be caused. As a result, the received level is decreased and the
transmission quality is affected. Clearance is used to avoid the case described previously.
 The vertical distance from the obstacle to AB line segment is called the clearance of the
obstacle on the trail. For convenience, the vertical distance hc from the obstacle to the
ground surface is used to represent the clearance. In practice, the error is not big because
the line segment AB is approximately parallel to the ground surface. If the first Fresnel zone
radius of the obstacle is F1, then hc/ F1 is the relative clearance.
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
– Terrain
 The reflected wave from the ground surface is the major factor that affects the received level.
Straight line
Straight line
Reflection Reflection
 Smooth ground or water surface can reflect the part of the signal energy transmitted by the
antenna to the receiving antenna and cause interference to the main wave (direct wave). The vector
sum of the reflected wave and main wave increases or decreases the composite wave. As a result,
the transmission becomes unstable. Therefore, when doing microwave link design, avoid reflected
waves as much as possible. If reflection is inevitable, make use of the terrain ups and downs to block
the reflected waves.
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
– Terrain
 Different reflection conditions of different terrains have different effects on electric
wave propagation. Terrains are classified into the following four types:
 Type A: mountains (or cities with dense buildings)

 Type B: hills (gently wavy ground surface)
 Type C: plain
 Type D: large-area water surface
 The reflection coefficient of mountains is the smallest, and thus the mountain terrain
is most suitable for microwave transmission. The hill terrain is less suitable. When
designing circuits, try to avoid smooth plane such as water surface.
Factors Affecting Electric Wave
Propagation – Atmosphere
 Troposphere indicates the low altitude atmosphere within 10 km from the ground.
Microwave antennas will not be higher than troposphere, so the electric wave
propagation in aerosphere can be narrowed down to that in troposphere. Main effects
of troposphere on electric wave propagation are listed below:
 Absorption caused by gas resonance. This type of absorption can affect the
microwave at 12 GHz or higher.
 Absorption and scattering caused by rain, fog, and snow. This type of
absorption can affect the microwave at 10 GHz or higher.
 Refraction, absorption, reflection and scattering caused by inhomogeneity of

atmosphere. Refraction is the most significant impact to the microwave
propagation.
Contents
Fading in Microwave Propagation
 Fading: Random variation of the received level. The variation is irregular and the
reasons for this are various.
Fading Received Influence of

Fading time
mechanism level fading on signal
Frequency selective fading

Free space propagation
Down fading
K-type fading
Slow fading
Fast fading
Absorption fading
Flat fading
Rain fading
Scintillation
Up fading
Duct type fading
fading
fading
Free Space Transmission Loss
 Free space loss: A = 92.4 + 20 log d + 20 log f

(d: km, f: GHz). If d or f is doubled, the loss will increase by 6 dB.
d PTX = Transmit power

GTX GRX
PRX = Receive power
G = Antenna gain
Power level
f A0 = Free space loss
M = Fading margin
G
PTX A0
PRX
G
M
Receiving threshold
Distance
Absorption Fading
 Molecules of all substances are composed of charged particles. These particles
have their own electromagnetic resonant frequencies. When the microwave frequencies
of these substances are close to their resonance frequencies, resonance absorption
occurs to the microwave.
 Statistic shows that absorption to the microwave frequency lower than 12 GHz is
smaller than 0.1 dB/km. Compared with free space loss, the absorption loss can be
ignored.
10dB
1dB
0.1dB
0.01dB
60GHz 23GHz 12GHz 7.5GHz 1GHz
Atmosphere absorption curve (dB/km)
Rain Fading
 For frequencies lower than 10 GHz, rain loss can be ignored. Only a few db may
be added to a relay section.
 For frequencies higher than 10 GHz, repeater spacing is mainly affected by rain
loss. For example, for the 13 GHz frequency or higher, 100 mm/h rainfall causes a
loss of 5 dB/km. Hence, for the 13 GHz and 15 GHz frequencies, the maximum relay
distance is about 10 km. For the 20 GHz frequency and higher, the relay distance is
limited in few kilometres due to rain loss.
 High frequency bands can be used for user-level transmission. The higher the
frequency band is, the more severe the rain fading.
K-Type Fading (1)
 Atmosphere refraction
 As a result of atmosphere refraction, the microwave propagation trail is bent. It is
considered that the electromagnetic wave is propagated along a straight line above
the earth with an equivalent earth radius of Re , Re = KR (R: actual earth radius.)
 The average measured K value is about 4/3. However, the K value of a specific
section is related to the meteorological phenomena of the section. The K value may
change within a comparatively large range. This can affect line-of-sight propagation.
Re
R
K-Type Fading (2)
 Microwave propagation
k > 1: Positive refraction
k = 1: No refraction
k < 1: Negative refraction
K-Type Fading (3)
 Equivalent earth radius
 In temperate zones, the refraction when the K value is 4/3 is regarded
as the standard refraction, where the atmosphere is the standard
atmosphere and Re which is 4R/3 is the standard equivalent earth radius.
k=∞
4/3
1
2/3
Ground surface
Actual earth radius (r)
2/3 Ground surface

1
4/3
k=∞
Equivalent earth radius (r·k)
Multipath Fading (1)
 Multipath fading: Due to multipath propagation of refracted waves, reflected
waves, and scattered waves, multiple electric waves are received at the
receiving end. The composition of these electric waves will result in severe
interference fading.
 Reasons for multipath fading: reflections due to non-uniform atmosphere,

water surface and smooth ground surface.
 Down fading: fading where the composite wave level is lower than the free
space received level. Up fading: fading where the composite wave level is
higher than the free space received level.
 Non-uniform atmosphere
 Water surface
 Smooth ground surface. Ground surface
Multipath Fading (2)
 Multipath fading is a type of interference fading caused by multipath transmission.

Multipath fading is caused by mutual interference between the direct wave and
reflected wave (or diffracted wave on some conditions) with different phases.
 Multipath fading grows more severe when the wave passes water surface or
smooth ground surface. Therefore, when designing the route, try to avoid smooth
water and ground surface. When these terrains are inevitable, use the high and low
antenna technologies to bring the reflection point closer to one end so as to reduce
the impact of the reflected wave, or use the high and low antennas and space
diversity technologies or the antennas that are against reflected waves to overcome
multipath fading.
Multipath Fading
– Frequency Selective Fading
Flat Selective fading

Received power (dBm)
Normal
Frequency (MHz)
Multipath Fading – Flat Fading
Up fading
Received level
in free space
Threshold level
(-30 dB)
1h
Signal
interruption
Duct Type Fading
Due to the effects of the meteorological conditions such as ground cooling in the
night, burnt warm by the sun in the morning, smooth sea surface, and anticyclone, a
non-uniform structure is formed in atmosphere. This phenomenon is called
atmospheric duct.
If microwave beams pass through the atmospheric duct while the receiving point is
outside the duct layer, the field strength at the receiving point is from not only the
direct wave and ground reflected wave, but also the reflected wave from the edge of
the duct layer. As a result, severe interference fading occurs and causes interruption
to the communications.
Duct type fading
Scintillation Fading
When the dielectric constant of local atmosphere is different from the ambient due to the
particle clusters formed under different pressure, temperature, and humidity conditions,
scattering occurs to the electric wave. This is called scintillation fading. The amplitude
and phase of different scattered waves vary with the atmosphere. As a result, the
composite field strength at the receiving point changes randomly.
Scintillation fading is a type of fast fading which lasts a short time. The level changes
little and the main wave is barely affected. Scintillation fading will not cause
communications interruption.
Scintillation fading
闪烁衰落示意图
Summary
 The higher the frequency is and the longer the hop distance is, the more severe the
fading is.
 Fading is more severe at night than in the daylight, in summer than in winter. In the
daylight, sunshine is good for air convection. In summer, weather changes frequently.
 In sunny days without wind, atmosphere is non-uniform and atmosphere subdivision
easily forms and hardly clears. Multipath transmission often occurs in such conditions.
 Fading is more severe along water route than land route, because both the reflection
coefficient of water surface and the atmosphere refraction coefficient above water
surface are bigger.
 Fading is more severe along plain route than mountain route, because atmosphere
subdivision often occurs over plain and the ground reflection factor of the plain is
bigger.
 Rain and fog weather causes much influence on high-frequency microwave.
Contents
Anti-fading Technologies
for Digital Microwave System (1)
Category Effect
Adaptive equalization Waveform distortion
Equipment level Automatic transmit power

Power reduction
countermeasure control (ATPC)
Forward error correction

Power reduction
(FEC)
System level Power reduction and

Diversity receiving technology
countermeasure waveform distortion
 Frequency domain equalization
Multipath fading
Slope equalization
Signal frequency Frequency spectrum
spectrum after equalization
 The frequency domain equalization only equalizes the amplitude frequency

response characteristics of the signal instead of the phase frequency spectrum
characteristics.
 The circuit is simple.
 Time domain equalization
 Time domain equalization directly counteracts the intersymbol
interference.
T … T … T
C-n C0 Cn
After
Before
-2Ts -Ts Ts Ts
-2Ts -Ts
 Automatic transmit power control (ATPC)
Under normal propagation conditions, the output power of the transmitter is always
at a lower level, for example, 10 to 15 dB lower than the normal level. When
propagation fading occurs and the receiver detects that the propagation fading is
lower than the minimum received level specified by ATPC, the RFCOH is used to let
the transmitter to raise the transmit power.
 Working principle of ATPC
Modulator Transmitter Receiver Demodulator
ATPC ATPC
Demodulator Receiver Transmitter Modulator
 ATPC: The output power of the transmitter automatically traces and changes with the
received level of the receiver within the control range of ATPC.
 The time rate of severe propagation fading is usually small (<1%). After ATPC is
configured, the transmitter works at a power 10 to 15 dB lower than the nominal
power for over 99% of the time. In this way, adjacent channel interference and
power consumption can be reduced.
 Effects of ATPC:
 Reduces the interference to adjacent  Reduces up fading
systems and over-reach interference
 Improves residual BER
 Reduces DC power consumption
 ATPC adjustment process (gradual change)
Transmitter output level (dBm)

Received level (dBm)
-25
High level
-35 31
-45 Low level

21
-55
ATPC dynamic range

-72
45 75 85 102
Link loss (dB)
 Cross-polarization interference 680MHz
cancellation (XPIC) 30MHz 340 MHz
80MHz 60MHz
 In microwave transmission, XPIC is
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1’ 2’ 3’ 4’ 5’ 6’ 7’ 8’
used to transmit two different signals
V (H)
over one frequency. The utilization
ratio of the frequency spectrum is
H (V)
doubled. To avoid severe interference
between two different polarized signals, 680 MHz
the interference compensation 340MHz

30MHz 80MHz 60MHz
technology must be used. 1’ 2’ 3’ 4’ 5’ 6’ 7’ 8’
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Electric field direction
V (H)
Horizontal polarization
H (V)
1X 2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X 8X 1X’ 2X’ 3X' 4X’ 5X’ 6X’ 7X’ 8X’

Vertical polarization
Frequency configuration of U6 GHz frequency band (ITU-R F.384-5)
Shape of waveguide interface
 Diversity technologies
 For diversity, two or multiple transmission paths are used to transmit the same information
and the receiver output signals are selected or composed, to reduce the effect of fading.
 Diversity has the following types, space diversity, frequency diversity, polarization diversity,
and angle diversity.
 Space diversity and frequency diversity are more frequently used. Space diversity is
economical and has a good effect. Frequency diversity is often applied to multi-channel systems
as it requires a wide bandwidth. Usually, the system that has one standby channel is configured
with frequency diversity.
f1
H
f2
Space diversity (SD) Frequency diversity (FD)
 Frequency diversity
 Signals at different frequencies have different fading characteristics. Accordingly,
two or more microwave frequencies with certain frequency spacing to transmit and
receive the same information which is then selected or composed, to reduce the
influence of fading. This work mode is called frequency diversity.
 Advantages: The effect is obvious. Only one antenna is required.
 Disadvantages: The utilization ratio of frequency bands is low.
f1
f2
 Space diversity
 Signals have different multipath effect over different paths and thus have different fading
characteristics. Accordingly, two or more suites of antennas at different altitude levels to
receive the signals at the same frequency which are composed or selected. This work
mode is called space diversity. If there are n pairs of antennas, it is called n-fold diversity.
 Advantages: The frequency resources are saved.
 Disadvantages: The equipment is complicated, as two or more suites of antennas are

required.
 Antenna distance: As per experience, the distance between the diversity antennas is
100 to 200 times the wavelength in frequently used frequency bands.
f1
 Dh calculation in space diversity Rx
Tx
Dh
h1
d
 Approximately, Dh can be calculated according to this formula:
(nl＋l/2)d
Dh =
l: wavelength
2h1
d: path distance
h1: height of the antenna at the transmit end
 Apart from the anti-fading technologies introduced previously, here are two
frequently used tips:
 Method I: Make use of some terrain and ground objects to block reflected waves.
 Method II: high and low antennas
Protection Modes of
Digital Microwave Equipment (1)
Hybrid coupler
 With one hybrid coupler added between two  The 1+1 HSB can also be realized in the
ODUs and the antenna, the 1+1 HSB can be configuration of two antennas. In this case,
realized in the configuration of one antenna. the FD and SD technologies can both be
Moreover, the FD technology can also be adopted, which improves the system
adopted. availability.
Protection Modes of
 N+1 (N≤3, 7, 11) Protection
 In the following figure, Mn stands for the active channel and P stands for the standby
channel. The active channel and the standby channel have their independent
modulation/demodulation unit and signal transmitting /receiving unit.
 When the fault or fading occurs in the active channel, the signal is switched to the
standby channel. The channel backup is an inter-frequency backup. This protection mode
(FD) is mainly used in the all indoor microwave equipment.
 Products of different vendors support different specifications.
ch1 M1 M1 ch1
ch2 M2 M2 ch2
ch3 M3 M3 ch3
chP P P chP
Switching Switching
control unit RFSOH control unit
Protection Modes of
Configuration Protection Mode Remarks Application
1+0 NP Non-protection Terminal of the network
1+1 FD Channel protection Inter-

frequency Select the proper mode
depending on the
1+1 SD Equipment protection geographical condition
Intra-
and channel protection and requirements of the
frequency
customer
1+1 FD+SD Equipment protection Inter-

and channel protection frequency
N+1 FD Equipment protection Inter- Large-capacity

and channel protection frequency backbone network
Questions
 What factors can affect the microwave propagation?
 What types of fading exists in the microwave propagation?
 What are the two categories is the anti-fading technology?
 What protection modes are available for the microwave?
Summary
 Importance parameters affecting microwave propagation
 Various factors affecting microwave propagation
 Various fading types in the microwave propagation (free space propagation fading,
atmospheric absorption fading, rain or fog scattering fading, K type fading,
multipath fading, duct type fading, and scintillation type fading)
 Anti-fading technologies
 Anti-fading measures adopted on the equipment: adaptive equalization, ATPC,

and XPIC
 Anti-fading measures adopted in the system: FD and SD
 Protection modes of the microwave equipment
Contents
Contents

 5.1 Basis of Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
 5.2 Procedures for Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
Basis of Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
 Requirement on the point-to-point line-of-sight communication
 Objective of designing a microwave transmission line
 Transmission clearance
 Meanings of K value in the microwave transmission planning
Requirement on a Microwave
Transmission Line
 Because the microwave is a short wave and has weak ability of diffraction, the
normal communication can be realized in the line-of-sight transmission without obstacles.
Line propagation Irradiated wave

Antenna
Requirement on a Microwave
Transmission Line
 In the microwave transmission, the transmit power is very small, only the antenna in
the accurate direction can realize the communication. For the communication of long
distance, use the antenna of greater diameter or increase the transmit power.
Direction demonstration of the microwave antenna
Microwave antenna
Half power angle of the

microwave antenna 3 dB
Objective of Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
 In common geographical conditions, it is recommended that there be no
obstacles within the first Fresnel zone if K is equal to 4/3.
 When the microwave transmission line passes the water surface or the
desert area, it is recommended that there are no obstacles within the first
Fresnel zone if K is equal to 1.
The first Fresnel zone
k = 4/3
Transmission Clearance (1)
 The knife-edged obstacle blocks partial of the Fresnel zone. This also causes
the diffraction of the microwave. Influenced by the two reasons, the level at the
actual receive point must be lower than the free space level. The loss caused by
the knife-edged obstacle is called additional loss.
 When the peak of the obstacle is in the line

connecting the transmit end and the receive end, that 8
6
is, the HC is equal to 0, the additional loss is equal to 4
6 dB. 2
0
 When the peak of the obstacle is above the line -2
Additional loss (dB)

connecting the transmit end and the receive end, the -4
-6
additional loss is increased greatly. -8
-10
 When the peak of the obstacle is below the line
-12
connecting the transmit end the receive end, the -14
-16
additional loss fluctuates around 0 dB. The -18
-20
transmission loss in the path and the signal receiving -22
level approach the values in the free space -24
-26
transmission. -28
-2.5-2.0-1.5-1.0-0.5 0 0.51.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 HC/F1
Loss caused by block of knife-edged obstacle
 Clearance calculation
 Calculation formula for path clearance
h1d 2  h2 d1
hc   hb  hs
d
hc
The value of clearance is
required greater than that h2
of the first Fresnel Zone’s
radius. hs
h1
 hb stands for the projecting d1 hb d2
height of the earth. d
d1d 2
hb  0.0785
K
 K stands for the atmosphere refraction factor.
 To present the influence of various factors on microwave transmission, the field
strength fading factor V is introduced. The field strength fading factor V is defined as the
ratio of the combined field strength when the irradiated wave and the reflected wave
arrive at the receive point to the field strength when the irradiated wave arrives at the
receive point in the free space transmission.
E  h 
2

V  1    2  cos   ce  
2
E0   F1  
E : Combined field strength when the irradiated wave and reflected wave
arrive at the receive point
: Field strength when the irradiated wave arrives at the received point
in
E0
 : the free space transmission
Equivalent ground reflection factor
 The relation of the V and  can be
represented by the curve in the figure on the
right. V（dB）
10
 In the case that Φ is equal to 1, with the
5
influence of the earth considered, HC/F1 is
0
equal to 0.577 when the signal receiving level
-5
is equal to the free space level the first time. φ＝0.2
-10
 In the case that Φ is smaller than 1, HC/F1 is φ＝0.5
-15
approximately equal to 0.6 when the signal φ＝0.8
-20
receiving level is equal to the free space level φ＝1
-25
the first time. -30
 When the HC/F1 is equal to 0.577, the -35
clearance is called the free space clearance, -40
represented by H0 and expressed in the
4
4
1
3
6
6
3
1
0
6
9
6
4
6
8
5
2
HC/F1=N
0 .6
1 .0
1 .3
1 .4
1 .5
1 .7
1 .9
2 .0
2 .1
2 .2
2 .3
2 .4
2 .5
2 .6
2 .7
2 .8
3 .0
following formula:
H0 = 0.577F 1 = (λd1d2/d)1/2 Relation curve of V and Hc/F1
Meaning of K Value in Microwave
Transmission Planning (1)
 To make the clearance cost-effective and reasonable in the engineering, the height
of the antenna should be adjusted according to the following requirements.
 In the case that Φ is not greater than 0.5, that is, for the circuit that passes the
area of small ground reflection factor like the mountainous area, city, and hilly
area, to avoid over great diffraction, the height of the antenna should be
adjusted according to the following requirements:
When K = 2/3, HC ≥ 0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
HC ≥ 0 (for knife-shaped obstacles)
 The diffraction fading should not be greater than 8 dB in this case.
Meaning of K Value in Microwave
Transmission Planning (2)
 In the case that Φ is greater than 0.7, that is, for the circuit that passes the area of
great ground reflection factor like the plain area and water reticulation area, to avoid
over great reflection fading, the height of the antenna should be adjusted according to
the following requirements
When K = 2/3, HC ≥ 0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
HC ≥ 0 (for knife-edged obstacles)
When K = 4/3, HC ≈ F1
When K = ∞, HC ≤ 1.35F1 (The deep fading occurs when HC = 21/2 F1.)
 If these requirements cannot be met, change the height of the antenna or the route.
Procedure for Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
 Step 1 Determine the route according to the engineering map.
 Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.
 Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
 Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.
Transmission Line (1)
Step 1 Determine the route according to engineering map.
 We should select the area that rolls as much as possible, such as the hilly
area. We should avoid passing the water surface and the flat and wide
area that is not suitable for the transmission of the electric wave. In this
way, the strong reflection signal and the accordingly caused deep fading
can be avoided.
 The line should avoid crossing through or penetrating into the mountainous
area.
 The line should go along with the railway, road and other areas with the
convenient transportation.
Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.
 The distance between two sites should not be too long. The distance
between two relay stations should be equal, and each relay section should
have the proper clearance.
 Select the Z route to avoid the over-reach interference.
 Avoid the interference from other radio services, such as the satellite
communication system, radar site, TV station, and broadcast station.
f1 f1 f1
f2 f2 f2
The signal from the first
microwave station
Over-reach interferes with the
signal of the same
interference
frequency from the third
microwave station.
Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain based on the data of each site.
 Calculate the antenna height and transmission situation of each site. For the
line that has strong reflection, adjust the mounting height of the antenna to
block the reflected wave, or have the reflection point fall on the earth
surface with small reflection factor.
 Consider the path clearance. The clearance in the plain area should not be
over great, and that in the mountainous area should not be over small.
Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.
 Calculate the terrain parameters when the route and the site are already
determined.
 Calculate the azimuth and the elevation angles of the antenna, distance
between sites, free space transmission loss and receive level, rain
fading index, line interruption probability, and allocated values and margin
of the line index.
 When the margin of the line index is eligible, plan the equipment and
frequencies, make the approximate budget, and deliver the construction
chart.
There is special network
planning software, and the
Input
commonly used is CTE
Pathloss.
Input
Questions
 What are the requirements for microwave communication?
 What is the goal of microwave design?
 What extra factors should be taken into consideration for microwave

planning?
 Can you tell the procedure for designing a microwave transmission line?
Thank You
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Digital Microwave

Copyright © 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

 This course is developed to meet the requirement of Huawei Optical

 This course informs engineers of the basics on digital microwave

 Network communications technology basics

 Electromagnetic field basic theory

 Concept and characteristics of digital microwave communications

 Functions and principles of each component of digital microwave

 Common networking modes and application scenarios of digital

 Propagation principles of digital microwave communication and

 Procedure and key points in designing microwave transmission link

1. Digital Microwave Communication Overview

2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment

3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application

4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies

5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links

Microwave TE Optical fiber communication

Small investment, short construction

Limited frequency resources (frequency Not limited by frequency, license not

Transmission quality greatly affected by Stable and reliable transmission quality

Limited transmission capacity Large transmission capacity

 According to the characteristics of microwave propagation, microwave

34/140M PDH digital microwave

1.5 GHz 2.5 GHz

3.3 GHz Long haul 11 GHz

Channel Adjacent channel Channel

f1 f2 fn f1’ f2’ fn’

f1=7442 f2=7470 f5 f1’=7596 f2’ f5’

7G Frequency F0 (MHz) T/R Spacing Channel Spacing Primary and Non-

Baseband signal rate

Digital baseband signal IF signal

A*COS(Wc*t+φ) PSK and QAM are

15.552 Mbit/s STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s

RFCOH SOH Payload

MLCM DMY XPIC ATPC WS RSC INI ID FA

RFCOH: Radio Frame Complementary Overhead

12 bits (the 1st word) 12 bits (the 148th word)

 What is digital microwave communication?

 What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency bands?

 What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?

2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment

3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application

4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies

5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links

System Digital microwave Analog microwave

Small and medium Large capacity

All outdoor radio

• High cost, large BRU: Branch RF Unit

SDH microwave equipment

• All the units are RF processing unit

All outdoor microwave equipment

 ODU: RF processing, conversion of IF/RF signals.

 IF cable: Transmitting of IF signal, management signal and power supply of ODU.

 IDU: Performs access, dispatch, multiplex/demultiplex, and

modulation/demodulation for services.

ODU IF cable IF cable

 Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.

Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe

 During antenna adjustment, the two

wrong adjustment cases are show here.

One antenna is aligned to another

antenna through the side lobe. As a

result, the RSSI cannot meet the

ACOS(Wct+φ) PSK and QAM are