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�u
t =m
�y
D’Alembert r
F =0
Paradox
�
aV 2 p � �aV 2 p �
� + + z�= � + + z�
�
�2g g �
� �
�2g g �
�
1 2
V2
2g V2
2g
p
g
hw
hw
hw
2
V
2g V 2 2g
V2
p
p 2g
g
g
pg
For real fluid flows
�aV 2 p �
� �aV 2 p �
�
�
� + + z� - �
� + + z� = hw > 0
�
�2g rg �
�
� �
�2g rg �
�
�
upstream downstream
Head Loss
Head Loss:
Turbulent Flows:
hf
lo g h f
lo g V
Laminar Flows: hf �V
2
Turbulent hf �V ( Rough wall)
Flows:
1.75
�V ( Smooth wall)
Critical Condition
Ud r Ud
R= = = 2300
n m
Reynolds Number
3. Friction and Head Losses
V2 hw p2
2g
g
p1
g
z1 z2
Momentum Equation
p1 p2 PL
- - ( z2 - z1) = t
g g gA
hf t P t
= =
L gA gRh
Hydraulic radius
rV 2
t =C f
2
hf t
=
L gRh
L V2
hf = C
Rh 2g
LV2
hf = f Darcy-Weisbach equation
D 2g
4. Head Loss in Laminar Flows
x
x =x u = u( r )
y = r cosq v=0
z = r sin q w=0
�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z
�u �u %
�u 1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
u +v +w + �
= n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
�x �y �z r �x �
�x
� �y �
�z �
�v �v %
�v 1 �p ��2
v �2
v �2 �
v�
u +v +w + �
= n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
�x �y �z r �y �
�x
� �y �
�z �
�w �w %
�w 1 �p �
� 2
w �2
w �2 �
w�
u +v +w + �
= n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
�x �y �z r �z �
�x
� �y �
�z �
�u
=0
�x
%
1 �p �
� 2
u �2 �
u�
= n�
� + �
2�
r �x �
�y
� 2
�z �
%
�p
=0
�y
%
�p
=0
�z
y = r cosq
�2 �2 �
�r � �q �� ��r � �q �� z = r sin q
+ = �
� + �
�
�
� + �
�
�y2
�z2 � �
�
�y �r �y �q�
� � �
�y �r �y �q�
�
�r � �q �� �
��r � �q �� �
�
+� + �
�
� + �
� �
�z �r �z �q�
��z �r �z �q�
�
� � sin q ��
�� �
� sin q ��
�
=�
cosq + ��
cosq
� + �
� �r r �q�
�� �r r �q�
�
� � cosq ��
�
� � cosq ��
�
�
+�
sin q - �
�
�sin q - �
� �r �
r �q�
� �r �
r �q�
2
1 �� � � �
� 1 �
= r
� �
�+ 2 2
r �r � �r � r �q
%
dp �
� 2
u �2 �
u�
= m�
� + �
2�
dx �
�y
� 2
�z �
�
1 �� �u � 1 �2 �
u
=m � �
r
� �
�+ 2 2�
� � �
r �r � �r � r �q �
� �
m �� � �u �
�
= r
� �
�
r �r � �r �
u=0 (r = a)
%2
1 dp
u= r + A logr + B
4mdx u � finite ( r � 0)
% 2
1 dp gJ 2
u =- ( a - r ) = ( a - r 2)
2
%= p + gz
p
4mdx 4m
�
�u � �� gJ 2 � 1
t = m� � = m � ( a - r ) � = - gJ a
2
�
�r �
r =a �r �
4m
� �
�
r =a
2
hf t
= t = gJ Rh
L gRh
a �
gJ 2 a � pgJ D 4
Q = 2p�ur dr = 2p�� ( a - r 2) �
r dr =
0 0 �
4m � 128m
� �
128mQ 32mV V =
Q
J = = pD 2 4
gpD 4 gD 2
hf 32mV
J = = g = rg
L gD 2
64m L V 2
hf =
rVD D 2g
64
f =
R
5. Head Loss in Turbulent Flows
Mean flow and fluctuation
1 t+T
B = � B dt
T t
t
Mean flow and fluctuation B = B +B�
B =B BB = BB B1 + B2 = B1 + B2
B �= 0 BB �= 0 � � �B
�B �
�
� �=
�
��x � �x
B ��
B �0
BB = BB + B ��
B
Basic Equations of Turbulent Flows:
�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z
�u �u �u �u 1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
+u +v +w = fx - + n�
� + + �
�
�t �x �y �z r �x �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �
�
�v �v �v �v 1 �p ��2
v �2
v �2 �
v�
+u +v +w = fy - + n�
� + + �
�t �x �y �z r �y �x2 �y2 �z2 �
�
� �
�w �w �w �w 1 �p �
� 2
w �2
w �2 �
w�
+u +v +w = fz - + n�
� + + �
�
�t �x �y �z r �z �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �
�
�u �u �u �u 1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
+u +v +w = fx - + n�
� + + �
�t �x �y �z r �x �x2 �y2 �z2 �
�
� �
�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z
�u �u �u �u �v �u �w
+u +u +v +u +w +u
�t �x �x �y �y �z �z
1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
= fx - + n�
� + + �
2�
r �x �
�
� x 2
�y 2
�z �
�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z
�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z
�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z
Reynolds’ Average
1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
= fx - + n�
� + + �
�
r �x �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �
�
Reynolds Stresses
Rxx = - r u�
u�
Ryx = - r u�
v�
Rzx = - r u��
w
y
v�
u = u ( y)
Reynolds Stresses
x
�u �u �u �u
+u +v +w
�t �x �y �z
1 �p �
�2u �2u �2u � 1��Rxx �Ryx �Rzx �
= fx - + n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
� �
�+ �
� + + �
�
�
r �x �
�x
� �y ��x
�z � r � �y �z �
�v �v �v �v
+u +v +w
�t �x �y �z
�w �w �w �w
+u +v +w
�t �x �y �z
1 �p �
�2w �2w �2w� 1� �Rxz �Ryz �Rzz �
= fz - + n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
� �+ �� + + �
�
r �z �
�x
� �y � �
�z � r ��x �y �z ��
�u �u �u �u
+u +v +w
�t �x �y �z
1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u� 1 ��Rxx �Ryx �Rzx �
�
= fx - + n�
� + + �
�+ �
� + + �
�
r �x �
�x
� 2
�y 2 2 �
�z � r ��x �y �z �
1�
��s xx �t yx �t zx �
�
� + + �
�
r�
��x �y �z �
�u �u
s xx = r n Rxx = r ne
�x �x
1 ��v �u � 1 � �
�v �u �
t yx = rn� + �
� � �
Ryx = r ne � + �
2 � �
�x �y �
� 2 �x �y �
�
� �
1 ��w �u � 1 ��w �u � �
t zx = rn�
� + � � Rzx = rne �
� + �
�
2 ��x �z � 2 ��x �z �
�
Theory of Mixing Length
y
t = - r u�
v�
2
l� u = u ( y)
�
2�
�
du �
= r cl �� �
dy �
�
� �
x
2 du du
t yx = rl
du dy dy
�
u =l � v��u�
dy
Logarithmic Velocity Distribution
y
2
�
du �
t = t 0 = rk y � �
2 2�
�
�
�
dy �
�
u = u ( y)
du t0
ky = �v*
dy r
l = ky ( k = 0.4)
v*
u= logy + C
t = t0 k
6. Head Loss of Steady Pipe Flows
Logarithmic Velocity Distribution
v*
u = logy + C
k
u 1
= logy + C �
v* k
u 1 v*y
= log +C �
�
v* k n
R*
y
t
l
0
Logarithmic Velocity Distribution in a Pipe
y
30
u Viscous Turbulent
v*
20
u vy
= 2.5log * + 5.5
v* n
10
u vy
= *
v* n
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
v*y n
v*y
Viscous sublayer: 0< �5
n
v*y
Transition zone: 5< < 70
n
v*y
Turbulent zone: �70
n
Velocity Distribution in Viscous Sublayer
du
t =m
dy
t0 r v*2
u= y= y
m m
u vy
= *
v* n
Velocity Distribution in a Pipe
y
Blasius’ 7th-root law
1
u �y ��
7
=�
� �
�
�
umax � �
r0 �
ks
Hydraulically smooth wall:
u v*y
= 2.5log + 5.5
v* n
u y
= 2.5log + 8.5
v* ks
Velocity Distribution in a Pipe
Mean velocity in hydraulically smooth pipe:
u v*y v* ( a - r )
= 2.5log + 5.5 = 2.5log + 5.5
v* n n
v* 2pv* �a v* ( a - r ) �
V = 2 �udS = � 2.5log
� + 5.5�
rdr
pa S pa2 0 � n �
V v*a
= 2.5log + 1.75
v* n
Mean velocity in hydraulically rough pipe:
u y (a - r )
= 2.5log + 8.5 = 2.5log + 8.5
v* ks ks
v* 2pv* �
a (a - r) �
V = 2 �udS = � �
2.5log + 8.5�
rdr
pa S pa2 0 � ks �
� �
V a
= 2.5log + 4.75
v* ks
Relation among mean velocity, friction velocity
and friction factor:
L V2 hf t0 t
hf = f = =1 0
D 2g L gRh 4 gD
t0 1 8v*2
f =8 2
= 2
r V V
V = v* 8 f
Friction factor in hydraulically smooth pipe:
V v*a
= 2.5log + 1.75
v* n
1 �
VD �
�
�
= 0.884log� f�- 0.91
f �n �
�
= 2.04log10 ( R f ) - 0.91
Friction factor in hydraulically rough pipe:
V a
= 2.5log + 4.75
v* ks
1
f = 2
�
0.884log
�
� (a ks + )
1.68�
�
�
1
= 2
�
2.04log
�
� (
10 a ks +)1.68�
�
�
Experiment of Nikuradse
ks
Modified friction factor in hydraulically smooth pipe:
1 �R f �
�
= 2log10 ( R f ) - 0.8 = 2log10 �
�
�
�
� f= ( R )
f �2.51 �
�
1 �R �
= 1.8log10 �
� �
� ( 4000 �R �108)
f �6.9�
�
0.316
f = ( 3000 �R �105)
R 0.25
Modified friction factor in hydraulically rough pipe:
1 �ks �
f = f= �
� �
�
2 �
�
2log
�
� 10
(
a ks + 1.74�
�
�
) �a �
1
= 2
�
2log
�
� 10 (
3.7D k �
s �
� )
Colebrook Equation:
1 � ks �
2.51 �
�
= - 2log10 �
0.27 + �
� �
f � D R f� �
�2.51 �
� �
ks �
� - 2log10 �
�
�
�
� �
� � 0, smooth�
�
�
�R f �
� �
D �
�1 ks �
� - 2log10 �
�
�
�
�
�
3.7 D �
( R � �, rough)
Head loss in hydraulically smooth pipe:
LV2 �
ks �
�L V 2
hf = f = �
� �
�D 2g �V 2
D 2g �
D�
Practical pipe: equivalent roughness
ks
7. Minor Losses
Head Loss due to Sudden Expansion
V2
2g hlx
p
z+
g
Head Loss due to Sudden Expansion
1 2
�
p V 2� �
p V 2�
hlx = �
�
1
+ �1
�
�- �
�
2
+ �2
�
�
�
�g 2 g � �
�g 2 g �
p1�
p1 - p2 V12 - V22
= +
rg 2g
2
(V1 - V2 )
V1A1 = V2A2 =
2g
2
� A1 �
�V 2
r ( AV 2
1 1 ) = p1A1 + p1 ( A2 - A1) - p2A2
2 2 - AV
2
� =�
1-
� �
�
1
� �2g
� A2 �
p1 - p2 ( AV 1 1 )
2 2
2 2 - AV V12
= = V22 - V1V2 = Vx
r A2 2g
V22
hlc = Vc
2g
Head Loss due to Sudden Contraction
(
Vc = Vc D2 D1 )
hc
p V2
z+ +
g 2g
V2
hle = Ve
Head Loss at Entrance 2g
he
p V2
z+ +
g 2g
V2
Head Loss at Bell-Mouthed Entrance he = Ve
2g
Head Loss in Bend
V2
hb = Vb
2g
(
Vb = Vb r D )
8. An Example
H = 20 m
L1 = 80 m L2 = 50 m
Q =?
D1 = 0.2 m
D2 = 0.4 m
ks = 0.05 mm
ks = 0.05 mm
� p V 2�
� � p V 2�
�
z+ + �
� � - z+ + �
�
� �
� = H = �hw
�
� g 2g � �
� g 2g �
A B
Vo = 1.0
1
f1 = = 0.01438
2
�
2log10
�
�
( )
3.7D1 ks �
�
�
1
f2 = = 0.01250
2
�
2log10
�
� ( )
3.7D2 ks �
�
�
� l1 �V 2 � l �V 2
H =�
f1
� + Ve + Vx �
�
�
1
+ �
� 2
+ V �
�
�
2
�
� D1 �2g �
�
2
� D2 o
�2g
�
2 2
� 80 �
�V � 50 �
�V
=�
0.01438
� � + 0.5 + 0.5625�
1
+ �
0.01250� + 1.0�
2
� 0.2 �2g � � 0.4 �2g
V12 V22
= 6.8145 + 2.5625
2g 2g
2gH
V1 = 2
= 7.50 m s
6.8145 + 0.25 �2.5625
V1 = 7.50 m s
V2 = 0.25V1 = 1.875 m s
V2D2 1.875�0.4 5
R2 = = = 7.5�10
n 10- 6
ks D2 = 0.05�10- 3 0.4 = 1.25�10- 4