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VIII.

Viscous Flow and Head Loss


Contents
1. Introduction
2. Laminar and Turbulent Flows
3. Friction and Head Losses
4. Head Loss in Laminar Flows
5. Head Loss in Turbulent Flows
6. Head Loss of Steady Pipe Flows
7. Minor Losses
8. Examples
1. Introduction
Shear stress due to fluid viscosity

�u
t =m
�y
D’Alembert r
F =0
Paradox

aV 2 p � �aV 2 p �
� + + z�= � + + z�

�2g g �
� �
�2g g �

1 2
V2
2g V2
2g

p
g
hw
hw
hw
2
V
2g V 2 2g
V2
p
p 2g
g
g
pg
For real fluid flows

�aV 2 p �
� �aV 2 p �


� + + z� - �
� + + z� = hw > 0

�2g rg �

� �
�2g rg �


upstream downstream

Head Loss
Head Loss:

 Losses due to friction


 Minor Losses
 entrance and exit
 sudden change of cross sections
 valves and gates
 bends and elbows
 ……
2. Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Reynolds’ Experiment
Laminar Flows:

Movement of any fluid particle is regular

Path lines of fluid particles are smooth

Turbulent Flows:

Movement of any fluid particle is random

Path lines of fluid particles are affected by mixing


Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow:

 for different fluid

 for different diameter of pipe


Head Loss due to laminar and turbulent flows

hf
lo g h f

lo g V
Laminar Flows: hf �V

2
Turbulent hf �V ( Rough wall)
Flows:
1.75
�V ( Smooth wall)
Critical Condition

Ud r Ud
R= = = 2300
n m

Reynolds Number
3. Friction and Head Losses
V2 hw p2
2g
g

p1
g

z1 z2
Momentum Equation

p1A - p2A - gAL sin a - t PL = 0

A : area of the cross-section


P: wetted perimeter
z2 - z1
sin a =
L

p1A - p2A - gAL sin a - t PL = 0

p1 p2 PL
- - ( z2 - z1) = t
g g gA

hf t P t
= =
L gA gRh

Hydraulic radius
rV 2
t =C f
2

hf t
=
L gRh

L V2
hf = C
Rh 2g

LV2
hf = f Darcy-Weisbach equation
D 2g
4. Head Loss in Laminar Flows
x

x =x u = u( r )
y = r cosq v=0
z = r sin q w=0
�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z

�u �u %
�u 1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
u +v +w + �
= n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
�x �y �z r �x �
�x
� �y �
�z �

�v �v %
�v 1 �p ��2
v �2
v �2 �
v�
u +v +w + �
= n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
�x �y �z r �y �
�x
� �y �
�z �

�w �w %
�w 1 �p �
� 2
w �2
w �2 �
w�
u +v +w + �
= n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
�x �y �z r �z �
�x
� �y �
�z �
�u
=0
�x

%
1 �p �
� 2
u �2 �
u�
= n�
� + �
2�
r �x �
�y
� 2
�z �

%
�p
=0
�y

%
�p
=0
�z
y = r cosq
�2 �2 �
�r � �q �� ��r � �q �� z = r sin q
+ = �
� + �


� + �

�y2
�z2 � �

�y �r �y �q�
� � �
�y �r �y �q�

�r � �q �� �
��r � �q �� �

+� + �

� + �
� �
�z �r �z �q�
��z �r �z �q�

� � sin q ��
�� �
� sin q ��

=�
cosq + ��
cosq
� + �
� �r r �q�
�� �r r �q�

� � cosq ��

� � cosq ��


+�
sin q - �

�sin q - �
� �r �
r �q�
� �r �
r �q�

2
1 �� � � �
� 1 �
= r
� �
�+ 2 2
r �r � �r � r �q
%
dp �
� 2
u �2 �
u�
= m�
� + �
2�
dx �
�y
� 2
�z �

1 �� �u � 1 �2 �
u
=m � �
r
� �
�+ 2 2�
� � �
r �r � �r � r �q �
� �
m �� � �u �

= r
� �

r �r � �r �

u=0 (r = a)
%2
1 dp
u= r + A logr + B
4mdx u � finite ( r � 0)

% 2
1 dp gJ 2
u =- ( a - r ) = ( a - r 2)
2
%= p + gz
p
4mdx 4m

�u � �� gJ 2 � 1
t = m� � = m � ( a - r ) � = - gJ a
2


�r �
r =a �r �
4m
� �

r =a
2

hf t
= t = gJ Rh
L gRh
a �
gJ 2 a � pgJ D 4
Q = 2p�ur dr = 2p�� ( a - r 2) �
r dr =
0 0 �
4m � 128m
� �

128mQ 32mV V =
Q
J = = pD 2 4
gpD 4 gD 2

hf 32mV
J = = g = rg
L gD 2

64m L V 2
hf =
rVD D 2g

64
f =
R
5. Head Loss in Turbulent Flows
Mean flow and fluctuation

1 t+T
B = � B dt
T t

t
Mean flow and fluctuation B = B +B�

B =B BB = BB B1 + B2 = B1 + B2

B �= 0 BB �= 0 � � �B
�B �

� �=

��x � �x
B ��
B �0

BB = BB + B ��
B
Basic Equations of Turbulent Flows:

�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z

�u �u �u �u 1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
+u +v +w = fx - + n�
� + + �

�t �x �y �z r �x �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �

�v �v �v �v 1 �p ��2
v �2
v �2 �
v�
+u +v +w = fy - + n�
� + + �
�t �x �y �z r �y �x2 �y2 �z2 �

� �

�w �w �w �w 1 �p �
� 2
w �2
w �2 �
w�
+u +v +w = fz - + n�
� + + �

�t �x �y �z r �z �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �

�u �u �u �u 1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
+u +v +w = fx - + n�
� + + �
�t �x �y �z r �x �x2 �y2 �z2 �

� �

�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z

�u �u �u �u �v �u �w
+u +u +v +u +w +u
�t �x �x �y �y �z �z

1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
= fx - + n�
� + + �
2�
r �x �

� x 2
�y 2
�z �

�u �uu �uv �uw 1 �p �


� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
+ + + = fx - + n�
� + + �

�t �x �y �z r �x �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �

Basic Equations of Turbulent Flows:

�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z

�u �uu �uv �uw 1 �p �


� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
+ + + = fx - + n�
� + + �

�t �x �y �z r �x �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �

�v �vu �vv �vw 1 �p ��2


v �2
v �2 �
v�
+ + + = fy - + n�
� + + �

�t �x �y �z r �y �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �

�w �wu �wv �ww 1 �p �


� 2
w �2
w �2 �
w�
+ + + = fz - + n�
� + + �

�t �x �y �z r �z �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �

Reynolds’ Average

�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z

�u �v �w
+ + =0
�x �y �z
Reynolds’ Average

�u �uu �uv �uw 1 �p �


�2u �2u �2u �
+ + + = fx - + n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
� �

�t �x �y �z r �x �
�x
� �y �z �

�u �uu �u� u� �uv �u�v� �uw �u��


w
+ + + + + +
�t �x �x �y �y �z �z

1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u�
= fx - + n�
� + + �

r �x �
�x2 �y2 �z2 �

Reynolds Stresses

Rxx = - r u�
u�

Ryx = - r u�
v�

Rzx = - r u��
w
y

v�
u = u ( y)

Reynolds Stresses
x

Mean flux of horizontal momentum: Fx = v�


( r u) = r u�
v�

Equivalent Shear Stress: - Ryx


Reynolds Equations:

�u �u �u �u
+u +v +w
�t �x �y �z

1 �p �
�2u �2u �2u � 1��Rxx �Ryx �Rzx �
= fx - + n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
� �
�+ �
� + + �


r �x �
�x
� �y ��x
�z � r � �y �z �

�v �v �v �v
+u +v +w
�t �x �y �z

1 �p ��2v �2v �2v � � 1� �Rxy �Ryy �Rzy �



= fy - + n�
� + + �
2�
+ �
� + + �

r �y �
��x2
�y2 �
�z � r ��x �y �z �

�w �w �w �w
+u +v +w
�t �x �y �z

1 �p �
�2w �2w �2w� 1� �Rxz �Ryz �Rzz �
= fz - + n� 2 + 2 + 2 �
� �+ �� + + �

r �z �
�x
� �y � �
�z � r ��x �y �z ��
�u �u �u �u
+u +v +w
�t �x �y �z

1 �p �
� 2
u �2
u �2 �
u� 1 ��Rxx �Ryx �Rzx �

= fx - + n�
� + + �
�+ �
� + + �

r �x �
�x
� 2
�y 2 2 �
�z � r ��x �y �z �

1�
��s xx �t yx �t zx �

� + + �

r�
��x �y �z �

�u �u
s xx = r n Rxx = r ne
�x �x
1 ��v �u � 1 � �
�v �u �
t yx = rn� + �
� � �
Ryx = r ne � + �
2 � �
�x �y �
� 2 �x �y �

� �

1 ��w �u � 1 ��w �u � �
t zx = rn�
� + � � Rzx = rne �
� + �

2 ��x �z � 2 ��x �z �

Theory of Mixing Length

y
t = - r u�
v�
2
l� u = u ( y)

2�

du �
= r cl �� �
dy �

� �
x

2 du du
t yx = rl
du dy dy

u =l � v��u�
dy
Logarithmic Velocity Distribution

y
2

du �
t = t 0 = rk y � �
2 2�



dy �

u = u ( y)

du t0
ky = �v*
dy r

l = ky ( k = 0.4)
v*
u= logy + C
t = t0 k
6. Head Loss of Steady Pipe Flows
Logarithmic Velocity Distribution

v*
u = logy + C
k

u 1
= logy + C �
v* k

u 1 v*y
= log +C �

v* k n
R*
y

Logarithmic Overlap Layer

 t

 l

 0
Logarithmic Velocity Distribution in a Pipe

y
30

u Viscous Turbulent
v*
20

u vy
= 2.5log * + 5.5
v* n

10

u vy
= *
v* n
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
v*y n
v*y
Viscous sublayer: 0< �5
n

v*y
Transition zone: 5< < 70
n

v*y
Turbulent zone: �70
n
Velocity Distribution in Viscous Sublayer

du
t =m
dy

t0 r v*2
u= y= y
m m

u vy
= *
v* n
Velocity Distribution in a Pipe

y
Blasius’ 7th-root law

1
u �y ��
7
=�
� �


umax � �
r0 �

Valid for R = 3000  105


Wall Roughness

ks
Hydraulically smooth wall:

Roughness height is smaller than the v*ks


�5
thickness of the viscous sublayer n

Hydraulically rough wall:

Roughness height is larger than the lower v*ks


�70
boundary of the turbulent zone n
Hydraulically smooth pipe:

u v*y
= 2.5log + 5.5
v* n

Hydraulically rough pipe:

u y
= 2.5log + 8.5
v* ks
Velocity Distribution in a Pipe
Mean velocity in hydraulically smooth pipe:

u v*y v* ( a - r )
= 2.5log + 5.5 = 2.5log + 5.5
v* n n

v* 2pv* �a v* ( a - r ) �
V = 2 �udS = � 2.5log
� + 5.5�
rdr
pa S pa2 0 � n �

V v*a
= 2.5log + 1.75
v* n
Mean velocity in hydraulically rough pipe:

u y (a - r )
= 2.5log + 8.5 = 2.5log + 8.5
v* ks ks

v* 2pv* �
a (a - r) �
V = 2 �udS = � �
2.5log + 8.5�
rdr
pa S pa2 0 � ks �
� �

V a
= 2.5log + 4.75
v* ks
Relation among mean velocity, friction velocity
and friction factor:

L V2 hf t0 t
hf = f = =1 0
D 2g L gRh 4 gD

t0 1 8v*2
f =8 2
= 2
r V V

V = v* 8 f
Friction factor in hydraulically smooth pipe:

V v*a
= 2.5log + 1.75
v* n

1 �
VD �


= 0.884log� f�- 0.91
f �n �

= 2.04log10 ( R f ) - 0.91
Friction factor in hydraulically rough pipe:

V a
= 2.5log + 4.75
v* ks

1
f = 2

0.884log

� (a ks + )
1.68�


1
= 2

2.04log

� (
10 a ks +)1.68�


Experiment of Nikuradse

ks
Modified friction factor in hydraulically smooth pipe:

1 �R f �

= 2log10 ( R f ) - 0.8 = 2log10 �



� f= ( R )
f �2.51 �

1 �R �
= 1.8log10 �
� �
� ( 4000 �R �108)
f �6.9�

0.316
f = ( 3000 �R �105)
R 0.25
Modified friction factor in hydraulically rough pipe:

1 �ks �
f = f= �
� �

2 �

2log

� 10
(
a ks + 1.74�


) �a �

1
= 2

2log

� 10 (
3.7D k �
s �
� )
Colebrook Equation:

1 � ks �
2.51 �

= - 2log10 �
0.27 + �
� �
f � D R f� �

�2.51 �
� �
ks �
� - 2log10 �



� �
� � 0, smooth�


�R f �
� �
D �

�1 ks �
� - 2log10 �





3.7 D �
( R � �, rough)
Head loss in hydraulically smooth pipe:

LV2 0.316 L V 2 1.75


hf = f = �V
( )
0.25
D 2g VD n D 2g

Head loss in hydraulically smooth pipe:

LV2 �
ks �
�L V 2
hf = f = �
� �
�D 2g �V 2

D 2g �
D�
Practical pipe: equivalent roughness

ks
7. Minor Losses
Head Loss due to Sudden Expansion

V2
2g hlx

p
z+
g
Head Loss due to Sudden Expansion

1 2


p V 2� �
p V 2�
hlx = �

1
+ �1

�- �

2
+ �2



�g 2 g � �
�g 2 g �
p1�
p1 - p2 V12 - V22
= +
rg 2g
2
(V1 - V2 )
V1A1 = V2A2 =
2g
2
� A1 �
�V 2
r ( AV 2
1 1 ) = p1A1 + p1 ( A2 - A1) - p2A2
2 2 - AV
2
� =�
1-
� �

1
� �2g
� A2 �

p1 - p2 ( AV 1 1 )
2 2
2 2 - AV V12
= = V22 - V1V2 = Vx
r A2 2g
V22
hlc = Vc
2g
Head Loss due to Sudden Contraction
(
Vc = Vc D2 D1 )

hc

p V2
z+ +
g 2g
V2
hle = Ve
Head Loss at Entrance 2g

he

p V2
z+ +
g 2g
V2
Head Loss at Bell-Mouthed Entrance he = Ve
2g
Head Loss in Bend

V2
hb = Vb
2g

(
Vb = Vb r D )
8. An Example
H = 20 m

L1 = 80 m L2 = 50 m
Q =?
D1 = 0.2 m
D2 = 0.4 m
ks = 0.05 mm
ks = 0.05 mm
� p V 2�
� � p V 2�

z+ + �
� � - z+ + �

� �
� = H = �hw

� g 2g � �
� g 2g �
A B

V12 l1 V12 V12 l2 V22 V22


hw = Ve + f1 + Vx + 2 + Vo
2g D1 2g 2g D2 2g 2g
Ve = 0.5
2
� A1 �

Vx = �
1-
� �
�= 0.5625
� �
� A2 �

Vo = 1.0

1
f1 = = 0.01438
2

2log10


( )
3.7D1 ks �


1
f2 = = 0.01250
2

2log10

� ( )
3.7D2 ks �


� l1 �V 2 � l �V 2
H =�
f1
� + Ve + Vx �


1
+ �
� 2
+ V �


2

� D1 �2g �

2
� D2 o
�2g

2 2
� 80 �
�V � 50 �
�V
=�
0.01438
� � + 0.5 + 0.5625�
1
+ �
0.01250� + 1.0�
2
� 0.2 �2g � � 0.4 �2g

V12 V22
= 6.8145 + 2.5625
2g 2g

V1A1 = V2A2 � V2 = 0.25V1

2gH
V1 = 2
= 7.50 m s
6.8145 + 0.25 �2.5625
V1 = 7.50 m s

V2 = 0.25V1 = 1.875 m s

V2D2 1.875�0.4 5
R2 = = = 7.5�10
n 10- 6
ks D2 = 0.05�10- 3 0.4 = 1.25�10- 4

Q = V1A1 = V2A2 = 0.2356 m3 s

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