Chapter 2:

Measurement
F U N D A M E N TA L S O F S U R V E Y I N G C H A P T E R 2
R E F E R E N C E M AT E R I A L : E L E M E N TA R Y S U R V E Y I N G ; A N I N T R O D U C T I O N TO G E O M AT I C S ( T H I R T E E N T H
EDITION)
B Y C H A R L E S D . G H I L A N I & PA U L R . W O L F
Prepared by: Engr. Enzo Castillo
CREDITS TO: ENGR. BDP YU FOR NOTES IN PACING
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
 ENGLISH
Length = Inches/Feet/Yards/Miles/Nautical Miles/Fathom
Area = sq.in / sq.ft
Volume = cu.in / cu.ft
Angle = degrees / radian

 METRIC
Length = meter
Area = sq.m
Volume = cubic meter
Angle = degrees / radian
Observations
Direct Observation

Indirect Observation
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MAKING
OBSERVATIONS
Errors in observations stem from three sources, and are classified accordingly. Natural errors
are caused by variations in wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, atmospheric
refraction, gravity, and magnetic declination.
An example is a steel tape whose length varies with changes in temperature.
Instrumental errors result from any imperfection in the construction or adjustment of
instruments and from the movement of individual parts. For example, the graduations on a scale
may not be perfectly spaced, or the scale may be warped. The effect of many instrumental
errors can be reduced, or even eliminated, by adopting proper surveying procedures or applying
computed corrections.
Personal errors arise principally from limitations of the human senses of sight and touch. As an
example, a small error occurs in the observed value of a horizontal angle if the vertical crosshair
in a total station instrument is not aligned perfectly on the target, or if the target is the top of a
rod that is being held slightly out of plumb.
TYPES OF ERRORS
SYSTEMATIC
Biases, controlled

RANDOM
Accidental, Beyond our Control
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
STANDARD DEVIATION AND VARIANCE
Linear Measurement
In surveying, linear measurements have been obtained by many different methods.
These include (1) pacing,
(2) odometer readings,
(3) optical rangefinders,
(4) tacheometry (stadia),
(5) subtense bars,
(6) taping,
(7) electronic distance
measurement (EDM),
(8) satellite systems, and others.
Of these, surveyors most commonly use taping, EDM, and satellite systems today.
PACING
Pacing consists of counting the number of
steps or paces in a required distance. A pace is
defined as the length of a step in walking. It
may be measured from heel to heel or from
toe to toe. In surveying, pacing means moving
with measured steps; and if the steps are
counted, distances can be determined if the
length of a step is known.
PACE FACTOR
Pacing furnishes a rapid means of
checking measurements taken by other
methods. It is suitable in determining
approximate distances in situations where
low precision of measurement is sufficient.
Pace Factor is the equivalent unit of
measurement per number of pace.
By this, you can determine a distance by
counting your steps (paces). Distance is
determined by multiplying the number of
pace by your pace factor.
DETERMINING A PACE FACTOR

In order to determine a pace factor,

Count the number of steps from one point
to another with its distance provided. It is
usually done with many trials .
DETERMINING A PACE FACTOR
a) Add the number of paces recorded for the trials performed on the straight line
distance, and then compute the number of paces.

b) Compute the pace factor, PF, by dividing the known distance of line AB by the
mean number of paces, MNP.
EXAMPLE 1: CE BOARD EXAM NOV. 1998
A line 100m long was paced four times by
a surveyor with the following data: 143,
146.50, 142.50, and 144. Another line was
paced four times by the same surveyor
with the following data: 894.50, 892,
891.50, and 895. Determine the
approximate length of the line.
EXAMPLE 1: CE BOARD EXAM NOV. 1998
Situation 1:

100 m
Situation 2:

?
EXAMPLE 2:

2. A student paces a 50-m length five

times with the following results; 57.00,
56.75, 56.50, 58.00, and 56.25 paces.
Determine how many steps he must step
off in order to establish a distance of 450m
on a level ground.
EXAMPLE 3: Practical Problem
Michael is a CE Student. During his surveying
class he determined his pace factor by walking
on a 50m line with the following results; 62,
61.50, 63, 61, 62. His Family owns a triangular lot
and it is known that points A and C are
perpendicular with each other. Michael Paced
from A-B and B-C in order to determine the
area of the said lot. Using the following data,
What is the area of the lot?
Average Number of Pace

A-B 15

B-C 18