Welcomes to all of you

in
Training Programme
 Dr. K. Ishikawa

Dr. Deming

Dr. Juran
 Dr. walter Andrew Shewhart
1.Birth-1891, Place-New canton, USA

2.Engineer and Statistician,

3.He was the mentor of Dr. Deming

4.He was the first to have given Quality and Quality Control

5.He is popularly known as the “ Father of Statistical Quality Control

6.Dr. Shewhart framed the problem in terms of Assignable Causes and

Chance Causes
7.Dr. Shewhart was introduced the “ Control chart “ in 1924

8.He was made a mathematical formula that could established

boundaries of variations for a given process
9.His more conventional work led him to formulate the
statistical idea of tolerance intervals and to propose his data
Presentation rules Data have no meaning apart from their
context. Data contains both Signal and Noise

10.Dr. Shewhart visited India in 1947 under the sponsorship

of Prof.P.C.Mahalanobis of Indian Statistical institute

11.Dr. Shewhart was bequeathed his personal library

including his manuscripts to Indian Statistical institute of
Kolkata
 William Edward Deming

Birth – 1900, Place- USA, Death- 1993

He had the unique honour of developing Sampling Techniques that was the used for

the first time for conducting census in the USA

In 1950 , Gen. Mac arthur first invited Dr. Deming to Japan

The popular Deming prize established in 1951 in the honor of Dr. Deming was
originally designated to Japanese

Companies for major contribution in quality improvement under the guidance of JUSE
 William Edward Deming

DEMING’S Contribution :-
1.Theory of optimization ,

2. Theory of variation,

3. Theory of Knowledge

4. Theory of Psychology

Dr. Deming was popularized the PDCA Cycle originated by the Dr.
Shewhart
 Joseph Moses Juran ( J.M.Juran)

1.Birth-1904, Place- Romania ,Death-2008

2.Dr. Juran is known as the foremost teachers and Consultants in the world

3.Dr. Juran is man of millennium, he spanned more than 80 years in the field of quality

4.In 1954 Dr. Juran altered global competition when he accepted the invitation of the JUSE

5.And KAI-DAN-REN to prepare and deliver a series of lectures for the leaders of Japanese
industries

6.Juran’s congressional testimonies in 1986 helped create “The Malcolm Bridge National
Quality Award

7.Juran Institute was founded in 1979 to create New tools , New techniques and New
principles to serve the emerging need of society

8.We all benefit from Dr. Juran’s accomplishment . He has created New Methods ,Tools and
concepts
 Joseph Moses Juran ( J.M.Juran)

The Pareto Principle is used all over the world to help us focus on the “VITAL FEW”

Dr. Juran has given the Step by Step breakthrough process is the basis for the
Quality improvement processes and quality action used through out the world
including the “Six Sigma” approach

Juran’s Quality Trilogy :- Quality Planning ,

Quality Control
and Quality Improvement

Awards :- 1.Order of the secret treasure - Awarded by Emperor of Japan

2.National Medal of Technology –Awarded by President George Bush
 Dr.Kaoru Ishikawa

1.Birth-1915, Place –Japan

2.He Created a course entitled “ How to use Experimental Data

3.He was graduate in Applied Chemistry then He was employed by a company engaged in
Coal liquefaction -
4. He was commissioned as a Noval technical officer - On the request of JUSE

5.He Joined QCRG

6.He has given the most popular tool “Cause and Effect Diagram,

7.He had popularized the Scatter Diagram

8.He is Known as Father of QC

9.His nick name was Buldojor

 KAIZEN
INDIVIDUAL GROUP
STRUCTURED UNSTRUCTURED

FIRST LINE/ GRASS ROOT SR. & Mdl. MANAGEMENT

(QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TEAM
LQIT,)

DEVELOPMENT PROBLEM SOLVING

QUALITY CIRCLES LQC / TPM CIRCLES
 Birth of Quality Circle
@vaailaTI saik-la ka janma
dUsaro ivaSva yauqd ko samaya Amaoirka nao jaapana ko dao Sahrao naagaasaakI tqaa
hIraoiSamaa pr prmaaNaU bama igarayaa ijasasao jaapana ka Qana jana kI BaarI xait
hu)- .jaapana

TapuAao, / jvaalaamauKI vaalaa doSa hO jaha^ pr kao[- naocaurla irsaao-sa nahI

hO.yauQd #a%ma haonao ko baad jaapana nao Apnao xait kao pura krnao ko ilae
bastuAao ko gauNava%ta

mao sauQaar krko pura ikyaa .jaapana mao ]sa samaya dao sasqaayao jausao tqaa ko[
Dona rona jaao jaapana ko caIf ei@yaiTva ko esaaoisayaosana qaa nao imalakr
Da@Tr Doimaga ko

lao@car kI vyavasqaa ikyaa .[sa lao@car kao saunanao ko ilae @vaailaTI knT/aola
irsa-ca ga/up banaayaa AaOr t%kalaIna maojar janarla maOk Aaqar kao Da@Tr
Doimaga

kao baulaanao kha tba 1950 mao Da@Tr Doimaga jaapana Aae AaOr ]nhaonao
sToTIsaiTkla @vaailaTI knT,aola ko ]pr Apnaa BaaPaNa idyaa . sana 1954 mao
Da@Tr jaurana
 Beginning of Quality Circle In India

sabasao phlao @vaailaTI saik-la baI eca [- ela hOdrabaad mao 1981 mao Aayaa . jao ko
jauT imala ko t%kalaIna p/osaIDonT Da@Tr Aar saI Aga/vaala nao jaba

[sako baaro mao saunaa tao ]nhaonao jausao sao baat kI tao jausao nao ]nakao baI eca
[- ela hOdrabaad sao samp-k krnao kao kha tba baI eca [- ela hOdrabaad sao dao

baar kanapur mao Apnao @vaailaTI saik-la TIma ko saaqa Aae . [sako baad jao ko jauT
imala nao @yau saI kao caalaU ikyaa AaOr 1982 @vaailaTI saik-la faorma Aaf

[inDyaa ka gazna huAa

 Quality Circle concept
Quality circle is a small group in which employees works in first line
work place continually control

and improve the products, services , jobs and so on . These small group
operate autonomously

Utilize the quality control tools and techniques and others improvement
tools and promotes self & Mutual development .

QUALITY CIRCLE ACTIVITIES AIM IS TO : Develop members capabilities

and achieve self

Actualization , make the work place more pleasant ,vital and satisfying
improve customers Satisfaction and contribute to society
 Quality Circle Concept
Definition
1. Quality Circle is small group activities
2. It is a team building philosophy.
3. It is for self and mutual development of members
4. It operate autonomously i.e. empowering gross root
level people to take work related decision
5. It is a knowledge and experience sharing platform
6. Its promote creativity and remove mind blocks
7. It is a learning platform especially statistical quality control
8. It contributes to customer satisfaction and thereby
organization and finally society
 Quality Circle Concept
Definition
9. It is not an isolated concept but complementary and
supplementary to other quality concept

10.It is an integral part of TPM

11.The above definition clarify too many aspect

a) Dealing with first line employees and their total participation
b) Managerial responsibility to make this concept successful in
the organization by forming QIT simultaneously and taking
organizational
Development related to projects

12. It fully reveals human capabilities by creative as well as logical

thinking and
eventually draw out endless possibilities continually.
What Quality Circle Is not?
•Quality of products only

•Suggestion Scheme

•Substitute of quality control department

•Substitutes of task force, works committees, product committee.

•Means for management to unload all their problems

•Forums for Grievance are a spring board for demands

•Individual Problems

•Panacea for all ills

•Money Gains

•Organization Only
 STRUCTURE FOR QUALITY CIRCLE
AND ROLE OF ITS CONSITITUENTS
Structure for Quality Circle

TM
Corporate Coordinator
St.Comtt.

Facilitator &
Dy.Facilitator
Unit Level Coordinator
Leader /Dy. Leader

Members

Potential Members
 ROLE OF TOP MANAGEMENT
Top management is a monitoring group Headed by the head of the organization.
To review and improve the functioning of Quality Circles through periodic and
regular meeting .

STEERING COMMITTEE ; It comprises of all departmental heads by headed by

Chief executive of organization.

Responsibilities of steering committee;

1. Establishing the objective of Quality Circle

2. Financial resource
3. Required guidance and direction to movement
4. To see that QC activities becomes a way of life in organization
5. S.C members should attend the management presentation organized periodically
6. They should attend the annual social get together of QC
7. They serve as QIT
8. Apex level SC meeting will be held bi-monthly
9. CEO as Chairman of SC should conduct the meeting and committee members should
participate to review of QC activities
ROLE OF MANAGEMENT TO SUSTAIN QC ACTIVITY

1.Listening (Caring)
It is to understand peoples problems in work and removing the hurdles and irritants

2. Teaching
While teaching his people ,it is not only transmitting knowledge and values, but also
reinforcing

3.Facilitating
Mere teaching and leaving people to fend for themselves will not help to bring result
Management people should be enablers.
 COORDINATOR
As the name implies ,coordinator carries out coordination work , He is link with
Top management, Steering committee , Facilitators/ Dy. Facilitators , Leader/ Dy.leaders
Circle members and potential members.
ROLE OF COORDINATOR
1.Liais with facilitators for ensuring regularity of circle meeting and presentation

2.Convene Steering Committee meeting periodically

3.Handle request for starting new circle

4.Organize training sessions for facilitators, leaders and members of QC

5.Arrange facilities for QC meetings

6.Organize management presentations and case stud presentation of QCs out side the
company and also to the Steering committee.

7.Monitor meeting of QCs regularity and suggests corrective action needed

8.Develop faculty for QC programmes

9.Organize annual conventions within the company and act as conscience keeper as far
as QCs are concerned.
 Facilitator
Facilitator is a nominated executive of an area and he/she ought to catalyze and
stimulate the QC.
Role of Facilitator
He should ensure
1. Regularity of the meeting
2. Regularity of members attendance
3. Effectiveness of meeting conducted
He should assist in
1. Clarifying and defining the problem, goal setting & planning
2. Proper choice and application of problem solving tools and techniques
3. Preparation for management presentation
4. He should give proper feedback to circle for improvement
Quality of Facilitator
1. Caring like parent
2. Good communicator
3. Creative , Positive and committed
4. Consistent & Acceptable
5. Enthusiastic
6. Preserving
7. Integrity
 Leader
Leader is a person chosen by the members of the circle on consensus
Leader role is most important function in a Quality Circle . For a leader to play an
effective role, he should be given the requisites education and training to lead and to
develop leadership qualities and skills.
Aside from Facilitator , the success of the quality circle will depend upon how well the
leader leads the group

Quality of Leader
A QC leader should have broad knowledge and skills
1. Technical knowledge
2. Quality Control techniques
3. Improvement techniques
4. Human relation techniques
5. Social relation techniques
6. Leader should be a highly disciplined person
7. Ready to take responsibilities & delegates responsibility
8. Coordinates and lead by examples
9. Tolerant and enthusiastic
10. He should be accommodative
11. Friendly and a symbol of cognitive focus for group unity
Role of Leader
1. Leader should conduct meeting regularly

2. He is expected to be task oriented and the same time play a socio- emotional part

3. Leader should lead his team towards goals

4. Maintain records of circle activities in a register

5. Works to plan and assign roles

6. Prepares for management presentation and involved everyone

7. He is quite knowledgeable and clarifies doubts of group members

8. He does not take credit for him self but gives credit to his members when the
group wins
 CONDUCTING EFFECTIVE MEETING
1)Before the meeting;
a) Plan who should attend ?
Apart from QC leader, Members and facilitator , potential members or senior
colleague or an expert to invited.
b) What is the purpose of discussion ?
Define the objective and purpose of discussion
Where and when the meeting is going to be
2) During the meeting
a) Start on time and end on time
b) Stick to agenda
c) Reach consensus on agenda
d) Ensure participation of all and encourage it
e) Assign role
f) Encourage listening and thinking
3)At the end of meeting
• Summaries discussion and end with the positive note
• Draw out an action plan
• Assign responsibilities to achieve goal / plan
4) After the meeting
a) QCs can record “ Minutes and action plan’ in a register and communicate
b) Evaluate meeting result
 The characteristics of effective team work are
1. Clear objective and agreed goal

2. Openness and confrontation

3. Support and trust

4. Cooperation and conflict

5. Sound procedure in decision making

6. Leadership

7. Learning from experience

8. Development of QC members

9. Interactive behavior in a group

10.Feed back to QC group

Types of participants that can wreck the meeting
1. Bull dog ----------------- Fights everything

2. Horse -------------------------Accept everything

3. Monkey ------------------------- Knows everything

4. Frog --------------------------Talks and talks

5. Doe ---------------------------Shy and rarely open the mouth

6. Porcupine -----------------------Always put-up resistance

7. Hippopotamus------------------No reaction- join with majority

8. Giraffe --------------------------Superman – knows all

9. Fox ---------------------------Ask wild questions

MONTHLY QUALITY CIRCLE ACTIVITY REPORT

Period from _______________ to _________________

Name of the Circle ___________ Area/Dept. ______
Number of meetings to be held ________ Actual ______
% Attendance of members ___Number of A=__ D=__
No. of Meeting attended by
Facilitator: ___________ Dy.Facilitator: ____________
No. of Meeting minutes signed by
HOD: ______Facilitator: _______ Dy.Facilitator: ______
Project taken: ___________________________________
Status of project: Selection of problem/Defining the problem /Problem Analysis/ Finding out
causes /Root cause analysis /Data analysis / development of solution /Trial implementation and check
performance / Project ready for approval
Remarks:

Faciltator/Dy.Facilitator HOD
 PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
• 1 MILE STONE/GANTT CHART

• 2 BRAIN STORMING

• 3 FLOW DIAGRAM

• 4 PRIORTY NUMBER

• 5 P-D-C-A
 ELEMENTARY PROBLEM SOLVING TOOLS
• 1 CHECKSHEET(DATA COLLECTION)

• 2 STRATIFICATION

• 3 PARETO DIAGRAM

• 4 CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

• 5 SCATTER DIAGRAM

• 6 HISTOGRAM

• 7 GRAPH AND CONTROL CHART

 INTERMEDIATE PROBLEM SOLVING TOOLS
• 1 THEORY OF SAMPLE SURVEY

• 2 STATISTICAL SAMPLING INSPECTION

• 3 VARIOUS METHODS OF MAKING STATISTICAL ESTIMATES AND TESTS

• 4 METHODS OF UTILISING SENSORY TESTS

• 5 METHODS OF DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

• These methods are used by Engineers and Quality Control

personnel
 ADVANCED PROBLEM SOLVING TOOLS

• 1 ADVANCED METHODS OF DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

• 2 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS

• 3 VARIOUS METHODS OF OPERATION RESEARCH

These methods are used by technicians and engineers for

optimization of processes and securing reduction in costs
 Overview of Tools / Techniques
1. Flow diagram :- To enable understanding of the process/ flow and locate problem
2. Brainstorming :- For generation of ideas in problem listing and listing of causes in
problem analysis and for finding the solutions.
3. Data collection :- To understand the magnitude of the problem and understand the
problem. It is the foundation for statistical analysis.
4. Graphs :- Presentation of large amount of data in a cohesive manner in the
pictorial form to enable better understanding of data and the problem
and also to comprehend the trend at a glance.
5.Stratification :- To segregate data according to contributing sources ( Suppliers,
Machines and operators etc.)
6.Cause & effect :-To map out all probable causes and relate the logical linking of
diagram causes to the problem to help narrow down to cause or causes
7.Pareto Chart - For identification/selection of major problem or area for improvement
or control to differentiate between vital and useful many problems.
8.Scatter Diagram :-For examining relationship between two variables , nature and
strength of relationship between process factors and product quality
in a way , it is also a cause &Effect approach between two variables.
9.Histogram :- For study of process variation and assess process capability. The is
an off line quality control method.
10.Control Charts :-For maintaining running control on a process. It is a tool for ON-Line
quality control.
 PDCA cycle or Deming’s Wheel
Before learning about problem solving technique we should first concentrate upon
how to prevent problem.
samasyaa samaaQaana tknaIkao kao isaKnao sao phlao hmao sabasao phlao
samasyaayaao kao kOsao raoko Qyaana donaa caaihe
Problem can be control or minimized by effective use of P-D- C-A cycle
samasyaao kao pI DI saI e saa[-ikla ko p/BaavaI ]pyaaoga krko inayan~It Aqavaa
GaTayaa jaa sakta hO

ACT PLAN
kaya-vaahI yaaojanaa

Check Do
jaaca kaya-
 PDCA cycle or Deming’s Wheel
Dr. K. Ishikawa made these four steps into six steps
When these six steps have been followed , a seventh step is needed to
ensure whether the corrective action has been worked out or not .

Decide on
ACT the objective PLAN
And
targets Decide
Take action Methods of
Achieving the
objective

Carryout education
and training
Check the
Check result
Do the
work DO
 FLOW DIAGRAM
Flow Diagram is a graphical or a pictorial way to depict a process. With the help of a
flow diagram we can show process sequence . It can be used to dissect a process for
Better understanding and analyzing. It can also be used for replanning or making a
Change. The process may manufacturing process of a product , a service provided, to
Convey some information or a combination of any of them.

TYPES OF FLOW DIAGRAM

There are three types of Flow diagram.
1. High Level Flow Diagram
2. Matrix Flow Diagram
3. Detailed Flow Diagram

When to draw Flow Diagram ?

1.For defining the process flow
2.For defining the problem
3.For identifying the root causes
4.For devising the solution.
5.For implementing the solution.
6.At the time of review/ follow up
Useful Symbols for Detailed Flow Diagram
 How to ensure accuracy ?
1.Ensure that it is about actual process and not what is intended.
2.Ensure rework loops are not omitted
3.Be honest about what you do
4.Observe actual process before drawing a flow diagram
5.Elicit support of other members for accuracy and completeness and allow them to
review it.

HIGH LEVEL FLOW DIAGRAM

User sends Material
User obtained
Indent inspected

Quotation Material
obtained received

Material Material
ordered made
 MATRIX FLOW DIAGRAM

USER PURCHASE MANUFACTURER STORES

User sends Quotation

Indent obtained

Material Material Material

ordered made received

Material
inspected

User
obtained
 DETAILED FLOW DIGRAM
Raise Indent Mtrl. Made
Start
Indent received Mtrl. Received
Mtrl needed

N Inspection
Mtrl Is it OK ? Return for
database correction Return to
Supplier
Y Is it OK?
N

N Send Enqrs

Y
Y N
Qtn. OK ? Take as Stock
Send reqsn

Y
Mtrl. Obtained
Place order Put in
database
End
 MATRIX FLOW DIAGRAM

Registration Kit bag collection Events Prize distribution

ttTake registration ttDistribute the ttOther ttTake your seat as

form coupon competitions per seat no.

ttTake registration ttWait for your team

ttTake Kit bags ttKnowledge test
form no.

TtCollect the ttCase study

ttTake Gifts ttTake prize coupon
coupon presentation

ttCase study ttGroup photograph

presentation

ttCollect your prize

 DETAILED FLOW DIAGRAM
Start
S

Reach to Venueto

Is Y Participate in knowledge
Knowledge
test ? Test at right time
N
Stop
Reach to right Hall for
Case Study Presentation

Participate in other
Present the Case Study competitions

Do you want N
knowledge
test ? Y
 Milestone Chart-Quality Circle Activity Planning
Quality Circle Name Department Facilitator Members’ Name
Project Reason for selection

Project No. Dt.of start Dt.of completion

S.N Activity/ Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Target Actual

1 Defining the problem

2 Analyzing the problem

3 Identifying the causes

4 Finding Out root causes

5 Data Analysis

6 Developing solution

7 Foreseeing possible resistance

8 Trial Imp. & check performance

9 Regular Implementation

10 Follow up/Review
 Brainstorming
Definition:
Brainstorming is a group technique for generating new and useful ideas. It uses a few simple rules
for discussion on a subject matter that contributes to Originality and innovation.

Types of Brainstorming: There are three types of brainstorming

a) Free wheeling or Unstructured :No hold , no bar system. No limit on number of ideas at a time.
It is spontaneous and stimulates the creativity of the individual.
b) Slip Method:When you need the involvement of a large groups such method is used .
c) Round Robin or Structured Method:It is a systematic Brainstorming method it follows some
rules in a structured manner, which are given below.
1.Keep the participants ,preferably between six to ten.
2.Give required time for incubation.
3.Make it very clear to all the participants on what subject the brainstorming is done.
4.Enter the points on a black board ,Flip chart or in a transparency for all to see .
5.Expain the guidelines. 6.One idea only at a time . 7.Contribution in turn.
8.You may say pass if no idea is generated .
9.Clarify the point but don’t explain the ideas. 10. No criticism
11.If session looses grip, have a break or change.
12.To bring creativity use five Ws and one H appropriately.
13.Get maximum nos. of ideas.
14. Guests are welcome but will abide by rules.
15.Clarify each contribution.
16.Agree on a evaluation criteria.
 Brainstorming
Key Elements concerning Human Creative Ability :
There are five Key elements concerning human creative ability and these are research findings of
Mr. J.P. Gilford.
1.Fluency: Capability of mind producing maximum ideas with in a given time It measured by quantity.
Regular Brainstorming makes creative side of the brain more active.

2.Flexbility : Ability of mind to move from one aspect to another quickly. When we listen to others ,it
opens up new avenues for our thinking .We call this Hitch – Hiking process. Thinking power of an
individual either lies in his memory ,perception about a situation , creativity or imagination. Flexibility is
measured by the number of categories of ideas generated.

3.Originality: Ability of mind one can think of innovative or new ideas. This is ability to identify
uncommon ones .Originality does not come in large numbers. But even one original idea can lead to a
lot of benefits. Thinking without any barrier and away from conventional method lead to originality.

4.Awareness : Ability of mind to look ahead into future i.e. beyond the immediate facts.
5.Drive : Willingness to participate and contribute without any hesitation and to achieve the end goal
without the fear of failure. Getting into the habit of brainstorming helps people to shed their fear
,inhabitations and make them to participate willingly .Such willingness and drive in people make them
to try unconventional way . Dr. Juran calls it as “ Cutting new windows”
 Brainstorming
Some difficulties and pit falls connected with Brainstorming
First and foremost we should remember that brainstorming is not a replacement to data.
In a brainstorming some people may very close to the problem and some may not .Some
Times when an idea comes from an outsiders ,the insiders of the group may not give
importance to it. Some people are difficult to deal within a group , they get off the track
Which disrupts the group works.
Use of Brainstorming :
Brainstorming can be used at various stages of problem solving. It can be used for .
1.Identification of problems
2.Finding out possible causes to a problem.
3.Generating ideas for arriving at a solution
4.Predicting the possible resistance to the solution.
5.Finding out the process to overcome the resistance .
Four conceptual rules are:
1. No criticism or evaluation
2.Try not to be conventional
3.Aim for quantity
4.Hitch- Hike on other’s ideas
Four practical rules for structural approach:1.Contribute in turn
2.One Idea per turn 3.You may pass if no idea could be given in one round 4.Do not explain Ideas
 Data Collection
Def: Data collection is nothing but collection of the required information in the form of
Figures for statistical analysis of a problem. This provides a sound basis for decision
Making and corrective action.
Purpose of Data Collection :Data are collected for a variety of purposes .In industry
,the following are more common.
Quality Evaluation Raw Materials, intermediate products and finished products.
Process Control : To assure that products turned out meet the specified requirements of
customers/ design
Improvement Trials: To improve product quality , to reduce costs and to increase
Productivity.
Problem Solving : For information throughout the problem solving process by Quality Circles
Compare Performance :From time to time measure improvement in production ,profit. quality
and competitiveness etc.

TYPES of DATA : Generally data are of two types

a) Measurement data or Variable data :Weight , diameter, tensile strength, % carbon ,
reaction time , pressure , temperature etc.. Basic observation obtained by using an instrument
or measuring process. These data are continuous , they are also called continuous variables
 Data collection
b) Attribute Data or Countable Data : Data obtained by classification into two or
more categories .For example nos. of rejected , nos. of passed ,data obtained by count of
defects, count of occurrences etc. These data are in whole numbers and also called
discontinuous or discrete variables .

USEFUL POINTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

Collection of information or generation of information as Dr. J.M. Juran says “begins and ends
with questions. Useful points for data collection are
1.Be clear in mind about the objective.
2.Prepare the questions ( use four’ Ws’ and one ‘ H’ which will make it clear and precise.
3.Use data sheet , check sheet, and/ or check list as per the requirement.
4.Reduce opportunities for error
5.Capture data for analysis , reference and traceability.
6.Form / data sheet should be self explanatory .
7.Analyze the collected data for its credibility and relevance (for whom, when or who ,What
collected the data are important)
8.Present data in a way that clearly answers the questions.
9. Collected data relevant to purpose.
 Check Sheet
An easy and effective way of collecting data is by using well design formats is known as check
sheet. A check sheet is a simple data recording form specially designed so that data can be
interpreted readily from the sheet itself.
TYPES OF CHECK SHEETS:
a) Process control information checks.
b) Product quality assurance checks.
c) Defective items checks.
d) Defective location checks
e) Defective cause checks.
f) Process variation distribution checks
g) Others.
a) Process control information checks : This format enables us to record
process control checks
SOLDER BATH TEMPERATURE
Checked By---Mr. Das Date:-15.07.15
Solder Bath -A
Time Temp. ( Deg. C) Time Temp. ( Deg. C)
0800 60 1300 61
0900 62 1400 58
1000 59 1500 60
1100 58 1600 63
1200 59 1700 62
b) Product quality assurance checks : This check sheet is useful in the final test of
the product at the end of manufacturing line.

S PARAMETER
N Actual Observation
Spec 1 2 3 4 5

1 Axial Clearance 0.1 to 0.45 0.3 0.18 0.22 0.17 0.21

2 Cleanliness of Clean OK OK Not OK OK OK

Crank shaft
3 Surface Finish 320 320 320 325 315 300

24 Paint Finish Glossy OK OK OK OK OK

c) Defective items checks. To reduce the numbers of defectives ,it is first necessary to
know the type of defects and their magnitude .Since each defect may have different causes ,it is
of no use to just list the total no. of defects.

S.N. DEFECT TALLY MARK TOTAL

1 BAR METAL IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 54
2 OVERFLOW IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII III 48
3 DUST IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 100
IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII

4 LESS GLOSSY IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 40
5 PAINT PEEL IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 34
:
:
:
12 OTHERS IIII IIII 9
d) Defective location checks: This kind of check sheet is meant to be placed in the
drawing or sketch of the product so that location of defects can be identified and investigated.
Such type of check sheets are helpful in controlling defects in casting, glassware plastic
components etc.
e) Defective cause checks: This type of check sheet is used to generate information on
causes and their correspondence to the observed defects.
Data may have to be later analyzed by stratification or scatter diagram to get the clues. This is a
rough analysis for cause and effect relationship
M/C Oper Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
ator

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2 #0
00
00 #0
00
xx# +
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xx
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000
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#

00 ++ xxx 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x 00x
3 xxx
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x+ xx xx# x+ xx#
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00 x0 00 00x 00x 00x 00x # 00x 00x +++ 00x 00x 00x 00x +++ 00x 00x
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00 00 ++ 00x 00x 00x # 00x +++ 00x xxx 00x # +++ 00x xxx 00x +++
3 xx
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X-surface scratch, 0-blow hole,+-poor finish,# distorted,

. CHECK SHEET
f) Process variation distribution checks: Measurements taken on a product or
rejects of inspection at incoming material stage or in process can straightaway be recorded in a
check sheet to reveal the variation in quality.
productivity.
Component- Nozzle, Operation –drilling , Parameter- Sack hole thjickness Specs- 0.8 +_ 0.05
LSL USL
13
12
11 X
10 X
9 X
8 X x
7 X X
6 X X
5 X X X X
4 x X X X X
3 X X X X X X
2 X X X X X X X
1 X X X X X X X X
.75 .7 .77 .78 .79 .80 .81 .82 .83 .84 .85 .86 .87 .88 .89 .90 .91 .92 .93
6
 CHECK SHEET

Such check sheets are handy in discovering patterns of different vendors

supplying the same part. Inferences can be drawn by just looking at the
information filled check sheets.
This type of check sheet can be examined for the following information.
1. Does the pattern resemble a symmetric shape like single peak or are there
two or more peaks ?
2.Are the values skewed to one side and are there isolated values ?
3.What is the conformance to specifications limits ?
4. Is the center of the distribution close to the target value given in specification ?
5. Is the width of the distribution greater than the specification band ?
BENEFITS of DATA collection : 1. Right decision can be made
2.Errors due to subjective feeling or personal bias are avoided.
3.Agreement on decisions necessary rather than different or subjective opinion.
4.Measurement understandable to all.
5.Assessments of magnitude of improvements.
6.Discovery of causes affecting quality and
Check list type Check sheet : Frequent checks must be made to
keep the equipment’s efficiently and trouble free . It helps to carry out work with
certainty ,it will also reveal the forgotten test items.

Mill no. Location Shop manager/ supervisor

Component Check points Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat

Drive Noise Ok ok ok not ok ok ok ok

Gear Box Vibration Ok ok ok ok ok ok ok

Bearing Temperature Ok ok ok ok not ok ok ok

Transmitter Operation Ok not ok ok ok not ok ok ok

Useful points for data collection
• Be clear in mind about the objectives

•Prepare the questions which will make it clear and precise

•Collect data relevant to problem

•Use data sheet ,check sheet and check list as per the requirement

•Keep them simple and easy

•Datasheet/ check sheet should be self explanatory

•Analyze the collected data for its credibility and relevance ( for whom, when, who

collected the data are important .

•Present data in a way that clearly answers the questions

 GRAPH
What is Graph ?
Graph is a pictorial representation of data which, when presented, is easily understandable. It help
to represent large amount of information comprehensively and in a compact manner.

When are Graphs to be used ?

Graphs are generally used

a) For explanation to others : We can explain the phenomena in the work shop and make people
understand better .It can be used to explain defect ratio, productivity, increase in turnover etc.

b) For Recording data: Data are sequentially recorded in graphs.

c) For understanding : Past and present situation/ position.

d) For process control : Plotting the data in the order of day or time will often reveal trends or
abnormality, when corrective action has to be taken . Even for production planning and control,
graphs are handy.

e) For Data Analysis : Graphs show what figures mean and clarify the facts that may be over
looked otherwise , if the data are seen as just figure.
How many types of graphs ?
There are eleven types of graphs, they can be divided into two main
groups,
1. Commonly used Graphs
2. Special purpose Graphs
Commonly used Graphs are ;
a) Line Graph
b) Bar Chart / Graph
c) Pie Chart or Circle Graph
d) Pictorial Graph
Special purpose Graphs
a) Belt Graph
b) Radar Graph
c) Compound Graphs
d) Strata Graph
e) Float Graph
f) Zee Graph
g) Pyramid Graph
 Line Graph
How are line graph made ?

In these graphs , the abscissa ( X axis) shows Time and the ordinate (Y axis)

shows quantity.

Such graphs are commonly used for watching production , sales, inventory ,

absenteeism , rejection and rework.

Where to use Line graph ?

1. To display comparison of two different series.

2. Used when data defines more meaningful patterns.

 Line Graph
Off Spec Material Trend
35

30 31
29
28
25 26
23
22
MT

20 20

15 15
14
13
12
10 10

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Off Spec Linear (Off Spec)
 Line Graph
CB Off spec Trend from 01 Mar, to 08 Mar.2012
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
Quantity in MT

1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Month

This is used for observing off spec quantity changing over time or trend
 BAR Graph
Bar graph is used for comparison . It can be vertical . Or it can be horizontal

CB Sales from 01Sept. to 10 Sept 2012

in MT
120 110
100
105 90 90
90 80 80
Quantity

70
75 60
60 50
40
45
30
15
0
1 2 3DATE 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4rth qtr South

North
3rd qtr
West
2nd qtr
East
1st qtr

0 20 40 60
 Pie Graph or Circle Graph
This is used for showing relative proportion of various components..To convey approximate
relative values

When to use a Pie Graph ?

Use a Pie graph to convey approximate relative value.
Use an exploded Pie to emphasize a small portion of the parts.
Steps for construction.
Draw a circle of any diameter
Collect the data , calculate the ratio of each component or item in the data to the total , multiply
this ratio by 360 deg. Draw a line from any point on the circumference to the centre of the
circle.
Draw each segment in clockwise order. Usually segments are placed in descending order and
miscellaneous is shown at the end.
For Ex. Let population of U.P. is 21 Corers for all caste.
Caste Ratio
OBC = 10/21 = 10/21x360=171.4 deg.
Muslim= 4/21 = 4/21x360=68.6 deg.
Upper Caste= 3/21 = 3/21x360 = 51.4 deg.
SC =2/21 =2/21x360 = 34.32 deg.
Sikh=1/21 = 1/21x360 = 17.14
Others=1/21 =1/21x360 = 17.14 deg.
PIE Graph or CIRCLE Graph

Relative population of various Caste in U.P.

5%
5%
OBC

9% Muslim
48% Upper caste
14% S.Caste
Sikh
19% Others
 BELT GRAPH
It is like Pie Graph but using bars and is suitable for showing comparative levels.
It can be made on percentage basis as well as on quantitative basis. It can be made as
Vertical bars or can be made as horizontal bars.
How to make it ?
Collect the data and make the graph like Bar graph , procedure is something similar to
making a bar graph . Only difference is each bar represents multiple information.

Production Grade w ise and m onth w ise Prodn. of CB Gr.Wise & Month w ise

2500 100%
90%
2000 80%
May
70% May

% production
Quantity

1500 Apr Apr

60%
Mar 50% Mar
1000
Feb 40% Feb
30% Jan
500 Jan
20%
10%
0
0%
N220 N330 N339 N550 N660 N650 N220 N330 N339 N550 N660 N650
Grade Grade
 RADAR GRAPH
Radar graph is used mostly in comparison of after and before status . It
is gaining popularity in quality Circles . For ex. The organization want to
improve the knowledge of QC circle on eight problem solving
techniques. Organization tested the knowledge of their people before
training against eight problem solving techniques and then imparted
training program on it and again tested knowledge for same after
training and collect data and Plotted Radar graph.
Sl.No. Techniques Score (Max. 100)
Before Training After Training
1 Check sheet 48 88
2 Pareto Diagram 50 80
3 Cause& Effect Diagram 42 60
4 Stratification. 54 84
5 Scatter Diagram 36 76
6 Control Chart 42 78
7 Histogram 48 68
8 Graph 40 80
 Radar Graph
Comparison of Eight Problem Solving Techniques knowledge before & after training
Using Radar Graph
88
C.S
90
80
80 70 80
Gr P.D
60
50
40
30
20
10
His 68 0 60 C&E D

C.Ch
78 Stra.
84

76
S.D.
 FLOAT GRAPH
This is an ideal graph for comparison of two distinct aspects.
This helps to find out the total problem in relation to the entire aspect.
It shows the whole process at one glance , and this is a simple graph to
draw . 88%
68% 78%
25% 34% 30%

Poor
Mature wise Pro Hindu
Pro muslim Strong

No No No No Rich

Weak
12%
32% 22%
75% 66% 70%
 STRATA/ AREA GRAPH
This is used to show the trend in the total and components of the total

22

20

18
7
16

14

12 Preventive %

10
6 3 Appraisal %
2 1
Failure %
8
3
6 1 3 4 1
2
4
8 2
6 5
2 4 4 3
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
 ZEE Graph
1250 1220 1240 1208 1198 1240 1224 1138 1248
1200 1215 1199
1150 1235 1208
1232
1100
1050
1030
1000
950
928
900
850
824
800
750
700 716
650
600 616
550
521
500
450
400 417
350
300 315
250
200 210
150
100 100 110 105 102 104 95 100 108 104 102 108 110
50
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D

Frequency Commu Last 12 month commu

 Pyramid Graph or Side by Side Graph
Use it to show contrasting trends between level of an independent variable.
Use it for displaying of more than two independent variables and when comparison
Between individual pair of value is very impartment

MALE FEMALE
HP
PUNJAB
ORRISA
RAJASTHAN
TAMIL NADU
WEST BENGAL
U.P.

35000 30000 25000 20000 10000 20000 25000 30000 350000

 Compound graph
100
76 98.68 100
72 96.05
68 89.47 90
64
60 80.26 80
56
52 70
48
44 59.21 60
40 50
36
32 40
28 32.89
24 30
20
16 20
12
8 10
4
0 0
B C A G E H D
 Useful points for making graph
1.Be clear on the purpose of making a graph
2.Arrange the information in order
3.Decide on type of graph
4.Decide on title
5.Show the data
6.Substance is more important than method. Good graph are those which draw
attention to data.
7.Avoid distorting the information
8.Make it easier for eyes to compare
Benefits of Graphs
1 Numerical data are expressed in visual form
2.Helps in comparison
3.Easy to understand
4.No strain of going through large volume of information
5.Creates interest
6.Quick to understand
7.Useful to express data clearly and strikingly
8.No need to have special skill to make them
9.Helps in accurate analysis of cause
 STRATIFICATION
Stratification is the process of separation of data into categories.
Ex.In a manufacturing organization absenteeism was very high.
Data collected and stratified them.
60

50

40

30

20

10

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

absenteeism
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
A B C

Dec Jan
50

40

30

20

10

0
A B C

May Jun
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Colony City
 CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM
Any defect in a component, product or service could be one or more
causes to find out the relationship between the cause and effect , a
diagram drawn systematically by Mapping out all the probable
causes influencing the effect . This diagram is called Cause and Effect
diagram.

Types of Cause & effect diagram

1. Dispersion analysis type
2. Production process classification type
3. Cause enumeration Type

Cause and effect diagram is also known as Ishikawa diagram to

honor its originator Dr. K.Ishikawa. By its shape it also called as Fish
bone diagram
 CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM
Production process Classification Type

Defeat in
Bating
Selection Balling Fielding Cricket
Match
HABIT TRAFFIC WEATHER

LATE
COMING
IN DAY

VEHICLE HOME MANAGEMENT ROAD

CAUSE ENUMERATION TYPE

CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM (Dispersion analysis type)
Man Machine

Problem

Method Material
 FINDING OUT THE ROOT CAUSES
VALIDATION OF CAUSES

SN symbol Causes No. of Findings Result Remarks

observation

1 A 76 16 Valid
2 B 76 25 Valid
3 C 76 20 Valid
4 D 76 1 Valid
5 E 76 5 Valid
6 F 76 0 Not Valid
7 G 76 7 Valid
8 H 76 2 Valid
9 I 76 0 Not valid
PARETO DIAGRAM
Pareto Diagram is a technique of arranging data according to priority importance and
using it into a problem solving frame work . This helps to find out the “VITAL FEW”
from the “USEFUL MANY” for problem selection .
Pareto Diagram is compound graph . To draw the diagram , collect data and arrange it
In descending order. If “others” is there which consist of several small defects but not
more than the specified defects ,then others will be always come at the end as this
will be cumulative of more than one of defect. Some times specific defect may be
equal or less than others, even others will be at the end.
Data of 500 defective Biscuit packets out of 1000 packets inspected on 10.05 2015

Defect Type of defect No. of Defects

symbol
A Loose packets 16
B Cross packets 130
C Crimping 40
D Tapered 107
E Seal open 161
F White line 28
O Others 18
 Arranging in descending order
Defect NO. of defect % of Defects Cumulative
symbol %
E 161 32.2 32.2
B 130 26.0 58.2
D 107 21.4 79.6
C 40 8.0 87.6
F 28 5.6 93.22
A 16 3.2 96.44
O 18 3.6 100
 Pareto Diagram
100
500 100
96.44
93.22
450 90

Vital Few 87.6

400 79.6 80

350 70
Nos. Defect

300 Lorenze curve of concentration 60

58.2

250 50

200 40

150
32.2
Useful Many 30

100 20

50 10

0 0
E B D C F A O

CAUSES
 DATA OF THE ROOT CAUSES
SN Symbol Causes No. of observation Findings

1 A Cause-1 76 16
2 B Cause-2 76 25
3 C Cause-3 76 20
4 D Cause-4 76 1
5 E Cause-5 76 5
7 F Cause-6 76 7
8 G Cause-7 76 2
Arranging in descending order
SN Symbol Causes No. of observation Findings

1 B Cause-2 76 25
2 C Cause-3 76 20
3 A Cause-1 76 16
4 F Cause-5 76 7
5 E Cause-6 76 5
7 G Cause-5 76 2
8 D Cause-4 76 1
 PARETO CHART

symbol Causes Frequency Cumulative sum % Cumulative %

B Cause-2 25 25 32.89 32.89

C Cause-3 20 45 26.32 59.21
A Cause-1 16 61 21.05 80.26
F Cause-5 7 68 9.21 89.47
E Cause-6 5 73 6.58 96.05
G Cause-5 2 75 2.63 98.68
D Cause-4 1 76 1.32 100
76 100
 Pareto Diagram
100
76 98.68 100
72 96.05
68 Vital Few 89.47 90
64
60 80.26 80
56
52 70
Lorenze curve of concentration
48
44 59.21 60
40 50
36
Frequency

32 Useful Many 40
28 32.89
24 30
20
16 20
12
8 10
4
0 0
B C A G E H D
Causes
 SCATTER DIAGRAM

Definition :-
Scatter diagram is a graphical representation of relationship
between two variables .

It can be between Cause and Effect and between two causes .

It also reveals the nature of relationship between two

variables and their approximate strength.
 80
60
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

It is normally used to examine relationship

before
proceeding for further analysis.
 DEFECT LEVEL

LEVEL OF OIL

He plotted them in a graph i.e. in 'Y' axis the

defect level and in 'X' axis the level of oil used.
This showed that there was no correlation
between the two variables.
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE AFTER LAPPING

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

ANGLE BEFORE LAPPING

If the picture is slightly spread like this then we

say that there is a possibility of positive
correlation.
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE AFTER LAPPING

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE BEFORE LAPPING

Sometimes an emerging diagram can be like this, then

we can say that there is a possibility of negative
correlation.
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE AFTER LAPPING

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE BEFORE LAPPING

If it is like this we can say that there is a negative

relationship or negative correlation between the two
variables.
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE AFTER LAPPING

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE BEFORE LAPPING

Sometime we may have Scatter like this also i.e.

positive correlation up to certain level and then
negative.
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE AFTER LAPPING

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE BEFORE LAPPING

It can be vice versa also i.e negative correlation

up to one level and then positive.
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE AFTER LAPPING

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE BEFORE LAPPING

Take a scatter diagram where the values

are already plotted.
This can be found
out by using a
formula.
Procedure is as
follows:
 Take sample of observation for the two
variables under study.
'Data on Hardness and Tensile strength of copper alloy casting'
Test Piece Hardness Tensile Strength
1 84 38.0
2 93 40.7
3 89 35.3
4 86 37.6
5 87 33.1
6 93 24.9
7 88 28.3
 2
Find out the value of X i.e
84X84 = 7056
93X93 = 8849
and so on
 2
Find out the value of Y i.e
38X38 = 1444
40.7X40.7 = 1656.49
and so on
Find out the 'XY'value of observation ie
84X38 = 3192
93X40.7 = 3785.1
and so on
 2 2
No. X Y XY
1. 7056 1444.00 3192.0
2. 8649 1659.49 3785.1
3. 7921 1246.09 3141.7
4. 7396 1413.76 3233.6
5. 7569 1310.44 3149.4
6. 8649 1413.76 3496.8
7. 7744 1095.61 2912.8
Step 1
Find out 'n' and obtain total of
2 2
X, Y, X, Y and 'XY'
n = 25
Sx = 2147
SY = 899.7
2
SX = 185597
2
SY = 32715.29
SXY = 77749.20
Step 2
Simplified formula for co-efficient of
correlation
S xy - (Sx) (Sy)
n
r=
2 2 2 2
{ S x - (Sx) } { S y - (Sy) }
n n
 Step 3
Substitute the values in the formula

77749. 2 - (2147) (899.7)

25
r=
2 2
{185597 - (2147) } {32715.29 - (899.7) }
25 25
Step 4
Find out the value of ‘r’. If the 'r' value is above
0.7, then the correlation is useful.

r = 483
639.15

r = 0.7557
Step 5
2
Find out 100 r.

This gives percentage of variation in 'Y'

influenced by 'X' i.e the independent
variable. In this case

2
100r = 57.1
Step 5
Therefore correlation between these
two variables is useful.

2
r = 0.5710

2
100 r =57.10
Calculation of coefficient of correlation and
contribution of X to Y
Step 1
Obtain pairs of observation for the two variables .
Data on height Vs Weight study for newly born children
Observation Height Weight
(No.) of child of child
(inches) (Kg)

(n ) (X) (Y) XxY X2 Y2

1 20 5

2 25 8

3 30 7

4 35 11

5 40 9

n= ∑X= ∑Y= ∑XY= ∑X2= ∑Y2=

Calculation of coefficient of correlation and contribution of X
to Y
Step 2
Find out X2, Y2 and XY for the observation value calculation
Height of child Weight of child XY X2 Y2
(inches) (kg)

X Y
20 5 100 400 25

25 8 200 625 64

30 7 210 900 49

35 11 385 1225 121

40 9 360 1600 81

∑X=150 ∑Y=40 ∑XY=1255 ∑X2=4750 ∑Y2=340

Calculation of coefficient of correlation and contribution of X to Y

Step 3
Note down the values of N observation, Y2 and XY for the observation value calculation

n = 5 , ∑X =150 , ∑Y = 40 , ∑X2 =4750 , ∑Y2 =340 , ∑XY =1255

Step 4

Simplified formula for coefficient of correlation

∑XY - ∑x. ∑Y
n
r=
√{∑X2- (∑X )2}{∑Y2- (∑Y )2 }
n n
Calculation of coefficient of correlation and contribution of X to Y

Step 5

1255 - (150).(40)
5
r=
√{4750- (150 ) }{340- (40 ) }
2 2

5 5
Find out the value of r, if the value of r is more than 0.7 then the correlation is useful

55
r=

250X20

55
r= = 0.78
70.71
Step 6
To calculate contribution of X to Y find out 100 r2 .

In this X is independent variable and Y is dependent of x

% Contribution of X y = 100r2

= 100x0.78x0.78

= 61%

Based on data taken we can conclude that the contribution of height to

weight is 61%

And 39% is due to other effects

 HISTOGRAM
Histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution
which is summery of variation in a product or process.
To make Histogram collect data for example , show the weight of 2kg. Sweet of a
shop. Least count of scale used was 1gm. Total nos. of sweet pieces are 64

35 30 26 32 31 28 30 34
31 29 30 33 34 31 27 33
32 31 25 30 32 29 30 29
28 33 30 28 31 37 30 32
30 35 31 32 33 30 28 31
29 31 29 30 24 30 31 28
31 34 31 33 31 33 30 33
29 32 30 26 30 28 31 27
 X max = 37 highest Value
35 30 26 32 31 28 30 34 Xmin = 24 lowest value
31 29 30 33 34 31 27 33 Range R= 37-24 =13

32 31 25 30 32 29 30 29
28 33 30 28 31 37 30 32
30 35 31 32 33 30 28 31
29 31 29 30 24 30 31 28
31 34 31 33 31 33 30 33
29 32 30 26 30 28 31 27

35 34 32 37 35 31 34 32
26 27 25 28 28 24 30 26
 Table for recommenced number of class intervals

Number of observation Recommended no. of class interval ( K )

Up to 50 6
51 – 100 7
101- 200 8
201 – 500 9
501 – 1000 10

Total nos. of observations = 64 Hence value of K =7

Now approximate width of class intervals “ C “ based on the formula

C=( R+W ) / K R= range, W = least count of scale

C = (13+1)/7 = 2 K = No. of class intervals
Now lower limit of first class interval = xmin – W/2 = 24- 0.5 = 23.5
Upper limit of first class interval = 23.5 + c = 23.5 +2 = 25.5
Lower limit of 2nd class interval =25.5
Upper limit of 2nd class interval = 25.5 + c = 25.5 +2 = 27.5
similarly after calculation we can get the all class intervals
23.5 – 25.5
25.5 – 27.5
27.5 – 29.5
29.5 – 31.5
31.5 – 33.5
33.5 – 35.5
35.5 – 37.5
Class intervals Tally Frequency

23.5 – 25.5 II 2
25.5 – 27.5 IIII 4
27.5 – 29.5 IIII IIII II 12

29.5 – 31.5 IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII II 27

31.5 – 33.5 IIII IIII III 13
33.5 – 35.5 IIII 5
35.5 – 37.5 I 1
 Histogram

30

25

20
Frequency

15

10

0
23.5 25.5 27.5 29.5 31.5 33.5 35.5 37.5

Class interval
Some of the
Shapes of
Histogram
 Double Peaked
This pattern arises from a mixture of two
conditions , two suppliers of same parts, two
machines, two operators. Separate histogram
for each condition has to be made.
 Comb Type

This pattern is usually traceable to errors in

measurements, and observations are rounded
off. Check for bias for even numbers in the data.
 Isolated Peak

It is small group of data from a different

lot/process condition. It shows that means or
process levels are different and variation is
different.
 Plateau Type

This is a mixture of several process

conditions. Output of several days mixed
together in a lot.
Uses of Histogram:
To know the pattern of
variation
Uses of Histogram:
To assess status of
control
Lower Upper
spec. spec.
28 Limit Limit
24

Frequency
20
16

12

8
4

0
1.54 1.67 1.80 1.93 2.06 2.19 2.32 2.45 2.58 2.71

Power Consumption
 Uses of Histogram:
Lower Upper
spec. spec.
28 Limit Limit

24

Frequency
20
16
12

8
4

0
1.54 1.67 1.80 1.93 2.06 2.19 2.32 2.45 2.58 2.71
Power Consumption

To assess conformance to specifications

 Uses of Histogram:
Spread in the process

45
10-15
40
15-20
35
No of crimes

20-25
30
25-30
25
30-35
20
35-40
15
40-45
10
45-50
5
50-55
0
AGE OF CRIMINAL

To assess spread or variation with

reference to specification
Uses of Histogram:

To assess process
capability
 Uses of Histogram:
We may have to adjust the process to
reduce weight.. The weight of the
soap is continuously on the higher
side

80
70 144
146

Weight of soap
60
148
50 150
40 152
154
30
156
20 158
10 160

To get clues for bringing process under

control - whether to shift mean or to
reduce variation or both
 Uses of Histogram:
Double Peaked Histogram

To get clues for possible assignable causes

for observed variation - mixture of lots,
suppliers,
 Uses of Histogram:
Comb Type Histogram

instrument/measurement errors, bias

of written results etc
Summary
Histogram

* Display variability in a set of data

* Patterns of variability reveal facts about process
* Patterns of variability can suggest and test theories
* Show the status of control
* Show current conformance to specifications and
whether scope exists for improvement.
 Control Chart
What is control chart ?
Control chart is a graphical device to aid in process control . It is an ON - line process
Control technique widely used for process control . It consists of a graph with a central
line denoting the target value or mean value and two limit lines on either side of the central
line called “Upper Control limit and Lower Control limit” generally indicated in dotted line.
UCL

Central line

LCL
We know that variation is always present due to inherent variation in the input for a given
out put .Such variation can be due to a variety of causes .They can be broadly classified
Into two categories .
1.Chance Causes
2.Assignable Causes
Based on the requirement and conditions prevalent , we accept certain variations as
inevitable .Depending upon the working conditions such inherent variations are accepted
as due to CHANCE CAUSES.. We know ,however sophisticated the systems, production
condition etc. chance causes are bound to be there.
ASSIGNABLE causes are not present under normal working conditions. They suddenly
creep in due to various reasons causing changes in the control parameters .
Statistical Control Process : When no Assignable causes of variation are present in a
process and it operates only under a constant system of chance causes , process is said
to be in a state of Statistical Control .
Occasionally ,assignable causes may enter the process resulting in a change to out of
control state when process out put shows large variation and hence fails to meet required
quality products.
A major objective of statistical quality control is to quickly detect process shifts due to
assignable causes so that corrective action can be taken to prevent nonconforming
Products being turned out. This facilitated by a CONTROL Chart.
X-R Control Chart

25
Assignable Cause 25
UCL 22.5 22.5
UCL 20 20
17.5 17.5
Values

CL 15 15
Central Line 12.5 12.5
LCL 10 10
7.5 Assignable 7.5
5 5
LCL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Data Time
 Control Chart
How to set control Limits ?
Control limits are the permissible limits under chance causes variation or under state of
statistical control .For a measurable quality characteristic , chance causes variation will result
in a pattern of variation called normal distribution which is a symmetrical frequency
distribution. This distribution is described completely by the mean and standard deviation
.One feature of this distribution is that with a span of + _ 3standard deviation (+_3 sigma)
from the mean form the limits for variation due to chance causes .
TYPES OF CONTROL CHARTS :
Control charts classified into two categories .
a) Variables Control Chart
b) Attributes Control Charts
Variables Control Chart : If the quality characteristic can be measured with the help of an
instrument or measuring process , it is called a measurable characteristic .For example,
diameter, electrical resistance, iodine no., yield, carbon content and tensile strength etc.
In such cases , it is convenient to describe the quality characteristic by average and measure
of variability by rang or standrd deviation.
There are three types of variable control charts.
1.Average and Range Chart ( X-R Chart)
2.Individual and Range Chart( X- R Chart)
3.Meadian and Range Chart
 VARIABLE CONTROL CHART
(X-R Average and Range)

Characteristic- Packed Spec. limit- 901.62

FIBC Bag packed Process-Packing Weight 900kg +_3kg X =

Operator- Packing M/c no.03 Meas. Instrument- W.Bridge Unit of Measure- kg R= 4.44
sub
Group Time 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 903 899 900 902 905 902 901 905 899

2 905 900 903 903 903 901 900 902 900

3 902 904 906 901 904 903 902 901 902

4 900 902 904 898 900 900 900 904 900

5 901 901 900 900 901 900 901 900 903

SUM 4511 4506 4513 4504 4513 4506 4504 4512 4504

Average 902.2 901.2 902.6 900.8 902.6 901.2 900.8 902.4 900.8

Range 5 5 6 5 5 3 2 5 4
 Factors for Control Limit

Size of sub
group (n)
A2 D3 D4 d2* 3/d2
2 1.880 0 3.267 1.128 2.659
3 1.023 0 2.575 1.693 1.772
4 0.729 0 2.282 2.059 1.457
5 0.577 0 2.115 2.326 1.290
6 0.483 0 2.004 2.534 1.184
 Control Limits for X as
Control Chart
UCL = X+A2R =901.62+(0.577x4.44)= 904.18

LCL = X-A2R =901.62-(0.577x4.44) = 899.06

CL = X = 901.62
904.8
904.4
904 UCL
903.6
903.2
902.8
902.4 902.6 902.6 902.4
902 902.2
901.6 CL
901.2 901.2 901.2
900.8 900.8 900.8 900.8
900.4
900
899.6
899.2 LCL
898.8
898.4
898

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Control Limits for R as
UCLR =D4 R =2.115x4.44=9.4
UCLR =D3 R =0x4.44=0.00
CLR = R =4.44
10
9.5 UCLR
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
6
5
4.5 CLR
5 5 5 5 5
4 4
3.5
3
2.5
3
2 2
1.5
1
0.5
0 LCLR

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2. INDIVIDUAL and RANGE CHART(X-R)
This is applicable when subgroup is not practicable and control is to be exercised based
On single values.
This can also be used on special occasion and where process is under control in normal
Condition. This chart does not detect the changes in the process level quickly.
Here individual value is taken rather than group value.
For Example:
We are interested in controlling the power consumption in home

Date Units Date Units Date Units Date Units

01.06.15 32.5 08.06.15 31.6 15.06.15 27.7 22.06.15 29.7
02.06.15 29.5 09.06.15 31.0 16.06.15 28.9 23.06.15 30.6
03.06.15 31.5 10.06.15 34.0 17.06.15 31.0 24.06.15 31.0
04.06.15 29.7 11.06.15 28.6 18.06.15 32.5 25.06.15 29.0
05.06.15 30.4 12.06.15 29.4 19.06.15 30.6
06.06.15 30.4 13.06.15 30.4 20.06.15 32.0
07.06.15 29.4 14.06.15 31.7 21.06.15 26.7

Total Units X= 759.8 & Nos. of Data N = 25

X = X/N = 759.8/25 = 30.4
 Moving Range
S.N. Moving S.N. Moving S.N. Moving S.N. Moving
range range range range
1 3.0 8 0.6 15 1.2 22 0.9
2 2.0 9 3.0 16 2.1 23 0.4
3 1.8 10 5.4 17 1.5 24 2.0
4 0.7 11 0.8 18 1.9
5 0.0 12 1.0 19 1.4
6 1.0 13 1.3 20 5.3
7 2.2 14 4.0 21 3.0
Total value of Range= 46.5
Average of Range R = 46.5/24 =1.94

X =30.4

UCLX = X+(3R/d2) =30.4+(2.659x1.94) =35.56

LCLX = X-(3R/d2) =30.4-(2.659x1.94) =25.24

UCLR= D4xR =3.268x1.94 =6.34
LCLR =D3xR +0x1.94 =0
 20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
6/1/2009

CL
UCL

LCL
6/2/2009

32.5
6/3/2009

29.5
6/4/2009
6/5/2009 31.5

29.7
6/6/2009
6/7/2009
30.430.4

6/8/2009
29.4

6/9/2009
31.6
31

6/10/2009
34

6/11/2009
6/12/2009
28.6

6/13/2009
29.4

6/14/2009
30.4

6/15/2009
31.7
Individual Range Chart (X-R chart)

6/16/2009
27.7

6/17/2009
28.9
31

6/18/2009
6/19/2009
32.5

6/20/2009
30.6
32

6/21/2009
6/22/2009
26.7

6/23/2009
29.7

6/24/2009
30.631

6/25/2009
29
 Range- Chart
6.8
6.4
6 UCL
5.6
5.2 5.4 5.3
4.8
4.4
4 4
3.6
3.2
2.8 3 3 3
2.4
2 2 2.2 2.1 2
CL 1.8 1.9
1.6 1.5
1.2 1.3 1.2 1.4
0.8 1 0.8 1 0.9
0.7 0.6
0.4 0.4
0 0
LCL9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
9 9 9 9
/2 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
6/ 6/ 6/ 6/ 6/ 6/ 6/ 6/ 6/ 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/2 6/2 6/2 6/2 6/2

Interpretation : It is seen from the control chart that all points on X-

Chart and R-Chart are within the control limit. It is that process is
under control.
 2. ATTRIBUTE CONTROL CHARTS
These are used when we want to control non measurable characteristics process .
Types of Attribute control chart :
a) Number defective “np” chart.
b) Percentage defective “p” chart
c) Number of defects “c” chart.
d) Number of defect per unit “u” chart.
Number defective “np” chart : This chart is used when sample size is fixed number.
Eg. In paper bag co. bags are inspected for defectives .Every day 50 bags are inspected .
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total

Date 1/6 2/6 3/6 4/6 5/6 6/6 7/6 8/6 9/6 10/6

No. inspected 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 500

No. defectives 4 5 8 6 7 12 9 4 3 2 60

Sample No. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Date 11/6 12/6 13/6 14/6 15/6 16/6 17/6 18/6 19/6 20/6

No. inspected 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 500

No. defectives 1 5 10 4 6 7 4 9 8 6 60
 Control limits for “ np” chart : Limits
= nP ±3 nP (1-P)
Total nos. of defectives in sample checked =120 = P
Total nos. inspected =20x50 =1000
P= P/ Total nos. inspected =120/1000 = 0.12
nP =50x0.12 =6.0
UCLnp= 6+3 5.28 =6+6.89 = 12.89
LCLnp = 6-6.89 = -0.89
np control chart : n=50
14 UCL
12 12

10 9
10
9
8 8 8
7 7
6 5
6
5
6 6

4 4 4 4 4
3
2 2
1
0 LCL
6/1/2009
6/2/2009
6/3/2009
6/4/2009
6/5/2009
6/6/2009
6/7/2009
6/8/2009
6/9/2009
6/10/2009
6/11/2009
6/12/2009
6/13/2009
6/14/2009
6/15/2009
6/16/2009
6/17/2009
6/18/2009
6/19/2009
6/20/2009
Interpretation: all point are within control limit i.e. process is under control
 b) Percentage Defective “p” Chart
As the name indicates , this chart uses percentage .This is useful when the sample size
Varies. Let us see an example for this.
In a paper bag manufacturing co. bags are checked for defectives. Date wise number of
bags inspected. Data are collected in following check sheet
No. No. No. %of ( n) 3 UCL%= LCL%
inspected (n) defectives defective 3σp
n (P+3σp) (P-3σp)
(p) s x100 x100
(p%)

1 185 17 9.19 13.60 0.221 0.067 16.90 3.50

2 210 22 10.48 14.49 0.207 0.063 16.50 3.90
3 196 16 8.16 14.00 0.214 0.065 16.70 3.70
4 214 26 12.15 14.63 0.205 0.062 16.40 4.00
5 225 22 9.78 15.00 0.200 0.061 16.30 4.10
6 176 18 10.23 13.27 0.226 0.069 17.10 3.30
7 182 16 8.79 13.49 0.222 0.067 16.90 3.50
8 203 25 12.32 14.25 0.211 0.064 16.60 3.80
9 176 18 10.23 13.27 0.226 0.069 17.10 3.30
10 95 10 10.53 9.75 0.308 0.094 18.70 0.80

P =190/1862 =0.102
 Control limits for percentage p Chart
= P ± 3 p(1-p)/n

Percentage Defective “P” Chart

20
UCLp
15
CLp 12.15 12.32
10 10.48 9.78 10.23 10.53
10.23
9.19 8.79
8.16
5 LCLp

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Interpretation : All points are within the upper controll limit and therefore process is under
Control .
 C) Number of Defects “C” Chart.
This control chart is used when quality assessment is in terms of number of defects in
single items. The number of defects on the product is noted and “C” chart help to know
whether the defect level is under the control.
For example a carpet manufacturing company wants to monitor defects in carpet. For
this purpose the number of defects per square meter is collected.
Time No. of defects Time No. of defects Total no. of defects = 28 +24 = 52
08:00 4 13:00 1 No. of sample taken =20
08:30 3 13:30 4
C =52/20 =2.60
09:00 2 14:00 3 Control limits = C ± 3σ
09:30 0 14:30 2 =C±3 C
10:00 1 15:00 0 UCLc = 2.6+3 2.6 =7.44
10:30 5 15:30 0
11:00 6 16:00 3 LCLc =2.6- 3 2.6 = -2.24
11:30 4 16:30 2 Take this as zero
12:00 0 17:00 5 CLc = 2.6
12:30 3 17:30 4
Total 28 24
 Number of Defects “ C” Chart

8
UCL
7
6 6
5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3
CL
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
0 LCL 0 0 0 0
8:00
8:30
9:00
9:30
10:00
10:30
11:00
11:30
12:00
12:30
13:00
13:30
14:00
14:30
15:00
15:30
16:00
16:30
17:00
17:30
Interpretation: it is seen from the chart that all the points are below the upper
control Limit and there are no runs and trends. It is therefore the defect level is
under statistical Control.
 d) Number of defects per unit “U” Chart
This is used when inspection unit value changes .For example the carpet was earlier
checked for defects in one square meter ,after few checks instead of one sqm. 1.5 sqm
are checked and after some time it was increased to 1.8 square meter. In such cases
control limits will change accordingly.
Time Inspection No.of Time Inspection No.of No.of defects =69
unit(Sqm) defects unit(Sqm) defects Total Sq.m checked =27.60
No.of defects/Sq.M=69/27.60
08:00 1.00 3 13:00 1.50 5 =2.50
08:30 1.00 4 13:30 1.50 6
UCLu = U+ 3 U/n
09:00 1.00 6 14:00 1.80 7
09:30 1.00 1 14:30 1.80 4 UCLu = U - 3 U/n
For inspection unit 1Sqm
10:00 1.00 4 15:00 1.80 3 UCL = 2.5+3 2.5/1
10:30 1.00 3 15:30 1.80 2 =2.5+4.74 = 7.24
11:00 1.50 7 16:00 1.80 3 LCL=2.5-4.74 = -2.24
For insp.unit 1.5 Sq.M
11:30 1.50 4 16:30 1.80 4 UCL=2.5+3 2.5/1.5
12:00 1.50 2 17:00 1.80 1 =2.5+3.9 =6.4
12:30 1.50 0 Total 27.60 69 LCL=2.5-3.9= -1.4
For insp.unit 1.8Sq.m
UCL=2.5+3 2.5/1.8
=2.5+3.6=6.1
LCL=2.5-3.6=-1.10
 Number of defects per unit “U” Chart

8
UCL
7
6 6
5 4.7
4 4 4 4 3.9
3 3 3 3.3
2.7
CL 2.2 2.2
2 1.7 1.7
1 1 1.3 1.1
LCL 0.6
0 0

: 00 :30 :00 :30 :00 :30 :00 :30 :00 :30 :00 :30 :00 :30 :00 :30 :00 :30 :00
8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 17

Continuous plotting help in finding out whether process is under control or not . Lack
Of control is indicated by points falling on or out side control limits. But even when the
values are within the control limits, process can be consider out of control if it is reflecting
Any one of the following pattern.
Run : It is a state when points occur continuously on one side of the central line and then
the number of points is called the length of Run.
 As said earlier, control charts are
graphical aids in process control.
Continuous plotting help in finding
out whether process is under
control or not. Lack of control is
indicated by points falling on or
outside control limits.
 But even when the values are
within the control limit, process can
be considered out of control if it is
reflecting any one of the following
patterns.
 Run
10 out of 11 consecutive points
Seven-point length of run
occuring on one side is abnormal
Upper is abnormal
control
Limit

Central
Line

Lower
control
Limit

It is a state when points occur continously on one

side of the control line and then number of points
is called “length of the Run”
 Trend
Seven upwards points Drastic downward trend
Upper
control
Limit

Central
Line
Lower
control
Limit

When the points form a continuous upward or downward curve it is said

to have a TREND.
 Approach to central line.
3 Sigma line

1.5 Sigma line

Central
Line
1.5 Sigma line

3 Sigma line

When most of the points are within 1.5 sigma line it is due to
inappropriate way of sub grouping.
 Approach to Control Limit
Approach to the control limit ( 2 out of 3 points )
3 Sigma line

2 Sigma line

Central
Line

2 Sigma line
3 Sigma line
When two out of three points occur outside the 2 sigma line the case is considered abnormal.
 PROBLEM SOLVING STEPS
• IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM

• SELECTION OF PROBLEM

• DEFINE THE PROBLEM

• ANALYSE THE PROBLEM

• FIND OUT CAUSES

• ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS

• DATA ANALYSIS

• DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTION

• FORESEEING PROBABLE RESISTANCE

• TRIAL IMPLEMENTATION AND CHECK PERFORMANCE

• REGULAR IMPLEMENTATION .

• FOLLOW-UP AND REVIEW

 STEPS FOR PROBLEM SOLVING
{A systematic approach not only helps in studying the problem in the proper perspective but
also to make Use of problem solving technique at the appropriate place}

There are 12 steps suggested for problem solving

STEP -1 Identification of work related problems

Method :-
a) Generate a list of problems using Brainstorming
b) Prioritize problems using “A” “B” “C” analysis

‘A’ category problem

Minimum involvement of other departments in solving the problems
‘B’ category problem
Involvement of other departments is a necessity
‘C’ category problem
Management sanction may be needed in implementing the solution
 STEP -2 “ SELECTION OF PROBLEM”
Method :-
a) “PARETO ANALYSIS” or “RATING” based on past data or system
b) Register the selected problem with coordinating agency

STEP -3 “DEFINE THE PROBLEM”

Method :-
a) By using “ FLOW DIAGRAM”
b) By using “BRAINSTORMING”

STEP -4 “ANALYSE THE PROBLEM”

Method :-
a) By using “ DATA COLLECTION”
b) By using “GRAPH”
c) By using “STRATIFICATIN”
 STEP -5 “ IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES”
Method :-
a) “BRAIN STORMING”
b) “CAUSE and EFFECT Diagram

STEP -6 “FINDING OUT THE ROOT CAUSES”

Method :-
a) Identifying the main causes in “ CAUSE and EFFECT DIAGRAM” by DATA
COLLECTION and discussion

STEP -7 “DATA ANALYSIS”

Method :-
By using techniques LINE GRAPH,BAR GRAPH,PIE GRAPH, AREA GRAPH
HISTOGRAM, STRATIFICATION and SCATTER DIAGRAM

STEP -8 “DEVELOPING SOLUTION”

Method :-
Using BRAINSTORMING
 STEP -9 “ FORESEEING PROBABLE RESISTANCE”
Method :-
“BRAIN STORMING”
Identifying the probable constraints and finding ways to overcome them.
Make a presentation to all involved with the solution i.e. Dept. head, Facilitator, other
officials and non-members involved with the implementation. Discuss and evaluate a system
for implementation.

STEP -10 “ TRIAL IMPLEMENTATION AND CHECK PERFORMANCE”

Method :-
Data collection after implementation , compared with the data collected before solving the
problem. Collect fresh data using control chart and watch process trends. Analyse the result,
discuss and incorporate the changes needed
 STEP -11 “ REGULAR IMPLEMENTATION”
Method :-
Once validity is checked and improvement observed with data , regular
implementation can be effected

STEP -12 “ FOLLOW UP/ REVIEW”

Method :-
Implement evaluation procedure, use Data collection, control chart and Bar Graph , have six
monthly report for evaluation.
Make modifications if necessary