Genetics, Prenatal

Development, and the Neonate

By: Geraldine P. Go
A Little History

• Gregor Mendel (1865)

– Law of segregation (states that for each inherited trait there are
two elements of heredity. These elements segregate clearly
during reproduction, so that an offspring receives either one
element or another, never some blend of both)

– Law of independent assortment (states that when two traits of a

parent are considered (such as the height of a plant and the
color of its flowers), each trait is inherited independently.
• 1900
• Chromosomes (the rod-shaped strands of DNA found in
the nucleus of cells that contain genetic information)
• 1953
• James Watson & Francis Crick
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- the self-replicating
molecule of which chromosomes are made
• 46 chromosomes that contain 3 billion nucleotide pairs
• Nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, & cytosine)
The Genetic Code and What do
Genes Do
• Gene – basic unit of heredity; segment of DNA that
codes for a particular protein
– direct the production of proteins, which in turn affect our
development our health, and our behavior through normal
biological pathways
Allele- different versions of the same gene
Kinds of Genes

Genotype- The genetic endowment

that an individual inherits.

Phenotype- The ways in which a

person’s genotype is expressed in
observable or measurable
characteristics.
Genotype will be
 Dominant – A form of an allele whose
chemical instructions are followed.

 Recessive - An allele whose instructions are

ignored in the presence of a dominant allele.
TRY THIS!

• One simple behavior that is governed by a single

dominant gene is the ability to curl one’s tongue. Try it. If
you cannot curl your tongue, you have inherited two
recessive genes associated with control of your tongue.
If you can curl your tongue, you inherited at least one
dominant gene for this ability, possibly two.
• Mutations refer to a change in the
chemical structure or
arrangement of a gene.

• Mutations can also be induced by environmental hazards

such as toxic industrial waste, radiation, agricultural
chemicals that enter the food supply, and possibly even
some of the additives and preservatives in processed
foods
Mitosis
• The process in which a cell duplicates its chromosomes
and then divides into two genetically identical daughter
cells

Meiosis
• The process in which a germ cell divides, producing
gametes that each contain half of the parent cell’s
original complement of chromosomes; in human, the
products of meiosis contain 23 chromosomes
2 types of chromosomes

• Autosomes (pairs 1 to 22)

• Sex chromosomes (23rd pair)
Sex-linked Inheritance
• Down syndrome- Chromosome abnormality, in which
individual has an extra 21st chromosome; also known as
trisomy 21.
How Do Genes Influence Behavior?

• genotype→environment theory - Scarr and

McCartney’s theory that one’s genotype (genetic
constitution) influences which environments one
encounters and the type of experiences one has, or that
genes drive experience
Prenatal Development
fertilization
Prenatal Development

• Germinal Stage (fertilization -2

weeks)
–Zygote
–Blastocysts
–Uterine implantation in 10-12
days
zygote
blastocyst
Implantation- The moment of fertilization,
when a sperm penetrates an ovum,
forming a zygote.
 Monozygotic (identical) twins- Twins who
develop from a single zygote that later divides to
form two genetically identical individuals.
 Dizygotic (fraternal) twins- Twins that result
when a mother releases two ova at roughly the
same time and each is fertilized by a different
sperm, producing two zygotes that are genetically
different
Embryonic Stage (2-8 weeks)

• Cell differentiation and specialization to form the

major body systems, organs, tissues, and other
body parts
• 3-4 weeks neural tube
• 4-6 weeks (limbs, sensory organs, and the
urogenital system)
• 8 weeks (facial structures & internal organs)
• Teratogen (substance, agents, or influence that
causes malformation in the developing
organism)
embryo
Embryo- Term given to the zygote once it
is completely embedded in the uterine
wall.
• Embryos are cushioned by the amniotic and chorionic
sacs. The amniotic sac (or amnion) is a fluid-filled
membrane that forms around the embryo about two
weeks after conception and remains until birth. The
chorionic sac (or chorion) surrounds the amnion and
eventually becomes part of the placenta. (When women
speak of “their water breaking,” it is these sacs that
rupture at the beginning of labor.)
Fetal Stage (8- 37/40 weeks)

• Enlargement and growth of the

organs and systems already in
place
• An active passenger
• Regular prenatal checkups,
proper nutrition and a healthy
lifestyle
Amnion– a watertight membrane that fills with
fluid that cushions and protects the embryo.

Amniotic Fluid- Fluid that surrounds the fetus.

Umbilical Cord– Connection between embryo

and mother through which nutrients and wastes
are exchanged.
Placenta- Tissue fed by mother’s
blood vessels and connected to the
embryo by the umbilical cord
Risk Factors during Prenatal
Development
• Mother’s age (20-35, after 35- risky)
• Fetal malnourishment (ideally, mother’s eat a diet of
2,700-300 calories per day)
Fetal malnourishment produces infants who are often
lethargic, have aversive cries, and are slow to develop.
• Maternal stress
premature births and low-weight babies
hormone imbalances in the placenta
an increased likelihood of having sons who as adults
identify themselves as homosexual
• Environmental risk factors
– Teratogens sunstances that come into contact with the fetus
through the mother that interfere with typical development
a. Medications
thalidomide
DES (diesthylstilbestrol)
B. Illegal drugs
C. Legal but addictive substances
Alcohol – Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
Nicotine
caffeine
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

• which involves symptoms such as intellectual

impairment, slow growth rate, deformities of the face,
and attention deficit disorders
• Toxic substances and products
radiation
lead
• Infectious diseases
– German measles
– Chicken pox
– STD (syphillis, gonorrhea, herpes, human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), cytomegalovirus
– toxoplasmosis
Birth and the Neonate

• The birth process

• Labor, a period of time during which the cervix begins to
open (dilate), the birth canal softens (effaces), and the
uterus undergoes rhythmic contractions that become
increasingly stronger. If it is a woman’s first child, this
period of labor can last from 12 to 14 hours; for
subsequent children, it can last as little as 4 to 6 hours.
Labor intensifies into harder, more frequent contractions
as the infant’s head is pushed lower and lower until it
begins to emerge from the cervix.
• Delivery
normal
Caesarian delivery
• Afterbirth – 15 mins

• Postpartum depression – maternity blues

In Vitro Fertilization- Process by which a sperm
and egg are mixed in a Petri dish to create a
zygote , which is then placed in a women in a
women’s uterus.
Neonate Behaviors
Eating
Neonate’s Adaptive Behavioral
Toolkit
• Systems for receiving information: Sensory systems.
• Systems for transmitting information: Crying.
• Systems for acting: Neonatal reflexes
Capacities of a Newborn (Senses at
Birth)

Sense of hearing (at 3 days –voice of

mother; prefer human voice)
Sense of taste (developed at birth; similar
with adults’)
Sense of smell (well-developed;
discriminatory)
Sense of touch (physical growth & emotional
bond)
Sense of vision (least developed, practically
blind)
Capacities of the Newborn

• Reflexes (inborn and involuntary motor behaviors)

Rooting reflex
Palmar reflex
Cephalocaudal Principle- A principle of
physical growth that states that
structures nearest the head develop
first.

Proximodistal Principle- Principle of

physical growth that states that
structures nearest the center of the
body develop first.