DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

Dr A Selvakumar
Engineering Design Process
Machine Design
• Distinguishes between a designer and a design
engineer
• Uses wide range of background courses

Mechanical Design
• It is the process of selecting mechanical components
and putting them together to accomplish a desired
function.

Requires:
• Imagination, component familiarity
Design of Machine Elements

The determination of appropriate geometry and materials for

the individual components of a mechanical design.

Requires: Attention to details, Engg Analysis

Design is iterative.
• Need to investigate all interactions,
• strive to achieve an optimal design….Maximise benefits.

Engg Specifications:

Before formulating a design objective must be fully defined.

• Functions
• Design requirements
• Criteria
Functions:

Descriptions mostly general terms of what the device is supposed

to do
• To transmit,
• To support or
• to lift….

Design Requirements:

Detailed and specific performance characteristics of the machine.

• How much force must be transmitted

• How fast must it travel
• Effort required to use the machine
• Maximum Dimensions
• Maximum weight
Criteria: Attributes that will guide a designer to an optimum
design
• Safety
• Ease of operation
• Reliability
• Low Cost
• Appearance

TASK:

Develop a set of functions, requirements and criteria for

• An automotive windshield wiper system

• A lawn sprinkler
• Child carrier for a bicycle
STANDARDISATION
It is the development and implementation of technical standards.
Standardization helps mass production for safety, quality,
interchangeability and compatibility.

The standards are for size, weight, quality and strength.

There are National and International standards.

National standards are for almost every item.

In India it is BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards).

International standards are for many items but not for each item.
International uniformity has its own advantages.
ISO International Standards Organisation touch everyone to improve
customer satisfaction.
Standardisation bring

1. Quality and reliability

2. Consistency in the delivery of services

3. Choice and fair competition

4. Credibility of standards to support consumer

protection laws

5. Transparency in production information

Following are some of the popular International Standards:

(a) Quality management is ISO 9000

(b) Environmental management-ISO 14000
(c) Social responsibility-ISO 26000
(d) Country codes- ISO 3166
(e) Risk management- ISO 31000
(f) Energy management-ISO 50001
(g) Food safety management-ISO 22000
(h) Anti bribery management systems-ISO 37001
(i) Occupational health and safety- ISO 45001
(j) Information security management- ISO 27001
ADVANTAGES OF STANDARDIZATION

1. Simplify decision making and helps in improving decisions.

3. Makes mass production possible.
4. Increases efficiency of both machines and men.
5. Reduces time of manufacture.
6. Decreases manpower requirements.
7. Cost of production is reduced.
8. Standard testing methods improve quality of products.
9. Increases durability and life of products.
10. Makes interchangeability possible for worn out and damaged parts.

DISADVANTAGES OF STANDARDIZATION
1. Small scale industry suffers.
2. Loss of motivation
3. Loss of morale
 PreferredNumbers
Standardization reduces number of sizes and variety of items to reduce
cost and improve quality. These sizes are expressed numerically and
are called preferred numbers (also called preferred values or preferred
series) .
Large number of sizes is reduced to a smaller number of sizes by the
use of Renard numbers in FIVE GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES.
These are rounded off normally up to two decimal places.
Resulting values are nearly in geometric sequence. Renard series are
R5, R10, R20, R40 and R80.

R5 means five standard sizes between 1 and 10 which are given

below:
100/5 = 1.00
101/5 = 1.584… ~ 1.60
102/5 = 2.511… ~ 2.50
103/5 = 3.981… ~ 4.00
104/5 = 6.309… ~ 6.30
105/5 = 10 (It is not included in the preferred numbers)
100/10 = 1.00, 101/10 = 1.25, 102/10 = 1.60, 103/10 = 2.00, 104/10 = 2.50 , 105/10 = 3.15
106/10 = 4.00, 107/10 = 5.00, 108/10 = 6.50, 109/10 = 8.00 and
1010/10 = 10 (it is not included in the preferred numbers)
Ten standard sizes between 1 and 10 are
1.00,1.25, 1.60, 2.00, 2.50, 3.15, 4.00, 5.00, 6.00, 8.00

These preferred number series may be converted to sizes in a

number of ways. For example, these are multiplied or divided by
some multiple of ten (e.g., 100, 160, 250, 400, 630) for R5 series
of 1.0, 1.6, 2.5, 4.0, 6.3, 10).

Example: It is required to select preferred numbers between sizes of

28 and 70 mm, then these will be as per R5 series as 40 and 63 mm
only.

Example: It is required to select preferred numbers between sizes

of 30 and 380 mm, then it will be as per R5 series as 40, 63, 100,
160 and 250 mm respectively.
 MATERIALS

1.Metals and Alloys

• Metals and alloys include steels, aluminum, magnesium, zinc, cast
iron, titanium, copper, and nickel.
• An alloy is a metal that contains additions of one or more metals or
non-metals.
• In general, metals have good electrical and thermal conductivity.
• Metals and alloys have relatively high strength, high stiffness,
ductility or formability, and shock resistance.
• They are particularly useful for structural or load-bearing
applications.
• Although pure metals are occasionally used, alloys provide
improvement in a particular desirable property or permit better
combinations of properties.
MATERIALS

Puddling iron
 MATERIALS
2. Ceramics
• Ceramics can be defined as
inorganic crystalline materials.
• Beach sand and rocks are
examples of naturally occurring
ceramics.
• Advanced ceramics are materials made by refining naturally
occurring ceramics and other special processes.
• Advanced ceramics are used in substrates that house computer
chips, sensors and capacitors, wireless communications,
inductors, and electrical insulation.
• Some ceramics are used as barrier coatings to protect metallic
substrates in turbine engines.
• Ceramics are also used in such consumer products as paints, and
tires, and for industrial applications such as the tiles for the space
shuttle.
 2.Ceramics MATERIALS
• Traditional ceramics are used to make
bricks, tableware, toilets, bathroom
sinks, refractories (heat-resistant
material), and abrasives.

• In general, due to the presence of porosity (small holes),

ceramics do not conduct heat well; they must be heated
to very high temperatures before melting.
• Ceramics are strong and hard, but also very brittle.
• We normally prepare fine powders of ceramics and
convert these into different shapes.
• New processing techniques make ceramics sufficiently
resistant to fracture that they can be used in load-bearing
applications, such as impellers in turbine engines.
• Ceramics have exceptional strength under compression.
 MATERIALS
Can you believe that an entire fire truck can be supported
using four ceramic coffee cups?

Credit: John Mayo – A Mechanical Engineering student in Texas A&M

The Science and Engineering of Materials, Sixth Edition, Askeland, D. R., Pradeep,
P. F., and Wendelin, J. W. 2006, Cengage Learning, Stamford, CT, pp. 220.
3. Glasses and Glass-Ceramics MATERIALS
• Glass is an amorphous material, often, but not always, derived
from a molten liquid.
• The term “amorphous” refers to materials that do not have a
regular, periodic arrangement of atoms.
• The fiber optics industry is founded on optical fibers based on
high purity silica glass.
• Glasses are also used in houses, cars, computer and television
screens, and hundreds of other applications.
• Glasses can be thermally treated (tempered) to make them
stronger.
• Forming glasses and nucleating (forming) small crystals
within them by a special thermal process creates materials that
are known as glass-ceramics.
• Zerodur™ is an example of a glass-ceramic material that is
used to make the mirror substrates for large telescopes (e.g.,
the Chandra and Hubble telescopes).
• Glasses and glass-ceramics are usually processed by melting
and casting
MATERIALS
MATERIALS

4. Polymers

• Polymers are typically organic materials.

• They are produced using a process known as polymerization.
• Polymeric materials include rubber (elastomers) and many types of
adhesives. Polymers typically are good electrical and thermal
insulators although there are exceptions such as the semiconducting
polymers.
• Although they have lower strength, polymers have a very good
strength-to-weight ratio.
• They are typically not suitable for use at high temperatures.
• Many polymers have very good resistance to corrosive chemicals.
 MATERIALS
4. Polymers

• Polymers have thousands of applications ranging from

bulletproof vests, compact disks (CDs), ropes, and liquid crystal
displays (LCDs) to clothes and coffee cups.
• Thermoplastic polymers, in which the long molecular chains are
not rigidly connected, have good ductility and formability;
• Thermosetting polymers are stronger but more brittle because
the molecular chains are tightly linked .
• Polymers are used in many applications, including electronic
devices.
• Thermoplastics are made by shaping their molten form.
Thermosets are typically cast into molds.
• Plastics contain additives that enhance the properties of
polymers.
 MATERIALS

5. Semiconductors

• Silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide-based semiconductors

such as those used in computers and electronics are part of a
broader class of materials known as electronic materials.
• The electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials is between
that of ceramic insulators and metallic conductors.
• In some semiconductors, the level of conductivity can be controlled
to enable electronic devices such as transistors, diodes, etc., that are
used to build integrated circuits.
• In many applications, we need large single crystals of
semiconductors. These are grown from molten materials.
• Often, thin films of semiconducting materials are also made using
specialized processes.
 6. Composite Materials MATERIALS
• The main idea in developing composites is to blend the properties of
different materials.
• These are formed from two or more materials, producing properties
not found in any single material.
• Concrete, plywood, and fiberglass are examples of composite
materials. Fiberglass is made by dispersing glass fibers in a polymer
matrix.
• The glass fibers make the polymer stiffer, without significantly
increasing its density.
• With composites, we can produce lightweight, strong, ductile,
temperature-resistant materials or we can produce hard, yet shock-
resistant, cutting tools that would otherwise shatter.
• Advanced aircraft and aerospace vehicles rely heavily on composites
such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymers.
• Sports equipment such as bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and the
like also make use of different kinds of composite materials that are
light and stiff.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Properties of Materials
1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Elasticity - Elastic Modulus (Depends on shape also)

• High E-High stiffness (Eg: Steel)
• Permanent deformation: strength not stiffness
• Yield strength: Easiness to bend (Steel ruler- not easy to deform,
Lead: easy to deform)
• Tensile strength: Material fails beyond this value
• Ductility: Stretching limit of material
Glass or PMMA: Fails without elongation: Brittle

• Toughness: Energy stored in material till failure

• Weight: Density,
• Reduction in weight is preferred for dynamic parts
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied
force is called stress.

2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The

modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after

deformation when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for
materials used in tools and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than
rubber.

4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under

load permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping
images on coins and in ornamental work.

5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The
ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice (in
order of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and
lead.
6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected
to tensile loads snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle
material.
7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential
to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in
order of diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and
aluminium.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads
like hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is
measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after
being stressed upto the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to
shock and impact loads.
9. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with
which a material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a
number of ways such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust
required to remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a
unit volume of the material. It may be noted that brass can be easily machined than
steel.
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and
impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within
elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This
property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below
the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as *fatigue. The
failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and
of microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods,
springs, gears, etc.
13. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another
metal.
The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of
making the test. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests:
(a) Brinell hardness test,
(b) Rockwell hardness test,
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
(d) Shore scleroscope.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 2. Thermal Properties

• The properties of a material change

with temperature, usually for the
worse.
• Its strength falls, it starts to ‘creep’
(to sag slowly over time), and it
may oxidize, degrade or
decompose.
• This means that there is a limiting
temperature called the maximum
service temperature, Tmax, above
which its use is impractical.
• Stainless steel has a high Tmax—it • Coefficient of thermal expansion.
can be used up to 800°C; • Thermal conductivity
• most polymers have a low Tmax • Thermal (Heat) Capacity
and are seldom used above 150°C
3. Electrical, Magnetic and Optical Properties

• Electrical Conductivity and Insulation:

Absence of these willlack the easy access
to light, heat, power, control and
communication.
• Resistivity: Inverse of electrical
Conductivity- required in fuses and switch
boxes.
• Magnets: Ferro magnets (Hard magnets:
not easy to demagnetize) are used in head
phones, motors and dynamos.
• Remanence: Measure of the intensity of
the retained magnetism.
• Soft magnet materials: Transformer cores:
Saturated magnetization
• Absorptivity, reflectivity and transparency
of light
 4.Chemical Properties

• Products often have to function in

hostile environments, exposed to
corrosive fluids, to hot gases or to
radiation.
• Damp air is corrosive, so is water; the
sweat of your hand is particularly
corrosive, and of course there are far
more aggressive environments than
these.
• If the product is to survive for its design
life it must be made of materials—or at
least coated with materials—that can
tolerate the surroundings in which they
operate.
• Figure illustrates some of the commonest of these:
fresh and salt water, acids and alkalis, organic
solvents, oxidizing flames and ultraviolet radiation.
• We regard the intrinsic resistance of a material to
each of these as material properties, measured on a
scale of 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good).
Steel

• It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to a

maximum of 1.5%.
• The carbon occurs in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability
to increase the hardness and strength of the steel.
• Other elements e.g. silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are
also present to greater or lesser amount to impart certain desired
properties to it.
• Most of the steel produced now-a-days is plain carbon steel or
simply carbon steel.
• A carbon steel is defined as a steel which has its properties mainly
due to its carbon content and does not contain more than 0.5% of
silicon and 1.5% of manganese.
The plain carbon steels varying from 0.06% carbon to 1.5% carbon are divided
into the following types depending upon the carbon content.

1. Dead mild steel — up to 0.15% carbon

2. Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
3. Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
4. High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon

According to Indian standard *[IS: 1762 (Part-I)–1974], a new system of

designating the steel is recommended. According to this standard, steels are
designated on the following two basis:

(a) On the basis of mechanical properties, and

(b) On the basis of chemical composition.,
The designation of steel on the above two basis

1. Steels Designated on the Basis of Mechanical Properties

These steels are carbon and low alloy steels where the main criterion in the
selection and inspection of steel is the tensile strength or yield stress.

According to Indian standard IS: 1570 (Part–I)- 1978 (Reaffirmed 1993),

these steels are designated by a symbol ‘Fe’ or ‘Fe E’ depending on whether
the steel has been specified on the basis of minimum tensile strength or yield
strength, followed by the figure indicating the minimum tensile strength or
yield stress in N/mm2.

For example ‘Fe 290’ means a steel having minimum tensile strength of 290
N/mm2 and ‘Fe E 220’ means a steel having yield strength of 220 N/mm2.
2. Steels Designated on the Basis of Chemical Composition

According to Indian standard, IS : 1570 (Part II/Sec I)-1979 (Reaffirmed 1991), the
carbon steels are designated in the following order :

(a) Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon content,
(b) Letter ‘C’, and
(c) Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese content. The
figure after multiplying shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.

For example

20C8 means a carbon steel containing 0.15 to 0.25 per cent (0.2 per cent on
average) carbon and 0.60 to 0.90 per cent (0.75 per cent rounded off to 0.8 per cent
on an average) manganese.
Effect of Impurities on Steel
The following are the effects of impurities like silicon, sulphur, manganese and
phosphorus on steel.
1. Silicon. The amount of silicon in the finished steel usually ranges from 0.05 to
0.30%. Silicon is added in low carbon steels to prevent them from becoming
porous. It removes the gases and oxides, prevent blow holes and thereby makes
the steel tougher and harder.
2. Sulphur. It occurs in steel either as iron sulphide or manganese sulphide. Iron
sulphide because of its low melting point produces red shortness, whereas
manganese sulphide does not affect so much. Therefore, manganese sulphide is less
objectionable in steel than iron sulphide.
3. Manganese. It serves as a valuable deoxidising and purifying agent in steel.
Manganese also combines with sulphur and thereby decreases the harmful effect of
this element remaining in the steel. When used in ordinary low carbon steels,
manganese makes the metal ductile and of good bending qualities. In high speed
steels, it is used to toughen the metal and to increase its critical temperature.
4. Phosphorus. It makes the steel brittle. It also produces cold shortness in steel. In
low carbon steels, it raises the yield point and improves the resistance to atmospheric
corrosion. The sum of carbon and phosphorus usually does not exceed 0.25%.