VARIABLE-FREQUENCY NETWORK

PERFORMANCE
LEARNING GOALS

Variable-Frequency Response Analysis

Network performance as function of frequency.
Transfer function

Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis

Bode plots to display frequency response data

Resonant Circuits
The resonance phenomenon and its characterization

Scaling
Impedance and frequency scaling

Filter Networks
Networks with frequency selective characteristics:
low-pass, high-pass, band-pass
 VARIABLE FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS

In AC steady state analysis the frequency is assumed constant (e.g., 60Hz).

Here we consider the frequency as a variable and examine how the performance
varies with the frequency.

Variation in impedance of basic components

Resistor Z R  R  R0
Inductor Z L  jL  L90
 1 1
Capacitor Zc     90
jC C
Frequency dependent behavior of series RLC network

( j ) 2 LC  jRC  1  j RC  j ( LC  1)
2
1
Z eq  R  jL    
jC jC j C

" Simplifica tion in notation" j  s

s 2 LC  sRC  1
Z eq ( s) 
sC
1  
LC  1 
2
(RC )  (1   LC )
2 2 2 Z eq  tan  
| Z eq |  RC 
C
 Simplified notation for basic components
1
Z R ( s)  R, Z L ( s)  sL, ZC 
sC
For all cases seen, and all cases to be studied, the impedance is of the form

am s m  am 1s m 1  ...  a1s  a0

Z ( s) 
bn s n  bn1s n1  ...  b1s  b0

Moreover, if the circuit elements (L,R,C, dependent sources) are real then the
expression for any voltage or current will also be a rational function in s

LEARNING EXAMPLE

R sRC
Vo ( s)  VS  2 VS
1 sL R  sL  1/ sC s LC  sRC  1
s  j
sC
R jRC
Vo  VS
( j ) LC  jRC  1
2

j (15  2.53  103 )

Vo  3 3
100
( j ) (0.1 2.53  10 )  j (15  2.53  10 )  1
2

MATLAB can be effectively used to compute frequency response characteristics

 USING MATLAB TO COMPUTE MAGNITUDE AND PHASE INFORMATION

am s m  am 1s m 1  ...  a1s  a0

Vo ( s) 
bn s n  bn1s n1  ...  b1s  b0

 num  [am , am 1 ,..., a1 , a0 ]; MATLAB commands required to display magnitude

 den  [bn , bn1 ,..., b1 , b0 ]; and phase as function of frequency

 freqs(num , den) NOTE: Instead of comma (,) one can use space to
separate numbers in the array

EXAMPLE a1

j (15  2.53  103 )

Vo 
( j ) 2 (0.1 2.53  103 )  j (15  2.53  103 )  1
b0
b1
b2 Missing coefficients must
» num=[15*2.53*1e-3,0]; be entered as zeros
» den=[0.1*2.53*1e-3,15*2.53*1e-3,1];
» freqs(num,den)

This sequence will also

» num=[15*2.53*1e-3 0];
work. Must be careful not
» den=[0.1*2.53*1e-3 15*2.53*1e-3 1];
to insert blanks elsewhere
» freqs(num,den)
 GRAPHIC OUTPUT PRODUCED BY MATLAB

Log-log
plot

Semi-log
plot
LEARNING EXAMPLE A possible stereo amplifier

Desired frequency characteristic

(flat between 50Hz and 15KHz)

Log frequency scale

Postulated amplifier
 Frequency Analysis of Amplifier

Rin
Vin ( s)  VS ( s )
Rin  1 / sC in

Vo ( s) Vin ( s ) Vo ( s )
G ( s)  
VS ( s) VS ( s ) Vin ( s )
1 / sC o
Vo ( s )  [1000Vin ] Voltage Gain
1 / sC o  Ro
Frequency domain equivalent circuit
 sC in Rin   1   s   40,000 
G ( s)   
[1000]1  sC R   s  100 [1000] s  40,000  required
1  sC in in 
R  o o  
C in Rin  1
 9
 3.18  10  10 
6 1
 100 (50 Hz )
Co Ro 1  79.58 109  100
1
 40,000 (20kHz )

s 40,000
100 | s | 40,000  G ( s )  [1000] actual
s 40,000

Frequency dependent behavior is

caused by reactive elements
NETWORK FUNCTIONS Some nomenclature

When voltages and currents are defined at different terminal pairs we

define the ratios as Transfer Functions
INPUT OUTPUT TRANSFER FUNCTION SYMBOL
Voltage Voltage Voltage Gain Gv(s)
Current Voltage Transimpedance Z(s)
Current Current Current Gain Gi(s)
Voltage Current Transadmittance Y(s)
If voltage and current are defined at the same terminals we define
Driving Point Impedance/Admittance
EXAMPLE

To compute the transfer functions one must solve

the circuit. Any valid technique is acceptable
I 2 ( s)  Transadmittance
YT ( s)  
V1 ( s)  Transfer admittance
V ( s)
Gv ( s )  2 Voltage gain
V1 ( s )
LEARNING EXAMPLE
sL
VOC ( s)  V1 ( s)
sL  R1
The textbook uses mesh analysis. We will
use Thevenin’s theorem
1 1 sLR1
ZTH ( s)   R1 || sL  
sC sC sL  R1
I 2 ( s)  Transadmittance s 2 LCR1  sL  R1
YT ( s)   ZTH ( s ) 
V1 ( s)  Transfer admittance sC ( sL  R1 )
V ( s)
Gv ( s )  2 Voltage gain
V1 ( s )
sL
V1 ( s )
VOC ( s) sL  R1 sC ( sL  R1 )
I 2 ( s)   
R2  ZTH ( s) s 2 LCR1  sL  R1 sC ( sL  R1 )
ZTH (s) R2 
sC ( sL  R1 )
 YT ( s)  2
s 2 LC
 I 2 ( s) s ( R1  R2 ) LC  s( L  R1R2C )  R1
 R2 V2 ( s )
VOC (s)  Vs ( s) R2 I 2 ( s)
Gv ( s)    R2YT ( s)
V1 ( s) V1 ( s)
POLES AND ZEROS (More nomenclature)

am s m  am 1s m 1  ...  a1s  a0 Arbitrary network function

H ( s) 
bn s n  bn1s n1  ...  b1s  b0
Using the roots, every (monic) polynomial can be expressed as a
product of first order terms

( s  z1 )( s  z2 )...( s  zm )
H ( s)  K 0
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn )

z1, z2 ,..., zm  zeros of the network function

p1, p2 ,..., pn  poles of the network function

The network function is uniquely determined by its poles and zeros

and its value at some other value of s (to compute the gain)

EXAMPLE ( s  1) s 1
H ( s)  K 0  K0 2
zeros : z1  1, ( s  2  j 2)( s  2  j 2) s  4s  8
poles : p1  2  j 2, p2  2  j 2 1 s 1
H (0)  K 0  1  H ( s)  8
H (0)  1 8 s 2  4s  8
LEARNING EXTENSION Find the driving point impedance at VS (s)

I (s)

VS ( s)
Z ( s) 
I ( s)

1
KVL : VS ( s)  Rin I ( s)  I ( s)
sC in

100 
 1 
1
Z ( s )  Rin  M
sC in  s 
Replace numerical values
LEARNING EXTENSION Find the pole and zero locations and the value of K o
Vo ( s )
for the voltage gain G ( s ) 
VS ( s )

( s  z1 )( s  z2 )...( s  zm ) Zeros = roots of numerator

H ( s)  K 0
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn ) Poles = roots of denominator

For this case the gain was shown to be

 sC in Rin   1   s   40,000 
G ( s)   
[1000]1  sC R   s  100 [1000] s  40,000 
1  sC in in 
R  o o  

zero : z1  0 Variable
poles : p1  50 Hz, p2  20,000 Hz Frequency
Response
K 0  (4  107 )
 SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

A0e j ( t  )   A0 H ( j )e j ( t  )
 H (s ) 
B0 cos( t   )  B0 | H ( j ) | cos t    H ( j ) 
Circuit represented by
network function

To study the behavior of a network as a function of the frequency we analyze

the network function H ( j ) as a function of .
Notation
M ( ) | H ( j ) |
 ( )  H ( j )
H ( j )  M ( )e j ( )
Plots of M ( ), ( ), as function of  are generally called
magnitude and phase characteristics.

20 log10 (M ( ))
BODE PLOTS vs log10 ( )
  ( )
HISTORY OF THE DECIBEL

Originated as a measure of relative (radio) power

P2
P2 |dB (over P1 )  10 log
P1

V2 V22 I 22
PI R2
 P2 |dB (over P1 )  10 log 2  10 log 2
R V1 I1

V |dB  20 log10 | V |
By extension I |dB  20 log10 | I |
G |dB  20 log10 | G |

Using log scales the frequency characteristics of network functions

have simple asymptotic behavior.
The asymptotes can be used as reasonable and efficient approximations
 General form of a network function showing basic terms

Poles/zeros at the origin

Frequency independent

K 0 ( j )  N (1  j1 )[1  2 3 ( j3 )  ( j3 )2 ]...

H ( j ) 
(1  ja )[1  2 b ( jb )  ( jb )2 ]...
log( AB )  log A  log B First order terms Quadratic terms for
N complex conjugate poles/zeros
log( )  log N  log D
D
| H ( j ) |dB  20 log10 | H ( j ) |  20 log10 K 0  N 20 log10 | j |
 20 log10 | 1  j1 | 20 log10 | 1  2 3 ( j3 )  ( j3 ) 2 | ...
 20 log10 | 1  ja | 20 log10 | 1  2 b ( jb )  ( jb ) 2 | ..
z1z2  z1  z2 H ( j )  0  N 90
z1 Display each basic term
  z1  z2 1 1 2  separately and add the
z2  tan   tan 3 3
 ...
1  (3 ) 2 results to obtain final
1

answer
2 bb
 tan 1 a  tan 1  ...
1  (b ) 2
Let’s examine each basic term
Constant Term

the x - axis is log10

this is a straight line

Poles/Zeros at the origin N | ( j )  N |dB   N  20 log10 ( )

( j ) 
 ( j )  N   N 90
 | 1  j |dB  20 log10 1  ( ) 2
Simple pole or zero 1  j 
 (1  j )  tan 1 
 1  | 1  j |dB  0 low frequency asymptote (1  j )  0

 1  | 1  j |dB  20 log10  high frequency asymptote (20dB/dec) (1  j )  90
The two asymptotes meet when   1(corner/break frequency)
Behavior in the neighborhood of the corner
distance to
FrequencyAsymptoteCurve asymptote Argument
corner   1 0dB 3dB 3 45
octave above   2 6dB 7db 1 63.4
octave below   0 .5 0dB 1dB 1 26.6

Asymptote for phase

High freq. asymptote

Low freq. Asym.
Simple zero

Simple pole
 Quadratic pole or zero t 2  [1  2 ( j )  ( j ) ]  [1  2 ( j )  ( )2 ]
2

2
| t 2 |dB  20 log10 1  ( ) 
2 2
 2 
2 t 2  tan 1
1  ( ) 2
  1 | t2 |dB  0 low frequency asymptote t2  0
  1 | t2 |dB  20 log10 ( )2 high freq. asymptote 40dB/dec t2  180
  1 | t2 |dB  20 log10 (2 ) Corner/break frequency t2  90
  1  2 2 | t2 |dB  20 log10 2 1   2 Resonance frequency 1  2 2 2
t 2  tan 1

 2
These graphs are inverted for a zero

Magnitude for quadratic pole Phase for quadratic pole

LEARNING EXAMPLE Generate magnitude and phase plots
10(0.1 j  1)
Draw asymptotes Gv ( j )  Breaks/corners : 1,10,50
for each term ( j  1)(0.02 j  1)
Draw composites

dB
40
20 10 |dB
20dB / dec
0
 20dB / dec
 20
90
45 / dec

 45 / dec
90
0.1 1 10 100 1000
asymptotes
LEARNING EXAMPLE Generate magnitude and phase plots
25( j  1)
Draw asymptotes for each Gv ( j )  Breaks (corners) : 1, 10
( j ) 2 (0.1 j  1)
Form composites

dB
40
28dB
20
0
 40dB / dec
 20

45 / dec
90

 45
90
180

 270
0.1 1 10 100
Final results . . . And an extra hint on poles at the origin

dB
 40 dB
dec  20
dec
dB
 40
K0 1 dec
 0     K 0 2
( j ) 2 dB
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic
104 ( j  2) breaks : 2, 10, 100
G ( j ) 
( j  10)( j  100) But the function is NOT in standard form
Put in standard form G ( j ) 
20( j / 2  1) We need to show about
( j / 10  1)( j / 100  1) 4 decades

dB
40
25 |dB
20
0
 20
90

90
1 10 100 1000
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic
100(0.02 j  1 It is in standard form
G ( j ) 
( j ) 2 break at 50
Double pole at the origin
dB
40
20
0
 20
90

90

 270
1 10 100 1000
Once each term is drawn we form the composites
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic
Put in standard form 10 j not in standard form
G ( j ) 
j ( j  1)( j  10) zero at the origin
G ( j ) 
( j  1)( j / 10  1) breaks : 1, 10
dB
40
20
0
 20dB / dec
 20 20dB / dec

90

90

 270
0.1 1 100
10
Once each term is drawn we form the composites
LEARNING EXAMPLE A function with complex conjugate poles
25 j
t 2  [1  2 ( j )  ( j )2 ] G ( j ) 

( j  0.5) ( j ) 2  4 j  100  2  1 / 25
    0.2
Put in standard form 0.5 j   0.1 
G ( j ) 

( j / 0.5  1) ( j / 10) 2  j / 25  1
Draw composite asymptote
dB
40
20
  1 | t2 |dB  20 log10 (2 )
0
8dB
 20
90

90
Behavior close to corner of conjugate pole/zero
is too dependent on damping ratio.
Computer evaluation is better
 270
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB Using default options
25 j
G ( j ) 

( j  0.5) ( j ) 2  4 j  100 
» num=[25,0]; %define numerator polynomial
» den=conv([1,0.5],[1,4,100]) %use CONV for polynomial multiplication
den =
1.0000 4.5000 102.0000 50.0000
» freqs(num,den)
Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB User controlled
25 j
G ( j ) 

( j  0.5) ( j ) 2  4 j  100 
>> clear all; close all %clear workspace and close any open figure
>> figure(1) %open one figure window (not STRICTLY necessary)
>> w=logspace(-1,3,200);%define x-axis, [10^{-1} - 10^3], 200pts total
>> G=25*j*w./((j*w+0.5).*((j*w).^2+4*j*w+100)); %compute transfer function
>> subplot(211) %divide figure in two. This is top part
>> semilogx(w,20*log10(abs(G))); %put magnitude here

>> grid %put a grid and give proper title and labels
>> ylabel('|G(j\omega)|(dB)'), title('Bode Plot: Magnitude response')
Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB User controlled Continued

Repeat for phase USE TO ZOOM IN A SPECIFIC REGION OF INTEREST

>> semilogx(w,unwrap(angle(G)*180/pi)) %unwrap avoids jumps from +180 to -180

>> grid, ylabel('Angle H(j\omega)(\circ)'), xlabel('\omega (rad/s)')
>> title('Bode Plot: Phase Response')

No xlabel here to avoid clutter

Compare with default!

LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic
  1 / 12
t 2  [1  2 ( j )  ( j ) ]
2 0.2( j  1)
G ( j )  2  1 / 36    1 / 6
j[( j / 12) 2  j / 36  1]
  1 | t2 |dB  20 log10 (2 )
 9.5dB
dB
40
20
 20dB / dec
0
 20 0dB / dec
90
 40dB / dec

90

12  270
0.1 1 100
10
 0.2( j  1)
G ( j ) 
j[( j / 12) 2  j / 36  1]
» num=0.2*[1,1];
» den=conv([1,0],[1/144,1/36,1]);
» freqs(num,den)
DETERMINING THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE BODE PLOT

This is the inverse problem of determining frequency characteristics.

We will use only the composite asymptotes plot of the magnitude to postulate
a transfer function. The slopes will provide information on the order
A. different from 0dB.
There is a constant Ko
A K 0 |dB
B K 0 |dB  20  K 0  10 20
C D
E B. Simple pole at 0.1
( j / 0.1  1)1
C. Simple zero at 0.5
( j / 0.5  1)
D. Simple pole at 3

( j / 3  1)1
E. Simple pole at 20

( j / 20  1)1
10( j / 0.5  1)
G ( j ) 
( j / 0.1  1)( j / 3  1)( j / 20  1)
If the slope is -40dB we assume double real pole. Unless we are given more data
 Determine a transfer function from the composite
LEARNING EXTENSION
magnitude asymptotes plot

A. Pole at the origin.

C Crosses 0dB line at 5
E
5
j
A
B. Zero at 5
D
B
C. Pole at 20

D. Zero at 50
E. Pole at 100

5( j / 5  1)( j / 50  1)
G ( j ) 
j ( j / 20  1)( j / 100  1)

Sinusoidal
RESONANT CIRCUITS - SERIES RESONANCE

 Im{ Z }  0


RESONANT FREQUENCY QUALITY FACTOR

PHASOR DIAGRAM
 RESONANT CIRCUITS
These are circuits with very special frequency characteristics…
And resonance is a very important physical phenomenon

Parallel RLC circuit

1
Y ( j )  G  jC 
jL
Series RLC circuit The reactance of each circuit is zero when
1 1 1
Z ( j )  R  jL  L   0 
jC C LC
The frequency at which the circuit becomes purely resistive is called
the resonance frequency
Properties of resonant circuits

At resonance the impedance/admittance is minimal

1 1
Z ( j )  R  jL  Y ( j )  G   jC
jC jL
1 2 1 2
| Z |2  R 2  (L  ) | Y |2  G 2  (C  )
C L

Current through the serial circuit/

voltage across the parallel circuit can
become very large (if resistance is small)
0 L 1
Quality Factor : Q  
R  0CR
Given the similarities between series and parallel resonant circuits,
we will focus on serial circuits
Properties of resonant circuits
At resonance the power factor is unity
V1
j
L

VR
 
I GV1 jCV1
VC   j
C
 
j L
 CIRCUIT BELOW RESONANCE ABOVE RESONANCE
SERIES CAPACITIVE INDUCTIVE
PARALLEL INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE

Phasor diagram for series circuit Phasor diagram for parallel circuit
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the resonant frequency, the voltage across each
element at resonance and the value of the quality factor

1
  0 L  50
 0C
I
1
VC  I   j 50  5  250  90
j 0C

0 L 50
Q   25
R 2

1 1
0  
3 6
 2000rad / sec At resonance
LC (25  10 H )(10  10 F )
At resonance Z  2 VS
| VL |  0 L  Q | VS |
V 100 R
I S   5A
Z 2 | VC | Q | VS |
0 L  (2 103 )(25 103 )  50
VL  j0 LI  j50  5  25090 (V )
LEARNING EXAMPLE Given L = 0.02H with a Q factor of 200, determine the capacitor
necessary to form a circuit resonant at 1000Hz

1 1
0   2  1000   C  1.27  F
LC 0.02C

What is the rating for the capacitor if the

circuit is tested with a 10V supply?

At resonance
VS
| VL |  0 L  Q | VS |
R
| VC | Q | VS | | VC | 2000V

0 L 2 1000  0.02
L with Q  200  200  R  1.59
R 200
10
I  6.28 A
1.59

The reactive power on the capacitor

exceeds 12kVA
LEARNING EXTENSION Find the value of C that will place the circuit in resonance
at 1800rad/sec

1 1 1
0  1800  C 
LC 0.1( H )  C 0.1 18002
C  3.86 F

Find the Q for the network and the magnitude of the voltage across the
capacitor

0 L 1800  0.1
Q Q  60
R 3

At resonance
VS
| VL |  0 L  Q | VS | | V | 600V
R C

| VC | Q | VS |
 1
Resonance for the series circuit M ( )  1/ 2
 2  0 2 
1 1  Q (  ) 
Z ( j )  R  jL     
jC 0

1 2 0
| Z |2  R 2  (L  ) BW 
C Q
Claim : The voltage gain is
V 1
Gv  R 
V1 1  jQ (    0 )
0 
R R
Gv   Half power frequencie s
R  jL 
1 Z ( j )
jC  0
At resonance :  ( )   tan 1 Q (  )
0 
1
 0 L  QR,  0C 
QR
 
Z ( j )  R  j QR  j 0 QR
0 
R    
Gv   R 1  jQ(  0 )
Z 0  
  1  1 
2 
M ( ) | Gv |,  ( ) | Gv  LO   0      1
 2Q  2Q  
 The Q factor 0 L 1
Q 
R 0CR
For series circuit : High Q  Low R
dissipates
For parallel circuit : High Q  High R (low G)

High Q  Small BW Stores as E

M field

Stores as M
field

Capacitor and inductor exchange stored

energy. When one is at maximum the
other is at zero
WS maximum energy stored
Q  2  2
WD energy dissipated by cycle
Q can also be interpreted from an 0 1 2 0
WD  RI eff
2
  RI mx 
energy point of view 2 2 2
1 2 1
W S  LI mx  CVmx
2
2 2
Ws L 0 Q
 
W D 2  R 2
 ENERGY TRANSFER IN RESONANT CIRCUITS

V
i (t )  m
cos  t[ A]
O
R

Normalization
factor
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the resonant frequency, quality factor and
bandwidth when R=2 and when R=0.2
1 0 L 1 0
0  Q  BW 
2 LC R 0CR Q
1
0   104 rad / sec
5 F (2  103 )(5  106 )

R Q R Q BW(rad/sec)
2mH 2 10 2 10 1000
0.2 100 0.2 100 100
10000 0.002
Q BW  10000 / Q
R
Evaluated with EXCEL
LEARNING EXTENSION A series RLC circuit as the following properties:
R  4,0  4000rad / sec, BW  100rad / sec
Determine the values of L,C.

1 0 L 1 0
0  Q  BW 
LC R 0CR Q

1. Given resonant frequency and bandwidth determine Q.

2. Given R, resonant frequency and Q determine L, C.
0 4000
Q   40
BW 100
QR 40  4
L   0.040 H
0 4000
1 1 1 6
C   2
 1.56  10 F
L 02  0 RQ 4  10  16  10 6
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find R, L, C so that the circuit operates as a band-pass filter
with center frequency of 1000rad/s and bandwidth of 100rad/s
R R
Gv  
R  jL 
1 Z ( j )
jC

1 0 L 1 0
0  Q  BW 
LC R 0CR Q
dependent
Strategy:
1. Determine Q
2. Use value of resonant frequency and Q to set up two equations in the three
unknowns
3. Assign a value to one of the unknowns

0 1000 For example C  1 F  106 F

Q   10
BW 100 L  1H
1 1
0   (103 ) 2 
LC LC R 100
0 L 1000 L
Q  10 
R R
PROPERTIES OF RESONANT CIRCUITS: VOLTAGE ACROSS CAPACITOR
At resonance
| V0 | Q | VR |
But this is NOT the maximum value for the
voltage across the capacitor

1
V0 jC 1
 
VS R  jL 
1 1   2
LC  jCR
jC
1 0 L
1 
2
0  Q   
V0
LC R 0CR u
0
; g
VS
1 2(1  u2 )(2u)  2(u / Q )(1 / Q )
g ( u)  dg
0 1
 2
   2

 
2(1 u )
2 2 u
2
du  2
 2
     
  u
1 u 2 Q
   
Q  1  u 2
   
  Q  
 max 1 1 Q2
umax   1 gmax   Q | VS |
0 2Q 2
1  1 1  1 1 | V0 |
4
 
 2
 4
 2 1 
1
4Q  Q 2Q  4Q
4Q 2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine 0 , max when R  50 and R  1

Natural frequency depends only on L, C.

50mH Resonant frequency depends on Q.

1 0 L 1
5 F 0  Q 
LC R 0CR
 max 1
umax   1
0 2Q 2
1 1
0  
2 6
 2000rad / s
LC (5  10 )(5  10 )
2000 0.050  max  2000  1  1
Q 2Q 2
R

R Q Wmax
50 2 1871
1 100 2000
Evaluated with EXCEL and rounded to zero decimals

Using MATLAB one can display the frequency response

 R=50
Low Q
Poor selectivity

R=1
High Q
Good selectivity
LEARNING EXAMPLE The Tacoma Narrows Bridge Opened: July 1, 1940
Collapsed: Nov 7, 1940

Likely cause: wind

varying at frequency
similar to bridge
natural frequency
0  2  0.2
 Tacoma Narrows Bridge Simulator Assume a low Q=2.39
31.66  F
20 H 9.5
(1V  1 ft )
Vinmx  42 1
At failure a 42mph wind caused 4' deflection.
For the model at resonance
v0 RB 4
 
vin RA  RB 42

3.77'

0.44’

1.07’
PARALLEL RLC RESONANT CIRCUITS

Impedance of series RLC Admittance of parallel RLC

1 1
Z ( j )  R  jL  Y ( j )  G   jC
jC Notice equivalenc es jL
1 2 R  G, L  C , C  L 1
| Z |2  R 2  (L  ) | Y |2  G 2  (C  ) 2
C Z  Y ,V  I L
Series RLC
1 0 L 1
I S  YVS 0  Q 
LC R 0CR
Parallel RLC

At resonance 1 0C 1
0  Q 
1 LC G 0 LG
 0C  Y G
IG  GVS 
G
IS 0 L 0
Y Series RLC BW 
IG  I S Q
jC 0
I C  jCVS  IS I  I Parallel RLC BW 
Y C L
Q
1  C
jL | I C | G | I S |  Q | I S |
0
1
IL  VS  IS
jL Y 1
| I L | |I |
 0 LG S
VARIATION OF IMPEDANCE AND PHASOR DIAGRAM – PARALLEL CIRCUIT
 LEARNING EXAMPLE If the source operates at the resonant frequency of the
network, compute all the branch currents

IG  0.011200  1.20( A)  I S
1 1
0  

 117.85rad / s
LC 0.120  (6  10 )4

VS  1200, G  0.01S IC  (190)  (117.85)  (600 106 ) 1200  8.4990( A)

C  600 F , L  120mH I L  8.49  90( A)

At resonance
I x  _______
1
G  0C  Y G
IG  GVS  IS 0 L
Y
IG  I S
jC
I C  jCVS  IS I  I
Y C L

1  0C
1 jL | I C | | IS |  Q | IS |
IL  VS  IS G
jL Y 1
| I L | |I |
 0 LG S
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Derive expressions for the resonant frequency, half power
frequencies, bandwidth and quality factor for the transfer
characteristic Vout
H
I in
2
G G  1
h      
2C  2C  LC
G
1 BW   HI   LO 
I V 1 YT  G  jC  C
Vout  in  H  out  jL
YT I in YT 0 1 C C
Q  R
BW G L L
1 1 Replace and show
| H | 
1 2
G  jC   1   0C 1
jL G    C2
  Q 
 L  G  0 LG
Resonant frequency :  0 
1 1  1  1 
2 
| H max |  R
LC G  LO   0      1
 2Q  2Q  
Half power frequencies | H ( j h ) |2  0.5 | H |2max
2
 1  1
G 2    hC    2G 2   hC   G
 h L   h L
LEARNING EXAMPLE Increasing selectivity by cascading low Q circuits

Single stage tuned amplifier

1 1
0    6.275  108 rad / s  99.9 MHz
LC 10 6

H 2.54  1012 F 
 1 C C
Q 0  R
BW G L L
2.54  1012
 250  6
 0.398
10
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine the resonant frequency, Q factor and bandwidth
R  2k, L  20mH , C  150 F

Parallel RLC
1 0C 1 
0  Q  BW  0
LC G 0 LG Q
1
0  3 6
 577 rad / s
(20  10 )(150  10 )
577  150  106
Q  173
1/ 2000
577
BW   3.33rad / s
173
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine L, C, 0

R  6k, BW  1000rad / s, Q  120

Parallel RLC
1 0C 1 
0  Q  BW  0
LC G 0 LG Q

0  Q  BW  120 1000  1.2 105 rad / s

Q 120
C   0.167  F
R 0 6000  1.2  105
R 6000
L   417  H
Q 0 120  1.2  105

Can be used to verify computations

 PRACTICAL RESONANT CIRCUIT The resistance of the inductor coils cannot be
neglected
I
V  ZI  . At resonance the voltage and impedance are maxima
Y
R 2   R L2    R L 2     2   L 2 
Z MAX   R1      R1   R   0  
R   R      0   R  
   
Z MAX  RQ02

1 R  jL
Y ( j )  jC   How do you define a quality factor for
R  jL R  jL this circuit?
R  jL
Y ( j )  jC 
R 2  (L) 2
R  L 
Y ( j )  2  j 
 C  
2
R  (L) 2
 R  (L) 
2

L
2
1  R
Y real  C  2  0     
R  (L)2
R
LC  L 
1  L 1
0  , Q0  0   R  0 1  2
LC R Q0
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine both 0 ,  R for R  50, 5

1  L 1
0  , Q0  0   R  0 1  2
LC R Q0

1
0  3 6
 2000rad / s
(50  10 H )(5  10 F )

2000  0.050 1
Q0  ,  R  2000 1  2
R Q0

R Q0 Wr(rad/s) f(Hz)
50 2 1732 275.7
5 20 1997 317.8
RESONANCE IN A MORE GENERAL VIEW

1 1
Z ( j )  R  jL  Y ( j )  G   jC
jC jL
1 2 1 2
| Z |2  R 2  (L  ) | Y |2  G 2  (C  )
C L
For series connection the impedance reaches maximum at resonance. For parallel
connection the impedance reaches maximum
jC jL
Ys  Zp 
( j ) 2 LC  jCR  1 ( j ) 2 LC  jLG  1
In Bode plots the quadratic term was written as
( j )2  2 j  1
1
  LC 
0
series parallel
1 1
2  CR  2   0CR  2  LG  2   0 LG 
Q Q Resonance
A high Q circuit is highly
1
Q
under damped 2
 SCALING
Scaling techniques are used to change an idealized network into a more
realistic one or to adjust the values of the components
Magnitude or impedance scaling Frequency or time scaling
R'  K M R ω'  K F ω
L'  K M L Impedance of each component is unchanged
C 1 1
C '  ' L'  L, 
KM  ' C ' C
R'  R
1 1
LC  L' C '   0   L
LC L' C ' L' 
 0 L  0 L' KF
Q  C
R R' C' 
KF
Magnitude scaling does not change the
frequency characteristics nor the quality  0'  K F  0
of the network.
0' L' Constant Q
Q'  Q networks
R'
0'
BW '   K F ( BW )
Q'
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the value of the elements and the characterisitcs
of the network if the circuit is magnitude scaled by 100 and
frequency scaled by 1,000,000

2
 0  2rad / s, Q  , BW  2
2
 1H
R'  R
R' '  200
1 L
F  2 L'  L' '  100mH
2 KF
1
C C '' F
C'  200
Magnitude or impedance scaling KF
R'  K M R  0'  K F  0 0''  1.414 106 rad / s
L'  K M L
0'
C '
C BW '   K F ( BW )
KM Q'
R'  200
L'  100 H
1 Q,0 are unchanged
C ' F
200
 An RLC network with R  10, L  1H, C  2F is magnitude
LEARNING EXTENSION
scaled by 100 and frequency scaled by 10,000. Determine
the resulting circuit elements
Magnitude or impedance scaling Frequency scaling
R'  K M R R'  R
R'  1000 R' '  1k
L'  K M L L
L'  100 H L'  L' '  0.01H
C KF
C ' C '  0.02 F C ' '  2 F
KM C
C 
'
KF

Scaling
 FILTER NETWORKS
Networks designed to have frequency selective behavior

COMMON FILTERS

High-pass filter
Low-pass filter

We focus first on
PASSIVE filters

Band-reject filter

Band-pass filter
Simple low-pass filter

1
V jC 1
Gv  0  
V1 R  1 1  jRC
jC
1
Gv  ;   RC
1  j

1
M ( ) | Gv |
1   2
Gv   ( )   tan 1 
 1 1 1
M max  1, M      BW 
  2 
1
   half power frequency

Simple high-pass filter

V0 R jCR
Gv   
V1 R  1 1  jCR
jC
j
Gv  ;   RC
1  j

M ( ) | Gv |
1   2
 1
Gv   ( )   tan 1   LO 
2 
 1 1
M max  1, M     
  2
1
   half power frequency

Simple band-pass filter

Band-pass
 ( R / L)   R / L2  4 20
V R  LO 
Gv  0  2
V1  1 
R  j  L  
C 
( R / L)   R / L2  4 20
  HI 
RC 2
M ( ) 
RC 2   2 LC  1
2 R
BW   HI   LO 
 1  L
M     1 M (  0)  M (  )  0
 LC 
1
0 
LC
1
M ( LO )   M ( HI )
2
Simple band-reject filter

1  1 
0   j0 L    0
LC   0 
C
at   0 the capacitor acts as open circuit  V0  V1

at    the inductor acts as open circuit  V0  V1

 LO ,  HI are determined as in the

band - pass filter
LEARNING EXAMPLE Depending on where the output is taken, this circuit
can produce low-pass, high-pass or band-pass or band-
reject filters

Band-reject filter

Band-pass

Bode plot for R  10, L  159H , C  159 F

VL jL
 VL
  0  0, VL (  )  1 High-pass
VS  1 
R  j  L   VS VS
 C 
1
jC VC
VC
   0  1, VC (  )  0 Low-pass
VS  1  VS VS
R  j  L  
 C 
LEARNING EXAMPLE A simple notch filter to eliminate 60Hz interference

vin (t )  sin 2  60t   0.2 sin 2 1000t 

L  70.3mH , C  100  F

1
jL L
jC C
ZR  
1 1
jL  j (L  )
jC C
Req
V0  Vin
Req  Z R

 1   1 
Z R      V0   0
 LC   LC 
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic of the Bode plot for Gv ( j )
1
jC 1
Gv ( j )  
R
1 1  jRC
jC

Break/corner frequency : 5rad/s

low frequency asymptote of 0dB/dec
  RC  (10 103 )(20 106 F )  0.2rad / s High frequency asymptote of - 20dB/dec
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic of the Bode plot for Gv ( j )

1
20dB/dec. Crosses 0dB at    2rad / s

R jRC
Gv ( j )  
R
1 1  jRC
jC
  RC  (25 103 )(20 106 F )  0.5rad / s Break/corner frequency : 2rad/s
low frequency asymptote of 0dB/dec
High frequency asymptote of - 20dB/dec
LEARNING EXTENSION Sketch the magnitude characteristic of the Bode plot for Gv ( j )
Band-pass 1
20dB/dec. Crosses 0dB at    1000rad / s
RC
R jRC
0 
1
 1000 Gv ( j )  
LC R
1
 jL 1  j RC  ( j  ) 2
LC
jC

Break/corner frequency : 1000 rad/s

 2  LC    106  103 ,
low frequency asymptote of 0dB/dec
6 103
2  RC  10  103
   0.5 High frequency asymptote of - 40dB/dec
2  103
 ( R / L)   R / L2  4 20  618rad / s
 LO 
2
( R / L)   R / L2  4 20  1618rad / s
 HI 
2

 40dB / dec
ACTIVE FILTERS

Passive filters have several limitations

1. Cannot generate gains greater than one

2. Loading effect makes them difficult to interconnect

3. Use of inductance makes them difficult to handle

Using operational amplifiers one can design all basic filters, and more,
with only resistors and capacitors

The linear models developed for operational amplifiers circuits are valid, in a
more general framework, if one replaces the resistors by impedances

These currents are

zero

Ideal Op-Amp
 Basic Inverting Amplifier

V1
I1  I  0
Z1

V  0

V  0

Infinite gain  V  V
Infinite input impedance  I -  I   0
V1 V2 Linear circuit equivalent
 0
Z1 Z 2
Z2
V2   V1
Z1
Z2
G
Z1
 Basic Non-inverting amplifier
I1  0 V1

I  0

V1

V0  V1 V1

Z2 Z1
Z 2  Z1
V0  V1
Z1
Basic Non-inverting Amplifier
Z2
G 1
Z1 Due to the internal op-amp circuitry, it has
limitations, e.g., for high frequency and/or
low voltage situations. The Operational
Transductance Amplifier (OTA) performs
well in those situations
Operational Transductance Amplifier (OTA)

Ideal OTA : Rin  R0  

COMPARISON BETWEEN OP-AMPS AND OTAs – PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION

Comparison of Op-Amp and OTA - Parameters

Amplifier Type Ideal Rin Ideal Ro Ideal Gain Input Current input Voltage
Op-Amp  0  0 0
OTA   gm 0 nonzero
 Basic Op-Amp Circuit Basic OTA Circuit
R0
v0 
RL
Av vin i0  gm v in
R0  RL R0  RL
Rin
vin 
Rin
VS vin  VS
RS  Rin RS  Rin

 RL   Rin  i0  R0   Rin 
v Gm   
v in  R0  RL   RS  Rin 
A 0  gm 
VS  R0  RL   RS  Rin 
Av

Ideal OTA
Ideal Op - Amp Gm  g m
A  Av  
Basic OTA Circuits

i0   gm vin (notice polarity)

i0  gm v1
iin  i0  0
1t
v0   i0 ( x )dx  v0 (0)
C0 Simulated Resistor
Integrator vin 1
 Req 
iin gm
gm t
v0 ( t ) 
C 0 v1 ( x )dx  v0 (0)

In the frequency domain

gm
V0  V1
jC
OTA APPLICATION

gm1 v1  gm2 v2
gm1v1

gm 2v2
Basic OTA Adder
1
v0  ( gm1 v1  gm2 v2 ) Simulated Resistor
gm 3

Equivalent representation
Programmability of gm

 S
gm1  20  I ABC
 A
Typical values
gm  10mS
gm range : 3 - 7 decades
10mS
(e. g., gm  )
107
Controlling transconductance
LEARNING EXAMPLE Produce a 25k resistor

gm  4mS
4mS
gm  4
 4  107 S
10
gm  20 I ABC

Simulated Resistor
vin 1
 Req 
iin gm

1
25 103   gm  4 105 S  4 107 S
gm

S
4 105 S  20  I ABC ( A)
 A

I ABC  2 106 A  2A

LEARNING EXAMPLE Floating simulated resistor

i0   gm vin
One grounded terminal

i01   gm1v1 i02  gm 2v1

i1  i01 i02  i1 Produce a 10M resistor
gm  4mS
For proper operation
4mS
gm1  gm 2 gm  4
 4  107 S
10
gm  20 I ABC
1 7
gm   10 S  4 107 S
10 10 6

The resistor cannot be produced

with this OTA!
LEARNING EXAMPLE Select gm1 , gm 2 , gm 3 , to produce gm  4mS
a) v0  10v1  2v2 4mS 7
gm   4  10 S
b) v0  10v1  2v2 10 4

gm  20 I ABC

Case b
Reverse polarity of v2!
1
v0  ( gm1 v1  gm2 v2 )
gm 3

Case a
gm1 g
 10; m 2  2
gm 3 gm 3
Two equations in three unknowns.
Select one transductance
1
gm 3  0.1mS  I ABC 3  104 ( A)  5A
20
gm 2  0.2mS  I ABC 2  10A
gm1  1mS  I ABC1  50A
ANALOG MULTIPLIER
Based on ‘modulating the control current

ASSUMES VG IS ZERO
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL

For simplicity of analysis

we drop the absolute value
v small  v  Av
IN O IN

A
v big  v 
IN O
B
OTA-C CIRCUITS
Circuits created using capacitors, simulated resistors, adders and integrators

resistor

Magnitude Bode plot

V0
Gv 
Vi1
integrator

Frequency domain analysis assuming

ideal OTAs
1
V0  IC IC  I 01  I02 gm 2
jC g C 
Adc  m1 C
I 01  gm1Vi1 I02   gm 2V0 gm 2
g
2 fC  m 2
V0 
1
gm1Vi1  gm 2V0  C
jC
gm1
gm 2
V0  Vi1
1  j C
gm 2
LEARNING EXAMPLE V 4 gm  1mS
Desired : Gv  0 
Vi1 1  j gm 
1mS
 106 S OK
2 (105 ) 10 3

gm  20 I ABC
Find the transductances and biases
gm1 gm 2
Adc  C 
gm 2 C
g
Adc  4 C  2 (105 )  fC  100kHz 2 fC  m 2
C
Two equations in three unknowns.
Select the capacitor value
15.7
C  25 pF gm 2  2 (10 )(25 10
5 12 6
)  15.7 10 S I ABC 2   0.785A
20

gm1  62.8S  I ABC1  3.14A

 TOW-THOMAS OTA-C BIQUAD FILTER biquad ~ biquadratic
V0 A( j ) 2  B ( j )  C

Vi ( j ) 2   0 ( j )   2
i03 Q
0

1
V02  ( I 02  I 03 )
jC 2
Vi1  V02
V01  gm1
jC I02  gm 2 (V01  Vi 2 ) I03  gm3 (Vi 3  Vo2 )
Four equations and four unknowns (V01, V02 , I01, I02 )
 jC 2 gm 3   gm 3   jC1   jC1 gm 3 
 g  V  V   Vi 3  
i1 i2 Vi1  V  Vi 3
V01   m2 gm 2   gm 2 
 gm1 
i2
 gm1 gm 2 
 C1C 2  V 
2  gm 3C1   C1C 2  2  gm 3C1 
02
 g g  ( j )  g g  ( j  )  1 g g  ( j  )  g g  ( j )  1
 m1 m 2   m 2 m1   m1 m 2   m 2 m1 
g g  g g g C2  gm
0  m1 m 2 , 0  m 3 , Q  m12 m 2 
 0 
C
C1C2 Q C2 gm 3 C1
gm1  gm 2   Q  gm
Filter Type A B C  
Low-pass 0 0 nonzero C1  C 2  
gm 3
Band-pass 0 nonzero 0  BW  gm 3
High-pass nonzero 0 0
 C
LEARNING EXAMPLE Design a band - pass filter with center frequency of 500kHz,
bandwidth of 75kHz, and center frequency gain - 5.
Use the Tow - Thomas configurat ion and 50 - pF capacitors C1  C2
gm  4mS
4mS
gm  4
 4  107 S
10
gm  20 I ABC

Vi 3  0
BW
gm1 gm 2 0 gm 3 gm1 gm 2 C2  jC1   jC1 gm 3 
0  ,  ,Q Vi1   
 i 2  g g Vi 3
V
C1C2 Q C2 gm2 3 C1 V02   m1 
g  m1 m 2 
 C1C 2  2  gm 3C1 
g g  ( j  )  g g  ( j )  1
gm 3  m1 m 2   m 2 m1 
BW  12
 2  75 103  23.56S
50 10  C1C2 
g   0  1    ( j )2  0
| Gv ( j 0 ) | m 2  5  gm 2  117.8S  gm1 gm 2 
gm 3
I ABC1  10.47 A
gm1  117.8  106
0 2  2  5 10 
5 2
  gm1  209.5S I ABC 2  5.89 A
(5  1013 ) 2
I ABC 3  1.18A
Bode plots for resulting amplifier
LEARNING BY APPLICATION Using a low-pass filter to reduce 60Hz ripple

Using a capacitor to create a low-

pass filter
1
VOF  VTH 1
1  jRTH C C 
| VTH | RTH C
| VOF |
1  RTH C 2
Design criterion: place the corner frequency
at least a decade lower
| VOF | 0.1 | VTH |
1
500C   C  53.05 F
Thevenin equivalent for AC/DC 2  6
converter
Filtered output
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Single stage tuned transistor amplifier
Select the capacitor for maximum
gain at 91.1MHz

Antenna Transistor Parallel resonant circuit

Voltage
V0
V0

4 
R || jL || 1  Magnitude Bode plot for
jC  VA
VA 1000 
4 1 j / C
 
1000 1  1  jC j / C
R j L
V0 4 j / C

VA 1000 ( j ) 2  j  1
RC LC
Band - pass with center frequency 1 / LC
 
2 91.1 106 
1
6
 C  3.05 pF
10 C
V0  1  4
   R  100
VA  LC  1000
LEARNING BY DESIGN Anti-aliasing filter

Nyquist Criterion
When digitizing an analog signal, such as music, any frequency components
greater than half the sampling rate will be distorted
In fact they may appear as spurious components. The phenomenon is known as
aliasing.
SOLUTION: Filter the signal before digitizing, and remove all components higher
than half the sampling rate. Such a filter is an anti-aliasing filter

For CD recording the industry standard is to sample at 44.1kHz.

An anti-aliasing filter will be a low-pass with cutoff frequency of 22.05kHz

Single-pole low-pass filter

Resulting magnitude Bode plot

V01 1

Vin 1  jRC
Attenuation
in audio range
1
C   2  22,050
RC
C  1nF  R  72.18k
Improved anti-aliasing filter Two-stage buffered filter

n - stage

V0 n 1
v01 
Vin 1  jRC n


V01 1 V02 1 Four-stage

 
Vin 1  jRC V01 1  jRC

Two-stage

One-stage
 LEARNING BY DESIGN Notch filter to eliminate 60Hz hum

Notch filter characteristic

Magnitude Bode plot

Vamp Ramp

Vtape Ramp  Rtape  sL || 1/ sC  C  10 F
  L  0.704mH
 
Vamp Ramp  s 2
LC  1 

Vtape Ramp  Rtape  2  L  
 s LC  s   1
 
  Ramp  Rtape  
1 To design, pick one, e.g., C and determine the other
notch frequency 
LC
DESIGN EXAMPLE ANTI ALIASING FILTER FOR MIXED MODE CIRCUITS

Signals of different
frequency and the same
samples

Visualization of aliasing
Ideally one wants to eliminate frequency components
higher than twice the sampling frequency and make
sure that all useful frequencies as properly sampled
Design specification

Simplifying assumption

Infinite input resistance (no load on RC circuit)

Design equation

 R  15.9k
DESIGN EXAMPLE “BASS-BOOST” AMPLIFIER
DESIRED BODE PLOT
(non-inverting op-amp)

500
f 
P
2

OPEN SWITCH

(6dB)

Switch closed??
DESIGN EXAMPLE TREBLE BOOST
Original player response Desired boost

Design equations

Proposed boost circuit

Non-inverting amplifier Filters