CE-20

STUCTURAL
DESIGN 1
 INTRODUCTION
1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Structural Design may be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining experienced engineer’s intuitive feeling
for the behavior of the structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials
and structural analysis, to produce a safe economical structure that will serve its intended purpose.( Salmon, 1996)

Design is a process by which optimum solution is obtained. In any design certain criteria must be established to
evaluate whether or not an optimum has been achieved. For a structure typical criteria may be:
a) mininum cost
b) minimum weight
c) minimum construction time
d) minimum labor
e) minimum cost of manufacture of owner’s products
f) maximum efficiency of operation to owner

1.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE

The design procedure may be considered to be composed of two parts – functional design and structral framework
design. Functional design ensures that intended results are achieved, such as:
a) adequate working areas and clearances
b) proper ventilation and or air conditioning
c) adequate transportation facilities
d) adequate lighting
e) aesthetics
 INTRODUCTION
The structural framework design is the selection of arrangement and sizes of structural elements so that service loads
may be safely carried and displacements are within acceptable levels. The iterative design procedures may be
outlined as follows:

1. Planning. Establishment of functions for which the structure must serve. Set criteria against which to measure the
resulting design for being an optimum.
2. Preliminary structural configuration. Arrangement of the elements to serve the function in step 1.
3. Establishment of loads to be carried.
4. Preliminary member selection. Bases on the desicions of steps 1, 2, and 3 selection of member sizes to satisfy an
objective criterion, such as least weight or cost.
5. Analysis. Structural analysis involving modeling the loads and structural framework to obtain internal forces and
any desired deflections.
6. Evaluation. Are all strength and serviceability requirements satisfied and is the result optimum? Compare the
results witg predetermined criteria
7. Redesign. Repetitionof any part of the sequence 1 through 6 found necessary or desirable.
8. Final decision. The determination whether or not an optimum design has been achieved.

1.3 STEEL STRUCTURES

The material steel as we know it today is a relatively modern human creation. Steels used in construction are generally
carbon steels, alloys of iron and carbon. The carbon content is ordinarily 1% by weight. The chemical composition of
the steel is varied, according to the propertise desired, such as strength and corrosion resistance, by the addition of
other alloying elements, such as silicon, manganese, copper, nickel, chromium and vanadium, in very small amounts.
When steel contains a significant amount of any of such alloying elements, it is referred to as an alloy steel. Steel is
not a renewable resource, but can be recycled, and its primary component, iron, is plentiful.
 INTRODUCTION
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Steel is comparable to other structural materials such as timber and reinforced concrete. It offers the builder the
answer to almost all structural problems particularly where the ratio of the strength to weight must be kept high.
Among the advantages of steel as structural material are as follows:
∙ High Strength
- high strength of steel per unit of weight means dead load will be samll (of great importance for long-span
bridges, tall buildings, and for structures having poor foundation conditions)
∙ Uniformity
- Properties of steel do not change appreciably with time as do those reinforced-concrete structures
∙ Elasticity
- Steel behaves closer to design assumptions than most materials because it follows Hooke’s Lawup to fairly high
stresses.
∙ Permanence
- steel frames that are properly maintained will last indefinitely
- research on some of the newer steel indicates that under certain conditions no painting maintenance
whatsoever will be reuired
∙ Ductility
- Property of the material by which it can withstand extensive deformation without failure under tensile stresses
- The ductile nature of the usual structural steels enables them to yield locally at those points, thus premature
failures
∙ Additions to Existing Structures
- Steel structures are quite well suited to having additions made to them
- new bays or even new wings can be added to existing steel frame buildings, and steel bridges may often be
widened
 INTRODUCTION
∙ Other Advantages
○ Ability to be fastened together by several simple connection devices including welds, bolts and rivets
○ Adaptation to prefabrication
○ Speed of erection
○ Ability to be rolled into wide variety of sizes and shapes
○ Toughness and fatigue strength
○ Possible reuse after the structure is disassembled
○ Scrap value even though not reusable in its existing form

1.5 DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

To use steel successfully the designer must be completely familiar not only with the strong points but also with the
weaknesses of the material.
∙ Maintenance Costs
- steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and water and must therefore be periodically
painted
∙ Fireproofing Costs
- structural members are incombustible but their strength is tremendously reduced at temperatures commonly
reached in fires
- steels are excellent conductor
- steel frame of a building must be fireproofed for th e building to have an appreciable fire rating
∙ Susceptibility to Buckling
- the longer the and slender the compression members, the greater the danger of buckling
∙ Fatigue
- undesirable prperty of steel is that its strength may be reduced if it is subjected to a large number of stress
reversals or even to a large number of variation of stress of the same character
 INTRODUCTION
1.6 STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

Knowledge of the various properties of steel is a requirement if one is to make intelligent choices and decisions in the section of
particular members.

Modulus of Elasticity (E)

Ranges from 193 – 200 Gpa
Usually used value = 200Gpa
Shear Modulus (G)
where:
G = E / [2(1+µ)]
µ = Poisson’s ratio equal to 0.30 for steel
for µ = 0.30, G = 77Gpa

Coefficient of Expansion (α)

α = 11.25 x10-4 / ⁰C
Mass Density and Specific Gravity
Ρs = 7.85 tons/m3
s.g. = 7.85

Yield Point(Fy), Ultimate Strength, Fu

Stress at which there is decided increase in the elongation or strain without a corresponding increase in stress
Values depends on
1.7 DESIGN CODES AND SPECIFICATION FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

Structural steel is a manufactured product and is available in various grades, sizes and shapes. The use of standard handbooks,
design codes and specifications is absolutely essential to anyone working in any phase of steel construction.

NSCP – National Structural Code of the Philippines

AISC – American Institute of Steel Construction
ASDM – Allowable Stress Design Manual for Steel Construction
AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
AREA – American Railway Engineering Association
AWS – American Welding Society
ASTM – American Society for Testing of Materials
• 1.8 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Two design philosophies are in current use: the working stress design (referred to by AISC as Allowable Stress Design) and limit state
design (referred to by AISC as Load and Resistance Factor Design).

• Working Stress Design

 Allowable stress design method
 Elastic design method
 The designer estimates the “working loads” or loads that the structure may feasibly have to support, and proportions the
members on the basis of certain allowable stress(usually some fraction of the specified minimum yield point of the steel, Fy)
 Fb = Mc/I ≤ Fb = Fy/Fs or Fu/Fs

• Limit State Design

 Plastic Design
 Utilized the design of rigid frames and continuous beams
 Members are designed on the basis of the so called “ collapse mechanisms”
 Limit design / collapse design

 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

 The primary objective is to consider each items that affects the design of the structure rather than combining several
effects together
 INTRODUCTION
1.9 COMMON STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES

The function of the structure is the principal factor determining the structural configuration. Using the structural configuration along
with the design loads, individual components are selected to properly support and transmit loads throughout the structure. Steel
members are selected from among the standard rolled shapes adopted by AISC and ASTM.
W Shapes
American wide flange I or H shape steel beams
e.g. W460 x 95 standards for;
d = 460mm(nominal depth); mass = 95kg/m
Consists of two rectangular-shaped flanges connected by rectangular web plate
Symmetrical about the x (stronger) and y axes
S-Shapes
formerly called I-beams and American Standard Beams
Difference between W and S Shapes
The flange width of S-Shapes is narrower than the W-shapes
The inner face of the flange of the S-Shape has a slope of 16.7⁰
The theoretical depth of the S-Shapes is the same as its normal depth, e.g. S 310 x74 is an I-beam with nominal depth of
310mm and mass of 74kg/m.
M- Shapes(also called the HP Shapes)
shapes which are doubly symmetrical which are not classified as W or S-shapes.
C – Shapes
channel shapes(American Standard Channels)
Properties:
Inner face of the flange has the same slope as S-Shapes
Example: C 230 x 22 means a C Shape with nominal depth of 230mm and a mass of 22 kg/m
 INTRODUCTION
 MC – Shapes
 formerly called ship building or miscellaneous channels

 L – Shapes
 either equal or unequal leg angles
 all angles have parallel flange faces
 e.g. L 76 x 64 x 12.7 - unequal leg angle with dimensions of 76mm x 64mm leg thickness of 12mm

 T – Shapes
 Structural shapes obtained by splitting W, S, or M shapes, such that each split section has one-half the area of the original shape
 Commonly used for chord members in a truss
 e.g. WT 230 x 47.5 is a structural tee with 230mm nominal depth and mass of 47.5 kg/m obtained by splitting the W 460 x 95
shape.

 Pipe Section
 Designated “standard”, “extra strong” and “double extra strong” in accordance with the thickness and are also nominally
prescribed by diameter.

 Structural Tubing
 used where pleasing architectural appearance is desired with exposed steel. Tubing is usually designated by outside dimension
and thickness (e.g. 8 x 6 x 1/4)
INTRODUCTION