Potential difference (V)

•   Difference in the potential .

• Battery is used to produce potential difference .

• To create potential difference ,battery is doing some work.

• The chemical energy stored in battery is used to do this work.
• Potential difference is the amount of work done to move a
unit.
• positive charge from one point to another.
V= =
•  V = = Work(electrical energy)
=V Q

• Substituting Q=It

•V = =
Work(electrical
energy) = V I t
 Unit of potential difference
•  Potential difference V = =
= = volt (V)
Define one volt?
V =
1volt =

When work =1 joule and charge =1C then Potential

difference =one volt.
When one joule of work is done to move one coulomb of
charge from one point to another in a current carrying
conductor ,then potential difference between the two points
is said to be one volt.
The potential difference is measured
by an instrument called voltmeter
•  Questions from textbook
• 1. Name the device that helps to maintain potential
difference across the conductor.
• Ans :Battery
• 2. What is meant by saying that potential difference between
two points is one volt?
• Ans: Definition of one volt
• How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge
passing through a battery?
• Ans :Potential difference =
• =work(energy)=
Potential difference X charge
• = 6V X 1C = 6 joules
• A current of 0.5A is drawn by a filament of electric bulb for
10s ,which maintain potential difference of 6V. Find the
amount of work done ?

• Work(electrical energy) = V I t
= 6 x 0.5 x 10 =30 joules
Circuit components
N Current (I) Potential difference (v)

1 1 10 10
-------
2 2 20
----------
3 3 30
----------
4 4 40

=constant
 Ohm`s law
• Gives
  the relationship between potential difference and
current
• At constant temperature the potential difference( V) across
the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to current ( I ) flowing through it
V ∝ I
V= constant x I
• = constant
• constant=Resistance (R)
• = R
•
• V=IR
Slope of V I graph gives resistance

•
• slope =

  slope
  =

=
= =R

=
R1>R2 T1>T2
Resistance
• Obstruction (blocking ) in the flow of
current.
• The property of a conductor to resist
the flow of charges.
• The SI unit of resistance is ohm - Ω
• Let the resistance of electrical component
remains constant while the potential
difference across the two ends of the
component decreases to half of its former
values What changes will occur in the
current through it?
V ∝ I
V=I R

when V become V/2 ,I become I/2

Factors affecting Resistance

1. Area :Inversely proportional to resistance

2. Length: directly proportional to resistance
3. Temperature: directly proportional to
resistance
4. Nature of substances:
Conductor <semiconductor <
insulator
 More
Blocks

Less block
••  
R∝L,R∝
• R∝

R =ρ

• ρ is called resistivity
conductivity

conductance
Resistivity
•A
  measure of the resisting power of a specified material to
the flow of an electric current.
•R = ρ

ρ=R when A=1m2 and L=1m ;

then ρ = R
• It is defined as resistance offered by the cube of material of
side 1m when current flows perpendicular to its opposite
faces.
Unit of resistance and resistivity
•  R= = =ohm= Ω

• ρ=R = ohm x = ohm x m = ohm. m = Ω m

• Assertion : Bending of a wire does not affect electrical resistance.
• Reason : Resistnce and resistivity do not depend upon geometry of
wire.

A)            Both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the
correct
explanation of the assertion.
B)             Both assertion and reason are true but reason is not
the correct
explanation of the assertion.
C)             Assertion is true but reason is false.
D)             Assertion and reason both are false.
E)             Assertion is false but reason is true.
• Assertion : The resistivity of a conductor increases with
temperature.
• Reason                 :   The atoms of a conductor vibrate with larger amplitude
• at higher temperatures thereby increasing
resistivity                                         
A)             Both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct
explanation of the assertion.
B)             Both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.
C)             Assertion is true but reason is false.
D)             Assertion and reason both are false.
E)             Assertion is false but reason is true.
 Resistivity
• Does not change with length and area of cross section but
increases with increase in temperature .
• Range of resistivity of metals and alloys is 10-8 Ωm to 10-6 Ω
m
• Range of resistivity of insulators is 1012 Ωm to 1017 Ωm
• Range of resistivity of alloys are higher than that of
constituent metals
• Alloys do not oxidize readily at high temperature .So they
are commonly used in electrical heating appliances.
• Copper and aluminium are used for electrical transmission
lines as they have low resistivity
• Assertion : A conductor has +3.2 x 10-19 C of charge
• Reason : Conductor has gained two electrons

A)            Both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the
correct explanation of the assertion.
B)             Both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the
correct explanation of the assertion.
C)             Assertion is true but reason is false.
D)             Assertion and reason both are false.
E)             Assertion is false but reason is true.
• Assertion :Resistance and resistivity of a given
conductor increases
• with temperature.
• Reason : Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity.
A)            Both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the
correct explanation of the assertion.
B)             Both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the
correct explanation of the assertion.
C)             Assertion is true but reason is false.
D)             Assertion and reason both are false.
E)             Assertion is false but reason is true.
Textbook Exercise
On what factors does the resistance of conductor
depend?
The resistance of a conductor depends upon the
following factors:
(a) Material of the conductor, i.e., resistivity of
the material.
(b) Temperature of the conductor
(c) Length of the conductor
(d) Cross-sectional area of the conductor
Will the current flow more easily through thick
wire or thin wire of the same material, when
connected to the same source? Why?
• 
• Resistance of a wire is given by the relation, R =
ρ
• Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of
cross-section of the wire.
• Thicker the wire, larger is its area of cross-
section and hence lower is the resistance of the
wire. Therefore, current can flow more easily
through a thick wire than a thin wire.
Why are the coils of electric toasters and electric
iron made of an alloy rather than pure metal?
• Resistivity and melting point are two important factors here.

• The resistivity of an alloy is higher than the pure metal.

Moreover, at high temperatures, the alloys do not melt
readily(high melting point)
• At high temperature resistance and resistivity increases.
• Heat produced is directly proportional to resistance of coil
through which current passes.
• Hence, the coils of heating appliances such as electric toasters
and electric irons are made of an alloy rather than a pure metal.
Which is the better conductor 1.
iron
2. mercury?
•  Less resistivity means better conductance.

• Resistivity of iron = 10.0 x 10-8 ohm m

• Resistivity of mercury = 94.0 x 10-8 ohm m
• Resistivity of mercury is more than that of iron. This implies
that iron is a better conductor than mercury.

•  (b) It can be observed from the table that the resistivity of

silver is the lowest among the listed materials. Hence, it is
the best conductor.
Which material is the best
conductor

• The resistivity of silver is the lowest. Hence, it is the

best conductor.
Compare resistance and resistivity
of three conductors?(2018)
• L 3L L/3
A/3
A

3A
•First
  conductor
• R1 = ρ
Second conductor
R2 = ρ = 9 x ρ = 9 x R1
Third conductor
R3 = ρ = xρ = x R1
R2 >R1 > R3
All are made up of same material .So resistivity is
constant .

ρ1= ρ2 = ρ3
 Textbook exercise 6
• A copper wire has resistivity 1.6x10-8Ω m and diameter
0.5mm. What will be the length of wire to make the
resistance 10Ω.How much does the resistance change if
diameter is doubled?
• Diameter =0.5mm = 0.0005m Resistivity (ρ )
=1.6x10-8Ω m
• Radius = 0.0005/2 R=10 Ω
•
• 
If the diameter of the wire is doubled,
New diameter = 2 × 0.5 = 1mm = 0.001m= 10-3 m
Radius = x 10-3 m

Let new resistance be Rʹ

•  When a 12v battery is connected across an unknown
resistor , there is a current of 2.5 mA in the circuit . find
the value of resistance of the resistor?
• V=12V
• I = 2.5 m A = 2.5 × 10-3 = 25× 10-4
•R =?
•R =
•R = =4800
•
• Therefore, R = 4800 ohm
How much current will an electric heater coil draw
from 220V source ,if the resistance of the heater is
100 ohm?
• 
• V=220V
• R=100Ω

• I =
•
• = = 2.2 A
The potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater
is 60 V when it draws a current of 4 A from the source. What current
will the heater draw if the potential difference is increased to 120 V?

• 
• potential difference V = 60 V
current I = 4 A

• According to Ohm’s law, R = = = 15 Ω

• When the potential difference is increased to 120 V

• The current is given by current I = = = 8A

Resistance of a metal wire of length 1 m is 26 Ω at 20°C. If the
diameter of the wire is 0.3 mm, what will be the resistivity of the metal
at that temperature? Using Table 12.2, predict the material of the wire.

•• Resistance
  of the wire = 26 Ω
• The diameter d = 0.3 mm = 3 × 10-4 m; Radius of wire r = =
1.5 x 10-4 m
• Length l of the wire = 1 m. R =ρ

ρ=R

ρ = 26 x

= 1.84 x 10-6Ωm

From Table 12.2, we see that this is the resistivity of manganese

A wire of given material having length l and area of cross-section A
has a resistance of 4 Ω. What would be the resistance of another wire
of the same material having length l/2 and area of cross-section 2A?
• 
• For first wire R1 = ρ = 4Ω

• Now for second wire R2 = ρ x = ρx = x ρ

•
= x 4 [ρ = 4Ω]

= 1Ω
• The resistance of the new wire is 1Ω.
The values of current I flowing in a given resistor
for the corresponding values of potential
difference V across the resistor are given below -
Plot a graph between V and I and calculate the resistance
of that resistor

I(amperes) 0.5 1 2 3 4

V(volts) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2

Resistors
• In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce
current flow.
Combination of resistors
• Resistors can be joined together in two different ways
• Parallel combination .
• Series combination .
Can you ??
 Voltmeter and ammeter

• Voltmeters and ammeters are used to measure voltage and

current, respectively. In a circuit
• Voltmeter is connected in parallel.
• Ammeter is connected in series.
Series combination: End to end combination
of resistors is called series combination.
Parallel combination of resistors :resistors
are connected parallel to each other.
Series
1. One pathway for current
2. Current will be same across
each resistors in the circuit.
3. Voltage will be different.
4. Resistance adds
up(increases)
5. If one component in the
circuits fuses, others will not
work.
6. Brightness decreases
Parallel
1. More pathways for
current
2. Voltage will be same
across each resistors in
the circuit.
3. Current will be different.
4. Resistance decreases.
5. If one component in the
circuits fuses, others will
continue to work.
6. Brightness increases
Parallel combination of resistors: effective
resistance •  I= I1 + I2 + I3
Let I1 , I2 , I3 be the current
flowing through the • I= [ohms
resistors having the law ]
resistances R1,R2,R3 • I1 = ; I2 = ;
The total current I3 =
.
•
•I = I1 + I 2 + I3
• = + +

• = V( + + )

• + +
Series combination: End to end combination
of resistors is called series combination.
Effective resistance in series combination
• In series combination, Let V1 , V2 , V3 be the potential
resister are connected end differences across the resistors
to end and current has a having the resistances R1,R2,R3
single path through the .The total potential difference
circuit but the potential V = V1 + V2 + V3
difference varies across • According to Ohm's law
each resistor. Thus we can • V = IR
write as,
• So,  V1 = I R1
• V2 = I R2
• V3 = I R3
• IR = I R1 + I R2 + I R3
• IR = I(R1+R2+R3 )
• R = (R1+R2+R3 )
1. Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of three cells of 2 V each,
a 5Ω resister, an 8Ω resistor and a 12Ω resistor and a plug key, all connected in series.
Redraw the circuit of Question 1, putting in an ammeter to measure the current through the resistors
and a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across the 12 Ω resistor. What would be the
readings in the ammeter and the voltmeter?
• 
We know V = IR.

 The potential difference V = 6V

 
Resistance of circuit is   R = 12 + 5 + 8 = 25 Ω. 

Again I = = = 0.24 A
 
Let the potential difference across 12 Ω [R3 ] resistor = V3
Current flowing =
0.24 A

Following Ohm’s law, we get V3 = IR3 = 0.24 x 12 = 2.88 volts. 

The value of mA and μA are…..
• Find effective resistance ?
A cylindrical conductor of length 'l' and uniform area of
cross section 'A‘ has resistance 'R' .Another conductor of
length 2.5 l and resistance 0.5R of the same material has
area of cross section….
•  •  = ×
• R1 = ρ1

R2 = ρ2 = x

ρ1 = ρ2 (same material ) 2 = x

A2 = 5A
• An electric lamp whose resistance is 20 Ω and
conductor of 4Ω resistance are connected to a battery
of 6 volt calculate total resistance current through
circuit potential difference across the electric lamp of a
conductor is circuit connected in series
• The
  total resistance of the circuit = 20Ω + 4Ω =24 Ω
 
• The current through the circuit = current through the bulb =
current through the conductor.
•
The current through the circuit  I == (6/24) = 0.25 A

• The potential difference across the electric lamp and the

conductor.

The potential difference across the electric lamp V=IR

= 0.25 ×20
= 5 volt

The potential difference across the conductor = 0.25 × 4 = 1volt

A wire of resistance 5 ohm is bend in the form of closed circle. What is
the resistance between 2 points at the ends of any diameter of the
circle?

• 
• The diametrically opposite points divides the resistance
into half of the total resistance.
• Resistance of each semi circle R1​=R2​=2.5​=2.5 Ω
• These resistance are connected in parallel.
• So, equivalent resistance Req​ = + = ​= =
•
= 1.25Ω
A wire of given material having length l and area of cross-section has a
 
resistance of 5 Ω. If the wire is stretched so that its length becomes 2 l
and area .What will happen to the resistance and resistivity of the wire?

• 
R1 = ρ = 5Ω

• After stretching R2 = ρ x = ρx 4x =4 x ρ

• = 4 x R1 (four times
the old resistance)
• = 4 x 5 =20Ω
[ R1 = ρ = 5Ω]

If a wire is stretched to n times its original length, its resistance will

increase by n2.
• How can three resistors of resistances 2 Ω, 3 Ω
and 6 Ω be connected to give a total resistance of
• (a) 4 Ω
• (b) 1 Ω
• Assignment : question no: 11 and 5 (page221)
• What
  is the (a) highest (b) lowest total resistance, that can
be secured by combinations of four coils of resistances 4
ohm, 8 ohm, 12 ohm and 24 ohm?

• Highest will be by series = 4+12+8+24= 48 ohm

Lowest will be by parallel = = + + +

•
• = =
ohm
                     
• so R = 2 ohm
 Judge the equivalent resistance when the following are
connected in parallel
• (a) 1 Ω and 106Ω
• (b) 1 Ω and 103Ω and 106Ω ?
• 
• Resistance =18ohm
• Current I =
=
• = 0.67A
Calculate the
effective resistance
between
1. A and B
2. A and C
3. A and D
Calculate current in the circuit ?
• A piece of wire of resistance R is cut into five equal parts.
These parts are then connected in parallel. If the equivalent
resistance of this combination is R', then the ratio R/R'
!!br0ken!!eating effect of electric current!!br0ken!!

• When an electric current is passed through a

conductor ,heat is produced in it. This is called heating
effect of electric current.

• First proposed by James Prescott Joule

 Joule`s law of heating
• 
• Heat produced in a conductor (H) is directly proportional to
the
1. square of current (I2) passing through it
2. resistance (R) of conductor
3. the time( t) for which the current is passing.

• H = I2 R t joule
• H = calorie
Different forms of H = I2 R t
•H
  = I2 R t • 
• H = I2 R t

• We know I = • We know R =

• H = x R x t
• H = I2 x t

• H =V I t
• H = x t

• Heat = Work
=Energy
Why does the cord of an electric heater does not glow while
the heating element does?

• An electric heater works on the principle

of the heating effect of electric current.
• The heating element of the heater has
high resistivity. It blocks the electric
current and does not let it pass. So the
heating element gets heated and glows
due the heat.
• The cord of the electric heater is a good
conductor of electricity so it does not get
heated up and also does not glow.
Compute the heat generated while
transferring 96000 coulomb of charge in hour
through a potential difference of 50 volt
• Assignment :
Question 3( page NO :218)
Electric energy
• 
The total work done in • 
maintaining electric current in an

electric circuit for given time . •Energy = V I t

•Energy = I2 R t
• = x t • Energy = t

= VI t
• Energy =
 Practical application of heating
effect of electric current

• Electric Bulb: 
In an electric bulb, the
filament of bulb gives light
because of this effect .
The filament of bulb is
generally made of tungsten
metal having high melting
point and high resistivity. It
does not oxidize easily
• Electric iron :The element
of electric iron is made of
alloys having high melting
point.

• Electric heater work on

the same mechanism
 Electric fuse
•  Electric fuse is used to
protect the electric appliances
from high voltage; if any.
• Electric fuse is made of metal
or alloy of metals, such as
aluminium, copper, iron, lead,
etc.
• In the case of flow of higher
voltage than specified, fuse
wire melts and protects the
electric appliances.
• Fuse of 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A,
etc. are used for domestic
purpose.
Electric fuse
What is an electric fuse ? Characteristics of fuse wire

• It is a safety device used • Always connected in

to protect electrical series with live wire .
appliances when large
amount of current is
flowing through the • Has low melting point .
circuit.
• Has low resistivity.
• Made up of tin or alloy of
copper and tin.
Electric Power
(P) •  Power =
• 
• Electric power is the rate at
which work is done or electric P = =
energy is consumed
(transformed) in an electric
circuit. P = = VI
• It is a measure of how much
energy is used in a span of
time.
P = =
• P=VI
• P=
• P=