Course : CIVL6022 – Soil Mechanics

Effective Period : September 2017

COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL

Session 9 – 14
 Contents
• SOIL STRESSES (SESSION 9 – 10 : F2F)
• SETTLEMENT OF SOIL (SESSION 11 : F2F)
• CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT (SESSION 12 – 13 : F2F)
• TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION (SESSION 14 : F2F)

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SOIL STRESSES
 Total Normal Stress

• Generated by the mass in the soil body, calculated by sum up

the unit weight of all the material (soil solids + water)
multiflied by soil thickness or depth.
• Denoted as , v, Po
• The unit weight of soil is in natural condition and the water
influence is ignored.
    t .z
z = The depth of point

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 Example
1m
t,1 = 17 kN/m3 A = t,1 x 1 m
3m · A
d,1 = 13 kN/m3 = 17 kN/m2

B = t,1 x 3 m
· B

t,2 = 18 kN/m3 = 51 kN/m2

4m
d,2 = 14 kN/m3

C = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m

2m
· C
= 123 kN/m2
4m t,3 = 18 kN/m3
· D d,3 = 15 kN/m3 D = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
+ t,3 x 2 m

Bina Nusantara = 159 kN/m2

 Effective Stress

• Defined as soil stress which influenced by water pressure in

soil body.
• Published first time by Terzaghi at 1923 base on the
experimental result
• Applied to saturated soil and has a relationship with two type
of stress i.e.:
– Total Normal Stress ()
– Pore Water Pressure (u)
• Effective stress formula

'    u

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 Effective Stress
'    u
   t .z u   w .z

'  (  t   w ).z   '. z

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 Example

h1 = 2 m Sand
GWL t = 18.0 kN/m3
d = 13.1 kN/m3
h2 = 2.5 m

Clay
h3 = 4.5 m t = 19.80 kN/m3

x
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 Example
• Total Stress
 = d,1 . h1 + t,1 . h2 + t,2 . h3
 = 13.1 . 2 + 18 . 2.5 + 19.8 . 4.5
= 160.3 kN/m2

• Pore Water Pressure

u = w . (h2+h3)
u = 10 . 7
= 70 kN/m2

• Effective Stress
’ =  - u = 90.3 kN/m2

’ = d,1 . h1 + (t,2 - w) . h2 + (t,2 - w) . h3

’ = 13.1 . 2 + (18-10) . 2.5 + (19.8-10) . 4.5
Bina Nusantara = 90.3 kN/m2
 Example
Total Stress () Pore Water Pressure (u) Effective Stress (’)

26.2 kPa 26.2 kPa

-2.0

71.2 kPa 25 kPa 46.2 kPa

-4.5

160.3 kPa 70 kPa 90.3 kPa

-9.0

Bina Nusantara Profile of Vertical Stress

 Soil Stress due to
External Load

External Load Types

– Point Load
– Line Load
– Distributed Load

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 Stress Contour

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 Stress Distribution
Analysis Methods:
- Boussinesq Method
- Westergaard Method
- Newmark Method
- 2V : 1H Method

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 Boussinesq Method

Based on homogeneous, weightless, elastic,

isotropic infinitely large half-space free of
initial stress and deformation. The modulus
of elasticity is assumed constant and the
principle of linear superposition is assumed
valid (EM1110-1-1904, 1990). Not accurate
for layered soil stratigraphy with substantial
thickness (NAVFAC DM7.01, 1986).
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 Boussinesq Method
• Point Load

P z 

P 3z 3 

2 r 2  z 2  5/ 2

P
z  2
NB
z z

z

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 Boussinesq Method

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 Boussinesq Method
• Line Load

2q z 3
q z 
 r4

r r  z2  x2
z

z

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 Boussinesq Method
• Strip Load

q
     sin  cos(   2 )

Where:
Ds = Change in Vertical Stress
q = Load per Unit Area
z = Depth
x = Distance from the center of strip
load

Angles measured in counter-clockwise direction are taken as positive

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 Boussinesq Method
• Distributed Load
– Square/Rectangular Load
– Circular Load
– Trapezoidal Load
– Triangular Load

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 Boussinesq Method
Rectangular Load

m = x/z
n = y/z

Result in Radial

 z  qo  2

1  2mn m 2  n 2  1 m 2  n 2  2
x 2

 tan

1  2mn m  n  1 
2 2 

4  m  n  1  m n

2 2 2

m n 12
  2 2 
 m  n  1  m n  
2 2

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 Boussinesq Method
Rectangular Load

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 Boussinesq Method
Circular Load

2r
At the center of circle (X = 0)
 
1 , 5

r 
2
 
 z  q o 1  1     
 
 z  
 

For other positions (X  0),

z Use chart for finding the influence facto

z

x
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 Boussinesq Method
Circular Load

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 Boussinesq Method
Trapezoidal Load

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 Boussinesq Method
Triangular Load

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 Boussinesq Method
The 5 m x 10 m area uniformly loaded with 100 kPa
Y E A

5m

H I
D F

5m

B
C G J
5m 5m 5m
Question:
Find the stress at a depth of 5 m under point Y

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 Boussinesq Method

Item Area
YABC -YAFD -YEGC YEHD
x 15 15 10 5
y 10 5 5 5
z 5 5 5 5
m = x/z 3 3 2 1
n = y/z 2 1 1 1
I 0.238 0.209 0.206 0.18
z 23.8 - 20.9 -20.6 18.0

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z total = 23.8 – 20.9 – 20.6 + 18 = 0.3 kPa
 Westergaard Method

Based on the assumption that the soil on

which load is applied is reinforced by closely
spaced horizontal layers which prevent
horizontal displacement. The effect of the
Westergaard assumption is to reduce the
stresses substantially below those obtained by
the Boussinesq equations.

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 Westergaard Method
Point Load

z 
P .a 1 1  2
2z 2   2 3/ 2
a
r  2  2
a    
2


 z 


P 1
=0 z 
z 2  2 3/ 2
r 
1  2  

 z 


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 Westergaard Method

P
z  Nw
z2

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 Westergaard Method
Circular Load

 
 a 
 z  qo  1 


a r z 2 



1  2
a
2  2
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 Westergaard Method
Rectangular Load

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 Boussinesq vs Westergaard

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 Boussinesq vs Westergaard

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 Boussinesq vs Westergaard

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 Newmark Method
 Z  q o .I .N

Where :
qo = Uniform Load
I = Influence factor
N = No. of blocks

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 Newmark Method
Drawing Steps:
  2 1 , 5   2/ 3

1/ 2
   
r  r z 
 z  q o 1  1       1  q   1
  z   z  

   
  o 


1. Take z/qo between 0 and 1, with increment 0.1 or other, then find r/z value
2. Determine the scale of depth and length
Example : 2.5 cm for 6 m
3. Calculate the radius of each circle by r/z value multiplied with depth (z)
4. Draw the circles with radius at step 3 by considering the scale at step 2

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 Newmark Method
Example, the depth of point (z) = 6 m

z/qo r/z Radius (z=6 m) Radius at drawing Operation

0.1 0.27 1.62 m 0.675 cm 1.62/6 x 2.5 cm

0.2 0.40 2.40 m 1 cm 2.4/6 x 2.5 cm

0.3 0.52 3.12 m 1.3 cm 3.12/6 x 2.5 cm

0.4 0.64 3.84 m 1.6 cm 3.84/6 x 2.5 cm

And so on, generally up to z/qo  1 because if z/qo = 1 we get r/z = 

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 Newmark Method

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 Newmark Method
• A uniform load of 250 kPa is applied to the loaded area shown in
next figure :

• Find the stress at a depth of 80 m below the ground surface due to

the loaded area under point O’

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 Newmark Method
Solution :
• Draw the loaded area such that
the length of the line OQ is
scaled to 80 m.
• Place point O’, the point where
the stress is required, over the
center of the influence chart
• The number of blocks are
counted under the loaded area
• The vertical stress at 80 m is
then indicated by : v = qo . I . N

v = 250 . 0.02 . 8 = 40 kPa

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 2V : 1H Method
An approximate stress distribution assumes that
the total applied load on the surface of the soil is
distributed over an area of the same shape as the
loaded area on the surface, but with dimensions
that increase by an amount equal to the depth
below the surface.
Vertical stresses calculated 2V:1H method agree
reasonably well with the Boussinesq method for
depths between B and 4B below the foundation.

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 2V : 1H Method

Q
z 
( B  z )( L  z )

Q
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For Circular   z  1 .  D  z  2
4
 2V : 1H Method
Uniform Load

L
q.B.L
z 
( B  z )( L  z )

q. 1 4 . .D 2  q.D 2
For Circular   z  1 ,  .( D  z ) 2 
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4  D  z  2
SETTLEMENT OF SOIL
 Settlement
• Definition
The total vertical deformation at the surface resulting from:
– External Load
– Dewatering
• Settlement Components
– Immediate Settlement ; Se
– Primary Consolidation Settlement ; Sc
– Secondary Settlement (Creep) ; Ss

S  Se  Sc  Ss

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 Settlement

• Purpose
– Study the settlement behavior
– Determine the settlement value and time
– Study the settlement influence to the structure stability

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 Settlement Problem

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 Settlement Problem

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 Immediate Settlement

• Defined as settlement which occurred directly after

the application of a load, without a change in the
moisture content.
• Caused by soil elasticity behavior
• The magnitude of the contact settlement will depend
on the flexibility of the foundation and the type of
material on which it is resting.
• For clay, the immediate settlement generally very
small comparing to the consolidation settlement,
therefore this immediate settlement mostly ignored.
• Usually considered at sand or sandy soil.

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement
General Equation (Harr, 1966)
• Flexible Foundation
– At corner Se 
B.q o
Es

1   s2

2

– At center Se 
B.q o
Es
 
1   s2 

– Average
Se 
B.q o
Es
 1   s2   av

1   1  m 2  m   1  m 2  1  B
 ln  m. ln 
; m ; H=
   1  m 2  m   1  m 2  1 
  L


• Rigid Foundation

Se 
B.q o
Es

1   s2  r
Es = Elasticity modulus of soil
B = Foundation width L = Foundation Length
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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement
General Equation (Bowles, 1982)
1   s2
S e  q o .B'. .F1 M
L'
Es B'

1  
1  M2  1 M2  N2 
M  M2  1 1  N2   H
F1  M . ln
  
M 1 M  N 1
2 2
 ln

M  M  N  1 
2 2
 N
B'

Es = Elasticity modulus of soil

H = Effective thickness of soil layer, e.g. 2 to 4B under foundation

L B
At the center L'  B'  and F1 is multiplied by 4
2 2

At the corner L'  L B'  B and F1 is multiplied by 1

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 Immediate Settlement
• Saturated Clay
q o .B
S e  A 1 .A 2
Es

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 Immediate Settlement
• Mayne and Poulos (1999)

Where :
Be = diameter of circle foundation or equivalent diameter of rectangular foundations
IG = influence factor for the variation of Es with depth
IF = foundation rigidity correction factor
IE = foundation embedment correction factor
t = the foundation thickness
Ef = Elasticity Modulus of Foundation Material
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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement
The silty clay soil has the following
properties:
H = 3.66 m
Eo = 9660 kN/m2
s = 0.3
k = 565.6 kN/m2/m

For a shallow foundation supported by a silty clay,

Depth of foundation = Df = 1.52 m
Width = B = 1.52 m
Length = L = 3.05 m
Thickness of foundation = t = 0.305 m
Load per unit area = qo = 239.6 kN/m2
Ef = 15.87 x 106 kN/m2

Bina Nusantara Estimate the elastic settlement of the foundation.

 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement
• For sandy soil
 Immediate Settlement

Modulus Young

Circular Foundation or L/B =1

z=0  Iz = 0.1
z = z1 = 0.5 B  Iz = 0.5
z = z2 = 2B  Iz = 0.0

Foundation with L/B ≥ 10

z=0  Iz = 0.2
z = z1 = B  Iz = 0.5
z = z2 = 4B  Iz = 0.0

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement
Consider a rectangular foundation 2 m x 4 m in plan at a depth of 1.2 m in
a sand deposit,
Given:  = 17.5 kN/m3; = 145 kN/m2, and the following approximated
variation of qc with z:

Estimate the elastic settlement of the foundation using the strain

influence factor method.

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Immediate Settlement

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 Consolidation Settlement
• When the stress on a saturated clay layer in the field is
increased, the pore water pressure in the clay will increase.
Because the coefficients of permeability of clays are very low,
it will take some time for the excess pore water pressure to
dissipate and the stress increase to be transferred to the soil
skeleton gradually.
• Consolidation is the process of dissipation of excess pore
water pressure in a row of time.
Note:
Dissipation of pore water pressure occurs simultaneously with the squeezing
out of the pore water. Therefore the consolidation time depend on:
The distance of pore water to be squeezed out
The coefficient of permeability of soft soil

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 Consolidation Settlement
a o

V a lv e
( s o il’s p e rm e a b ilit y )
a a
o

S p rin g Si
i
Ho

( s o il p a r t ic le s )

W a t e r fi lle d c h a m b e r
( w a t e r s a t u ra t e d s o il’s p o r e s )

( H o - S i)
P r e s s u re is b o r n e
b y p o re w a t e r
ID E A L IS A S I

U N D R A IN E D
L a te ra l d e f o rm a t io n
S E T TL E M E N T C U R V E
IM M E D IA T E
S E T T L E M E N T ( S i)

P R IM A R Y O R
S E TT L E M E N T

C O N S O L ID A TIO N
S E TTL E M E N T (S c )
W a t e r is e x p e ll e d

a i

Sc
a c

(H o - S i - S c )
SEC O N D A R Y H Y D R O S TA T IC S p rin g c o m p re s s e d
S E TTL E M E N T (S s ) P R E SSU R E W a t e r p re s s u re re d u c e d
L O G T IM E

C O N S O L ID A T IO N

N o w a t e r fl o w

a c
a s

Ss
(H o - S i - S c - S s )

LO A D
A ll lo a d is b o rn e b y s p r in g

H y d ro s ta t ic p re s s u re
( z e ro e x c e s s p o re w a t e r p re s s u re )
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D R A IN E D C R E E P
 Consolidation Settlement

First time, suggested by Terzaghi (1920-1924) with several

assumption :
– 1 dimensional
– Saturation is complete
– Compressibility of water is negligible
– Compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains
rearrange)
– Darcy’s Law is valid
– Soil deformation is small
– Soil permeability is constant
– Soil skeleton of each layer is homogeneous, so isotropic linier
elastic constitutive law is valid

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 Consolidation Settlement
Consolidation Type
– Normal consolidation
Preconsolidation pressure (Pc) just equals the
existing effective vertical overburden pressure (Po)
– Over consolidation
If the soil whose preconsolidation pressure (Pc) is
greater than the existing overburden pressure

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 Consolidation Settlement

• Normal Consolidation
pc Cc p  p
pc  po OR 1 Sc  .H c . log o
po 1  eo po

• Over consolidation

pc  po pc
OR 1
po
po + p < pc Cs p  p
Sc  .H c . log o
1  eo po
Cs p Cc p  p
po < pc < po+p Sc  .H c . log c  .H c . log o
1  eo p o 1  eo pc

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 Consolidation Settlement

Where :
– eo = initial void ratio which getting from index test
– Cc = compression index from consolidation test
– Cs = swelling index from consolidation test
– pc = preconsolidation pressure from consolidation test
– po =  ’.z
– p = the total stress at any depth of the clay layer caused by
external load, which can be determined by using method of
Boussinesq, Westergaard, Newmark or 2v : 1H Method

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 Consolidation Settlement

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 Consolidation Settlement

Procedures :
1. Determine the point O on the e-
lop p curve that has the sharpest
curvature (that is, the smallest
radius of curvature)
2. Draw a horizontal line OA
3. Draw a line OB that is tangent to
the e-log p curve at O
4. Draw a line OC that bisects the
angle AOB
5. Produce the straight line portion
of the e-log p curve backward to
intersect OC. This is point D. The
pressure that corresponds to the
point p is the preconsolidation
pressure, pc.

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 Consolidation Settlement

e1  e 2
Cc 
 p2 
log 
p  
 1

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 Consolidation Settlement

e3  e4
Cs 
 p4 
log 
p  
 3

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 Consolidation Settlement

Bina Nusantara Courtesy: Vinod and Bindu (2010)

 Consolidation Settlement
• Other equation
S c  m v . H c . p

e1  e 2
av  '
p 2  p1'
av
mv 
1  eo

Where :
mv = Compression Index
Hc = Thickness of soft soil layer
Bina Nusantara p = The stress increment due to the external load
 Secondary Consolidation
• Occur after primary consolidation process
finished
• Defined as an adjustment of soil skeleton
after the excess pore water dissipated.
• Depend on time and will be occurred in a
long time
• Difficult to be evaluated

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 Secondary Consolidation
C t p  t
Ss  .H c . log
1  ep tp

Where :

e
C  See the graph
t
log 2
tp
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
tp = time at the end of primary consolidation
t = time increment
t2 = tp +t

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 Secondary Consolidation

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 Secondary Consolidation
A laboratory testing of consolidation for specimen thickness 25.4 mm is carried out
to determine the secondary settlement, with the result as shown in the following
table :

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 Secondary Consolidation
Assume the thickness of the compressible layer is 10 m and the
consolidation settlement is 30 cm which occurs after 25 years.
The initial void ratio eo is 2.855, and the initial dial reading is 12.7
mm

Question:
Compute the amount of secondary compression that would
occur from 25 to 50 years after construction. Assume the time
rate of deformation for the load range in the test approximates
that occur in the field.

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 Secondary Consolidation

C = 0.052

ep = 2.372

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 Secondary Consolidation
C t p  t
Ss  .H c . log
1  ep tp
0.052  50 
Ss  .10. log 
1  2.372  25 

Ss = 4.6 cm

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 Consolidation Time
Tv .H 2
t
Cv
Where:
t = consolidation time
Tv = consolidation factor depended on consolidation degree (U)
2
 U% 
U = 0 – 60% Tv   
4  100 

U > 60% Tv  1.781  0.933. log100  U % 

U = consolidation degree in percent, descript as ratio of

design settlement to total settlement
S c ,i
U x100%
Sc

Cv = coefficient of consolidation, got from consolidation test

Bina Nusantara
 Consolidation Time
Tv .H 2
t
Cv
Where :
H = length of water path

Porous Layer Porous Layer

Hc Hc

Impermeable Porous Layer

layer
H = Hc H = 0.5Hc
Bina Nusantara
 Consolidation Time
A laboratory consolidation test on a normally clay showed the following
result :

Load, p (kN/m2) Void ratio at the end of consolidation, e

140 0.92
212 0.86

The specimen thickness was 25.4 mm and drained on both sides. The time
required for the specimen to reach 50% consolidation was 4.5 min.
A similar clay layer in the field, 2.8 m thick and drained on both sides, is
subjected to similar average pressure increase that is po = 140 kN/m2 and
po+p = 212 kN/m2. Determine the following :
1. The expected maximum consolidation settlement in the field
2. The length of time it will take for the total settlement in the field to reach 40
mm
3. Repeated no.2 problem in case of drained on one side

Bina Nusantara
 Consolidation Time
• Question no.1

e1  e2 0.92  0.86
Cc  Cc   0.333
 p2   212 
log 
 p 

log 
 140 
 1 

Cc p  p
Sc  .H c . log o
1  eo po

0.333 212
Sc  . 2.8 . log  87.5mm
1  0,92 140
Bina Nusantara
 Consolidation Time
• Question no.2
– Determine the coefficient of consolidation (Cv)
From laboratory testing
H2
Cv  Tv
t
where:
Tv = /4 (U2) = 0.197 (U = 50%)
H = Hc/2 = 12.7 mm
t = 4.5 min

We got
12.7 2
Cv  0.197  7.061 mm2/min
4.5
Bina Nusantara
 Consolidation Time
• Question no.2
– Determine field consolidation coefficient
Sc ,i 40
U x100%  x100%  45.7%
Sc 87.5

– Calculate consolidation
Tv .H 2 time
t
Cv
Where :
U = 45.7%
Tv = /4 (U2) = 0.164 (U = 45.7%)
H = Hc/2 = 1.4 m = 1400 mm
Cv = 7.061 mm2/min

We got 0.164 x1400 2 = 45523 min = 31.6 days

Bina Nusantara
t
7.061
 Consolidation Time
• Question no.3
– Calculate consolidation time

Tv .H 2
t
Cv
Where:
U = 45.7%
Tv = /4 (U2) = 0.164 (U = 45.7%)
H = Hc = 2.8 m = 2800 mm
Cv = 7.061 mm2/minutes

0.164 x 2800 2 = 182093 min = 126.5 days

We got t
7.061
Bina Nusantara