Engineering Geology UAS

1. Describe:
Cone of depression, Spillway site, Clinometer, Seismites, Mud flows, Creeping failure, Tombolo, Seepage,
Aquifer, Artesian water, Groin, sea level rise, estuary

Overuse of groundwater does not have to lead to

major land subsidence before it causes problems. On
a more local scale, over-pumping can result in
lowering of the water table in a process called
“Cone of Depression,” a generally concentric pattern
of water table drawdown. Such over-pumping often
results from industry or agriculture but individual
landowners often feel the repercussions.
An inclinometer or clinometer is an instrument used for
measuring angles of slope (or tilt), elevation, or depression of
an object with respect to gravity's direction. It is also known
as a tilt indicator, tilt sensor, tilt meter, slope alert, slope
gauge, gradient meter, gradiometer, level gauge, level meter,
declinometer, and pitch & roll indicator.

Seismites is a sedimentary structures originating in soft

sediments and granular soils from the cyclic shaking of the
ground as seismic waves pass through them

Seismites are the results Liquefaction is a

of liquefaction phenomenon in which the
strength and stiffness of
a soil is reduced by
earthquake shaking or
other rapid loading

Mudflow is rapid movements of rock, earth, and other

debris saturated with water. It states that mudflows occur
when the ground becomes saturated with rainwater or
snowmelt and forms a slurry.

• This the slow downward movement of the

• Under the normal conditions, most of the trees grow
• All dams that store water have to be
provided with spillways to carry away
water that will flow in excess of its
storage capacity
• If the excess water is not controlled, it
may spill over at an unexpected site and
cause great damage
unconsolidated material that gets accumulated above the
rocks long the slope of a valley due to weathering of
rocks
vertical, but trees on such creeping slopes show a
curved growth.
Tombolo, one or more sandbars or spits that connect an
island to the mainland. A single tombolo may connect a tied
island to the mainland, as at Marblehead, Mass. A double
tombolo encloses a lagoon that eventually fills with sediment;
fine examples of these occur off the coast of Italy. The
shallower waters that occur between an island and the
mainland are the loci of such features because sandbars
form there.

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 Artesian water –> produced by confined water
(between impermeable rocks) under hydraulic head.

In artesian flow, the water comes out with a head as

the flow is under pressure in an ordinary flow springs,
the water just flows out without pressure

Necessary condition for artesian flow are:

• A source of ample water supply
• A medium through which water flows offering
more resistance to flow than the opening
tombolo • An adequate source of pressure

Seepage, in soil engineering, movement of water in soils, Groin is designed to trap sediment as it is moved
often a critical problem in building foundations. Seepage down the beach by the longshore drift.
depends on several factors, including permeability of the Designed to trap Sediment, but they instead
soil and the pressure gradient, essentially the progressively starve beach of sediment in the
combination of forces acting on water through gravity direction of longshore littoral current
and other factors.
• Seepage – if the natural water level emerges
above the ground level
• Spring – when waterflow in the ground is at a
single point or a definite opening

Seepage differs from a spring as a seepage is a general

flow with no definite opening or point of discharge

Aquifer a porous and permeable geologic formation

capable of storing and yielding water in sufficient quantity.

• Linked to global warming, either natural or

human induced
• Over next century, we anticipate sea level to
rise by 30-100 cm
• Along the east coast where the coastal plain
rises gently, this rise translates to a shoreline
setback of 100-400 feet.

A partly enclosed coastal body of water in

which river water is mixed with seawater is
called an estuary

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 2. Site Investigation:
Explain what the seismic refraction method is and explain its role in site investigation also; describe in detail
what needs to be done if an engineer wants to build a reservoir and a dam.

Seismic methods are the most commonly conducted

geophysical surveys for engineering investigations.
Seismic refraction provides engineers and geologists
with the most basic of geologic data via simple
procedures with common equipment.

• This is the most popular method used for

determining the depth of bedrock
• It is useful where the lower strata is denser than
the upper strata and there is a sharp difference
in the velocity of seismic waves between the two
• It is applicable when the surface of the lower
layer is not steeply sloping or irregular

The general and geological investigation of the reservoir and dam site has to be with respect to the following:
• Water tightness of the whole area
• Landslides can happen on the sides of the reservoir during filling up of the reservoir/ the spillway site also
has to be surveyed in more detail, not only with respect to the water tightness but also the probability of
landslides
• Foundation condition on which the various structures like dams are to be built
• The availability of materials for construction of the proposed type of dam

• Thorough investigation of the foundation – • Groundwater condition

bearing capacity and seepage • Nature of soil and rock conditions at the bottom
• Choice of type of dam to be built depends on the from seepage consideration
foundation condition, e.g. masonry dams required a • Nature of soil and rock condition on the sides
solid foundation (only found in mountainous area) which will be submerged with respect to
• Need to investigate about structural features, seepage and stability of slopes
e.g. faults, to determine the safety of the dam
• Need to investigate the possibility of water
seeping under the dam (in situ seepage test
might be required)
• The type and amount of investigation that may
have to be made should be decided after the
geological survey of the site

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3. Groundwater:
Describe the process of sinkhole formation and Explain groundwater movement between igneous rock,
sedimentary rock, and metamorphic rock? Explain in detail

A sinkhole is an area of ground that has no natural external surface drainage--when it rains, the water stays inside the sinkhole and typically
drains into the subsurface.

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4. Natural Hazards:
Describe 4 or 5 steps of how the Tsunami happens, explain what does it mean
by Liquefaction and how does it happen.

1. Initiation : During initiation, a large set of ocean waves are caused by any large and sudden disturbance of the
sea surface, most commonly earthquakes but sometimes also underwater landslides. However, near the
source of submarine earthquakes, the seafloor is "permanently" uplifted and down dropped, pushing the
entire water column up and down.
2. Split Stage: Within several minutes of the earthquake, the initial tsunami is split into a tsunami that travels
out to the deep ocean (distant tsunami) and another tsunami that travels towards the nearby coast
(local tsunami).
3. Amplification: The height of the tsunami increases, and the distance between two adjacent crests (high
points) as it travels toward the coast, so the first wave of the tsunami becomes steep.
4. Run-Up: is the term used to describe the measurement of the height of the water on the shore . Once on
land, part of the tsunami is reflected back into the ocean, and another part is trapped in waves that travel
back-and-forth near the shore.

Liquefaction --> a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a soil is reduced by earthquake shaking or
other rapid loading.
• Liquefaction occurs when certain types of soils affected by earthquakes undergo rapid rises in pore pressure
( undrained ) --> reduction in shear strength an failure of the soil --> behaves like liquid.
• This phenomenon leads to foundation and slope failure and landslides
• Conditions for liquefaction to happen:
– The types of soil susceptible to losing much of their strength through
dynamic stresses are loose and fine sands and poorly graded sands and silts;
– A high water table near the surface;
– Low degree of compaction.
• For liquefaction phenomena to take place, there is a threshold of minimum earthquake intensity (>5.5)

Slope stability is ultimately determined by two factors:
the angle of the slope and the strength of the materials on it
The down-slope movement is preferential by the steeper slope
angles the stress also increase and everything that decreases
the shear strength for example by lowering the cohesion
among the particles or the frictional resistance. In other
words, it is often known as the safety factor, Fs, the ratio of
shear strength to shear stress.
Solid rocks tend to be strong, but there is a very
wide range of rock strength. If we consider just
the strength of the rocks, and ignore issues like
fracturing and layering, then most crystalline
rocks — like granite, basalt, or gneiss — are
very strong, while some metamorphic rocks —
like schist — are moderately strong. Sedimentary
rocks have variable strength. Dolostone and some
limestone are strong, most sandstone and
conglomerate are moderately strong, and some
sandstone and all mudstones are quite weak.

Fractures, metamorphic foliation, or bedding can

significantly reduce the strength of a body of
rock, and in the context of mass wasting, this is
most critical if the planes of weakness are parallel
to the slope and least critical if they are
perpendicular to the slope.

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5. In Coastal morphology :
Describe how the sediment on seabed in coastal area transported. ; Explain what are longshore transport
and cross shore transport in coastal process, and how it happen. Describe the following coastal structures
(functions, how it works, and draw the structures): Groins, Detached breakwaters, Jetties.

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Longshore Transport (littoral drift) --> the displacement of
sediment down the shore (parallel to the shore). Oblique waves
which move sediment along the beach.

Cross shore Transport --> the displacement of sediment

perpendicular to the shore (onshore or offshore), usually
into a berm (onshore) or into an offshore bar (offshore).
Very rapid erosion, much larger than normal, which tends
to narrow beaches and move sediment offshore.

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 1. Groins
• Function: It is designed to interrupt and trap
the longshore flow of sand (sediments).
• How it works: As the longshore drift current
approaches the groin, it is forced to slow
down and change direction. This chance in
velocity causes sand suspended in the
current to be deposited on the up-drift side
of the groin. As the current then continues
around the groin, it becomes turbulent and
actually contributes to erosion on the down-
drift side of the groin.
3. Jetty
• Function: Jetties protect the shoreline of a
body of water by acting as a barrier against
erosion from currents, tides, and waves.
Groins are built to change the effects of
beach erosion, jetties are built so that a
channel to the ocean will stay open for
navigation purposes. They are also built to
prevent river mouths and streams from
meandering naturally.
• How it works: Jetties completely interrupt or
redirect the longshore current. Just as a
groin accumulates sand on the updrift side,
so do jetties. The major difference is that
jetties are usually longer than groins and
therefore create larger updrift beaches at
the expense of the smaller downdrift
beaches.

2. DEACHED BREAKWATER
• Function: Breakwaters reduce the intensity
of wave action in inshore waters, reduce
beach erosion and to protect a coast or
activities along the coastline (e.g. ports, ship
wharf) from wave action. In general terms,
a detached breakwater is a coast-parallel
structure located inside or close to the surf-
zone.

• How it works: A breakwater structure is

designed to absorb the energy of the waves
that hit it, either by using mass (e.g., with
caissons), or by using a revetment slope (e.g.,
with rock or concrete armour units).

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7. How rips current and wave refraction occurs?

Rip Currents is a specific kind of water current which can
occur near beaches with breaking waves. A rip is a strong,
localized, and narrow current of water which moves
directly away from the shore, cutting through the lines of
breaking waves like a river running out to sea. A rip
current is strongest and fastest nearest the surface of
the water. When waves break parallel to a beach, rips
occur.
Wave Refraction is the bending of a wave as it
propagates over different depths. Wave refraction
occurs in the shoreline.
• Waves change path when they reach shallow
water
• Wave energy is concentrated on headlands and
spread out in bays

Causes: A rip current forms because wind and breaking

waves push surface water towards the land, and this
causes a slight rise in the water level along the shore.

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8. What are difference between short waves and long waves regarding the current occurs.

Short Wave versus Long Wave: Discussions of waves of length λ in oceans of depth h sometimes include
two simplifications: a long wave approximation (λ>>h, 1/k>>h) and a short wave approximation (λ<<h, 1/k<<h).

How else to tsunami differ from waves at the beach? --> Tsunami move the ocean differently than ordinary
waves. Tsunami eigenfunctions describe wave motion in a tsunami mode of a particular frequency.

Figure above plots tsunami eigenfunctions versus depth in a 4 km deep ocean at long (1500 s),
intermediate (150 s) and short (50 s) periods. The ellipses trace the path of a water particle as a wave of
frequency ω passes. At 50 s period (Figure above, right), ordinary ocean waves have deep water behavior. Water
particles move in circles that decay exponentially from the surface. Sensibly, because the eigenfunctions of short
waves do not reach to the seafloor, their velocity is independent of ocean depth. The failure of short waves to
“feel” the seafloor also means that they can not be excited by deformations of it. The only means to excite
ordinary ocean waves is to disturb the surface.
At 1500s period (Figure 2, left) the tsunami has a wavelength of λ=297 km and it acts like a long wave.
Although vertical displacement peaks at the ocean surface and drops to zero at the seafloor, horizontal
displacement persists undiminished through the ocean column. Unlike ordinary waves that are confined near the
sea surface, the energy of a tsunami spreads through the entire depth of the sea. You can't out dive a tsunami.
This fact explains why tsunami can be detected by pressure sensors on the seafloor.

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