Viscosity & conductance

Part 10
3-4-2013
Introduction
 Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid’s
resistance to flow.

Dynamic (or Absolute) Viscosity:

 The dynamic viscosity(η) of a fluid is a measure of
the resistance it offers to relative shearing motion
‫ا لحركة ا لقصية‬.
η= F/ [A×(u/h)]
η= τ /(u/h) N-s/m²

Kinematic Viscosity :
 It is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity to
the density of fluid.
ν= η/ρ m²/s ; ρ= density of fluid
Viscosity Measurements
Capillary Viscometers
 It gives the ‘kinematic viscosity’ of the fluid. It
is based on Poiseuille’s law for steady viscous
flow in a pipe.
Viscosity Measurements
Rotational Viscometers
 These viscometer give the value of the ‘dynamic
viscosity’.
 It is based on the principle that the fluid whose
viscosity is being measured is sheared between two
surfaces.
 In these viscometers one of the surfaces is stationary
and the other is rotated by an external drive and the
fluid fills the space in between.
 The measurements are conducted by applying either
a constant torque and measuring the changes in the
speed of rotation or applying a constant speed and
measuring the changes in the torque.
 There are two main types of these viscometers:
rotating cylinder and cone-on-plate viscometers
Viscosity Measurements
Rotating cylinder
viscometer
 Viscosity Measurements
Cone-on-plate viscometer
Effects of temperature
 The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase
the temperature.
 The viscosity of gases increases with the
increase the temperature.
Effects of temperature
 The lubricant oil viscosity at a specific
temperature can be either calculated from the
viscosity - temperature equation or obtained
from the viscosity-temperature ASTM chart.
Viscosity-Temperature Equations
Effects of temperature

fig:Viscosity-temperature characteristics of
selected oils
Viscosity index
 An entirely empirical parameter which would
accurately describe the viscosity- temperature
characteristics of the oils.
 The viscosity index is calculated by the following
formula:
VI = (L - U)/ (L - H) * 10
where ,
VI is viscosity index
U is the kinematic viscosity
of oil of interest
L and H are the kinematic
viscosity of the reference oils

Fig . Shows the evaluation of

viscosity index
Effects of pressure
 Lubricants viscosity increases with pressure.
 For most lubricants this effect is
considerably largest than the other effects
when the pressure is significantly above
atmospheric.
 The Barus equation :
Effects of pressure
Viscosity - shear relationship
 ForNewtonian fluids, shear stress linearly
vary with the shear rate as shown in Figure.
Viscosity is constant for this kind of fluid.

τ = η (u/h)

 Non Newtonian fluid doesn’t

follow the linear relation
between viscosity and shear rate.
Viscosity – shear relationship
Pseudoplastic Behaviour
 Pseudoplastic or shear thinning and is associated with the
thinning of the fluid as the shear rate increases.

Thixotropic Behaviour
 Thixotropic or shear duration thinning, is associated with a loss
of consistency of the fluid as the duration of shear increases.

 The opposite of this behavior is

known as inverse thixotropic.
Applications
 Selection of lubricants for various purpose.
- we can choose an optimum range of viscosity
for engine oil.
- for high load and also for speed operation high
viscous lubricants is required.
 In pumping operation

- for high viscous fluid high power will require.

- for low viscous fluid low power will require.
 In making of blend fuel

- less viscous fuels easy to mix.

 In the operation of coating and printing.
 Viscosity definations
A measure of the resistance of flow due to internal friction when one
layer of
fluid is caused to move in relationship to another layer. The Poise
represents absolute
viscosity, the tangential force per unit area of either of two horizontal
planes at unit
distance apart, the space between being filled with the substance. A
liquid with an absolute
viscosity of one Poise requires a force of one dyne to maintain a velocity
differential of one
centimeter per second over a surface one centimeter square.

When the ratio of shearing stress to the rate of shear is constant, as is

the case with water and thin motor oils, the fluid is called a Newtonian
fluid. In the case of non-Newtonian fluids, the ratio varies with
the shearing stress, and viscosities of such fluids are called apparent
viscosities.

In the new SI system, it is proposed that values for the Poise be stated as
Pascal seconds, the
conversion factor being 1 Poise equal to 1 × 10-1
Pa·s. A common measurement unit is the
milliPascal second (mPa·s). Conversion factors are as follows:
1 centipoise (cP) = 0.01 poise (P)
1 Pa·s = 10 P
1 cP = 0.001 Pa·s = 1 mPa·s
1 Pa·s = 1000 cP
 Viscosities
 Absolute Viscosity: The tangential force per unit area
of two parallel planes at unit distance apart
 when the space between them is filled with a fluid and
one plane moves with unit velocity in
 its own plane relative to the other. Also known as
coefficient of viscosity.

 Apparent Viscosity : The value obtained by applying the

instrumental equations used in obtaining the viscosity of
a Newtonian fluid to viscometer measurements of a non-
Newtonian fluid.
.
 Dilute Solution Viscosity: The viscosity of a dilute
solution of a polymer,
 measured under prescribed conditions, is an indication of
 the molecular weight of the polymer and can be used to
 calculate the degree of polymerization
 Kinematic Viscosity: The absolute viscosity of a fluid
divided by the density of the fluid. Also known
 as the coefficient of kinematic viscosity. Measured in
stokes (St) or centistokes (cSt). One
 centistoke = 0.01 stokes. The metric unit is square
metres per second (m2/s). A common
 metric measurement unit in glass capillary viscometry is
millimeters squared per second
 (mm2/s). Conversion factors are as follows:
 1 St = 1 x 10-4m2/s
 1 m2/s = 10,000 St
 1 cSt = 1 x 10-6m2/s = 1 mm2/s
 1 m2/s = 1,000,000 cSt
 Centistokes may be converted to centipoise (cP) by
multiplying by the density of the fluid
 being measured, all measured at the same temperature
 Intrinsic Viscosity ([η]): The ratio of a solution’s specific
viscosity to the concentration of the
 solute, extrapolated to zero concentration.
 Intrinsic viscosity reflects the capability of a polymer in
solution to enhance the viscosity of the solution.
 The viscosity behavior of macromolecular substances in
solution is one of the most frequently used approaches for
characterization.
 The intrinsic viscosity number is defined as the limiting value
of the specific viscosity/concentration ratio at zero
concentration.
 Intrinsic viscosity is determined by measuring the relative
viscosity at several different concentrations and then
extrapolating the specific viscosity to zero concentration. The
variation of the viscosity number with concentration depends
on the type of molecule as well as the solvent. In general, the
intrinsic viscosity of linear macromolecular substances is
related to the molecular weight or degree of polymerization.
With linear macromolecules, viscosity number measurements
can provide a method for the rapid determination of
molecular weight when the relationship between viscosity and
molecular weight has been established. Intrinsic viscosity is
 calculated by determining the reduced viscosity (ηsp/c) and
extrapolating to infinite dilution.
 Huggins equation
 c → 0
 η = ηred
Craemer equation
 η = lim ηinh
Where: c = concentration of polymer in
grams per 100 milliliters of solution Also
known as LIMITING VISCOSITY NUMBER.

Inherent Viscosity (ηinh): The

quotient of the natural logarithm of
relative viscosity and the concentration.
Inherent viscosity (ηinh) is expressed in
the following equation:
 η red=ηrel-1/c
Relative Viscosity (ηrel): The ratio of
the viscosities of the polymers olution
(of stated concentration) and of the
puresolvent at the same temperature.
 Also known as SOLUTIONSOLVENT
VISCOSITY RATIO.
Specific Viscosity (ηsp) The relative
viscosity of a polymer solution of
known concentration minus 1;
usually determined at low
concentration of the polymer; for
example, 0.5 gram per 100
milliliters of solution, or less.
Thank you
The next part will be

Electrical conductance
Conductivity
PART 11

14-4-2013
Conductivity
A measure of how well a solution
conducts electricity
◦ Water with absolutely no impurities
(does not exist)
 Conducts electricity very poorly
◦ Impurities in water increase
conductivity
 So, when measure conductivity of water
can estimate the degree of impurities
Conductivity
The current is carried by
dissolved ions
The ability of an ion to carry
current is a function of:
◦ Ions charge (more charge, more
current)
◦ Ions mass or size (larger ions,
conduct less)
Electrolytes
Electrolytes
◦ Substances whose aqueous solution is a
conductor of electricity
Strong electrolytes
◦ All the electrolyte molecules are dissociated
into ions
Weak electrolytes
◦ A small percentage of the molecules are
dissociated into ions
Nonelectrolytes
◦ None of the molecules are dissociated into ions
Dissociation of Water
Electrolytes
Strength of Solutions
Conductivity of various solutions

Conductivity of a solution is
proportional to its ion
concentration
◦ Since charge on ions in solution
facilities the conductance of
electrical current
Conductivity
Measurement
Conductivity is measured by
◦ Two plates placed in the sample
◦ Potential is applied across the plates
and current is measured
Conductivity (G), the inverse of
resistivity (R) is determined from
the voltage and current values
according to Ohm's law
G = 1/R = I (amps) / E (volts)
Conductivity Units
Basic unit of conductivity
◦ Siemens (S), formerly called the mho
◦ Cell geometry affects conductivity values
◦ Standardized measurements are expressed in
specific conductivity units (S/cm) to
compensate for variations in electrode
dimensions
◦ Specific conductivity (C) is the product of
measured conductivity (G) and the electrode
cell constant (L/A)
 L: length of the column of liquid between the
electrode
 A: area of the electrodes
 C = G x (L/A)
 Conductivity of Common
Solutions
 Conductivity
 Solution
◦ 0.055 µS/cm
◦ Absolute pure water
◦ 1.0 µS/cm
◦ Power plant boiler water
◦ 50 µS/cm
◦ Good city water
◦ 53 mS/cm
◦ Ocean water
◦ 865 mS/cm
◦ 31% HNO3
Conductivity and
Temperature
Conductivitymeasurements are
temperature dependent
◦ The degree to which temperature affects
conductivity varies from solution to
solution
◦ Calculated using the following formula:
◦ Gt = Gtcal {1 + α(T-Tcal)}
 Gt = conductivity at any temp T in °C
 Gtcal = conductivity at calibration temp T cal
in °C
 α = temperature coefficient of solution at
Tcal in °C
Conductivity and
Temperature
Common alphas (α ) are listed in
tables
To determine that a of other
solutions
◦ Measure conductivity at a range of
temperatures
◦ Graph the change in conductivity
versus the change in temperature
◦ Divide the slope of the graph by Gtcal
to get α
Conductivity and
Temperature
Conductivity of a solution typically
increases with temp
In moderately and high conductive
solutions, this increase can be
compensated for
◦ Using a linear equation involving temp
coefficient (K)
◦ K= Percent increase in conductivity per degree
centigrade
Temp coefficient for the following
electrolytes generally fall in the ranges
below
Conductivity and
Temperature
Conductivity and
Temperature
Conductivity is Non-
Specific
Conductivity Probe ‫ف حص‬
how??
 2 metals in contact
with electrolyte
solution
 Voltage is applied to
electrodes and
resulting current that
flows btw electrodes
is used to determine
conductance
 Amount of current
flowing depends on:
◦ Solution conductivity
◦ Length, surface area,
geometry of electrodes
Conductivity Probe
 Apply an AC Voltage to Two Electrodes of
Exact Dimensions
 Acids, Bases and Salts (NaCl) Dissolve in
Solution and Act as Current Carriers
 Current Flow is Directly Proportional to the
Total Dissolved Solids in Solution
 Physical Dimensions of a Conductivity
Electrode are Referred to as the Cell
Constant
 Cell Constant is Length/Area Relationship
◦ Distance Between Plates = 1.0 cm
◦ Area of Each Plate = 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm
◦ Cell Constant = 1.0 cm-1
Cell Constant
Cell constant:
◦ Measure of
current response
of a sensor
conductive
solution
◦ Due to sensor’s
dimensions and
geometry
◦ Units: cm-1 (length
divided by area)
Other Cell Constants

Specific conductivity (C) = Measured conductivity (G) X

electrode cell constant (L/A)

L: length of the column of liquid between the electrode

A: area of the electrodes
C = G x (L/A)
Four Electrode Conductivity Cells

 Measures Current
and Voltage Drop
V
 Current Increases
with an Increase in
Voltage Drop Across
Electrodes
 Compensates for
Minor Coatings on
Conductivity
Electrodes
 Used for Higher
Range Measurement
Conductivity vs. pH
Total Dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids (TDS):
◦ Measure of total amount of all materials that
are dissolved in water
◦ These materials, both natural and made by
humans
 Inorganic solids, with a minor amount of organic
material
◦ Depending on the type of water, TDS can vary
◦ Seawater contains 3.5% (35,000 mg/L) TDS
◦ EPA Secondary Drinking Water Standards
recommends that the TDS concentrations in
drinking water not exceed 0.05% (500 mg/L),
based on taste and aesthetics
Measuring TDS With
Conductivity Method
TDS = 0.7 σ  
◦ σ = conductivity (μs/cm)
Electrical conductivity of water is directly
related to the concentration of dissolved
solids in the water
◦ Ions from the dissolved solids in water influence
the ability of that water to conduct an electrical
current, which can be measured using a
conductivity meter
◦ When correlated with laboratory TDS
measurements, electrical conductivity can
provide an accurate estimate of the TDS
concentration
 Hardness
 Waters that contain a significant concentration of
dissolved minerals like calcium, magnesium,
strontium, iron, and manganese, are called
"hard“
◦ Because it takes a large amount of soap to produce a
lather or foam with these waters.
 Total hardness is expressed as mg/L of calcium
carbonate because calcium (Ca) and carbonate
(CO3) are dominant ions in most hard waters
 The following table gives concentration of CaCO3
dissolved in water by its degree of hardness.

Degree of mg/L as
Hardness CaCO3
Soft 0-60
Moderately Hard 60-120
Hard 120-180
Sample Measurements
Rinse the conductivity cell sensing
element with DI water between
sample
Dip cell up and down in sample 2-3
times to completely wet surface
Allow air bubbles to escape from
conductivity cell side holes by tilting
cell slightly
It is important to control sample temp
◦ Since reading will continue to drift until
the temp has stabilized
Storage
1. Best to store conductivity
probe so that electrodes are
immersed in DI water
2. Can also store dry
◦ Before use:
◦ Probe should be soaked in DI water
for 5-10 minutes
◦ To assure complete wetting of the
electrodes
Cleaning
1. For most applications, a hot
solution of water with mild lab
detergent can be used for
cleaning
2. Dilute 1% nitric acid may be
used followed by DI water rinsing