MEASUREMENT and

SCALING TECHNIQUES
 MEASUREMENT
• Process of assigning meaningful and
relevant numbers or symbols to the
characteristics of objects according to
certain pre-specified rules.
• Level of measurement is a function of
rules under which numbers are assigned
• One-to-one correspondence between the
numbers and the characteristics being
measured.
 MEASUREMENT SCALES
• Four Primary Scales of Measurement:
– NOMINAL SCALE
– ORDINAL SCALE
– INTERVAL SCALE
– RATIO SCALE
 NOMINAL SCALE
• Numbers serve only as labels or tags for
identifying and classifying objects.
• Numerical symbols for nomenclature
purpose only.
• Strict one-to-one correspondence.
• Numbers do not reflect the amount of
characteristics possessed by the objects.
• Simplest and least powerful.
 NOMINAL SCALE
• Only permissible operation – counting
(frequency counts and percentages).
• Measure of Central Tendency- Mode.
• Measure of Dispersion- Nil.
• Test of significance- Chi-square Test
 ORDINAL SCALE
• Ranking or ordered scale of lowest order.
• Numbers are assigned to indicate the
relative extent to which some
characteristics is being possessed.
• Indicative of order (relative position) but
not the magnitude of difference between
two objects.
• Equivalent objects receive same rank.
 ORDINAL SCALE
• Permissible operations- Counting and
statistics based of centiles.
• Measure of Central Tendency- Median.
• Measure of Dispersion- Quartile Deviation.
• Measure of Relationship- Rank-Order
Correlation.
• Test of significance- Non-Parametric
Tests.
 INTERVAL SCALE
• Numbers are used to rate objects such that
numerically equal distances on the scale
represent equal distances in the characteristics
being measured.
• Contains all information of an ordinal scale but
also allows comparison of distances.
• Zero-point and the unit of measurement is
arbitrary.
• Linear transformation is allowed.
• Not meaningful to take ratios because the zero-
point is not fixed.
 INTERVAL SCALE
• Permissible operations- Counting, ordering
and measurement.
• Measure of Central Tendency- A. M.
• Measure of Dispersion- Range and
Standard Deviation.
• Measure of Relationship- Product-Moment
Correlation.
• Test of significance- Parametric Tests,
Regression.
 RATIO SCALE
• It has the power of all the preceding scales
as also the concept of absolute-zero.
• Allows identification/classification, ranking,
comparing intervals/differences, also
computation of meaningful ratios.
• Allows only proportionate transformation of
the form y = bx.
• Most powerful, represents the actual
amount of measurement.
• All statistical techniques can be applied.
 SCALING
• Extension of measurement.
• Involves creation of a continuum upon
which measured objects are located.
• Scaling techniques help to measure
abstract concepts more accurately.
• Scaling Techniques:
– Comparative Scales
– Noncomparative Scales.
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
• Involves the direct comparison of the
stimulus objects.
• May be interpreted in relative terms and
have only Ordinal or Rank-Order
properties.
• Non-metric scaling.
• Advantages:
– Small differences can be detected.
– Easily understood and applicable.
– Reduced halo/carryover effect.
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
• Disadvantages:
– Ordinal nature of the data.
– Inability to generalize beyond stimulus objects
scaled.
• Comparative Scaling Techniques:
– Paired Comparison Scaling
– Rank Order Scaling
– Constant Sum Scaling
 COMPARATIVE SCALES:
Paired Comparison Scaling
• Respondent is presented with two objects
and asked to select one according to some
criterion.
• Data obtained is ordinal.
• Most widely used comparative scaling
technique.
• For n brands nC2 comparisons are required
• Useful when number of objects/brands are
limited.
 COMPARATIVE SCALES:
RANK ORDER SCALING
• The second most popular technique.
• Respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order/rank them
according to some criterion.
• Commonly used to measure preferences for
brands as well as attributes.
• Advantages - More closely resembles shopping
environment, takes less time, only (n-1) scaling
decisions, easily understandable.
• Disadvantage- Only Ordinal Data.
 COMPARATIVE SCALES:
CONSTANT SUM SCALING
• Respondents are required to allocate a
constant sum of units among a set of stimulus
objects with respect to some criterion.
• Allocation of units reflects the importance
attached to each attribute.
• Some times treated as metric but strictly
speaking they are ordinal scale because of its
comparative nature and lack of
generalizability.
• Advantage- allows for fine discrimination.
• Disadvantages- process is cumbersome.
 NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES
• Monadic (one object at a time) or Metric Scales.
• Each stimulus object is scaled independently of
others in the stimulus set.
• Interval or Ratio Scaled, can be generalized.
• Non-Comparative Scales:
– Continuous Rating Scales.
– Itemized Rating Scales:
• Likert Scales
• Semantic Differential Scales.
• Stapel Scales.
 NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES:
CONTINUOUS RATING SCALE
• Graphic rating scale.
• Respondent has to rate the objects by placing a
mark at the appropriate position on a line running
from one extreme of the criterion to the other.
• Forms: horizontal/vertical, scale points, in form of
numbers/brief descriptions.
• Scores are treated as Interval Data.
• Easy to construct, freedom to choose.
• Scoring is cumbersome and unreliable.
 NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES:
ITEMIZED RATING SCALES
• Scale having numbers and/or brief
description for each category.
• Categories are ordered in terms of scale
position.
• Interval Data.
• Most widely used.
• Types:
– Likert Scale
– Semantic Differential Scale
– Stapel Scale
 NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES:
ITEMIZED RATING SCALES
• LIKERT SACLE:
– Scale with 5 response categories ranging
from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”.
– Numerical Score: 1 to 5 or -2 to +2.
– Analysis on item-to-item basis (profile
analysis) or total (summated) score.
– Consistent scoring procedure for summated
approach.
– Easy to construct and administer, easily
understandable.
 NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES:
ITEMIZED RATING SCALES
• SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE:
– 7-point rating scale with endpoints associated
with bipolar labels that have semantic
meaning.
– Mixing of positive and negative
adjectives/phrases to control response-inertia.
– Numerical Score: 1 to 7 or -3 to +3.
– Data analysis by “Profile Analysis”, using
mean/median followed by statistical analysis.
– Very versatile: comparing brands, products,
image, develop advertising & promotional
strategies, NPD.
 NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES:
ITEMIZED RATING SCALES
• STAPEL SCALE:
– Unipolar rating scale with 10 categories
(even) numbered from -5 to +5 without a
neutral point.
– Single adjective in the middle.
– Attitude measurement.
– Analysis is same.
– Not very popular - confusing and difficult to
apply.
 NON-COMPARATIVE ITEMIZED
RATING SCALE DECISIONS
• Number of Scale Categories
• Balanced vs Unbalanced Scales
• Odd or Even Number of Categories
• Forced vs Non-forced Scales
• Nature & Degree of Verbal Description
• Physical Form or Configuration
 MULTIITEM SCALE EVALUAION
• A multi-item scale should be evaluated for
accuracy and applicability.
• Assessment of Reliability, Validity and
Generalizability.
 MEASUREMENT ACCURACY
• Measurement Error: Variation in the
information sought (by the researcher) and
information generated (by the
measurement process).
• True Score Model:
XO = XT + XS + XR
– Systematic Error (XS) affect the measurement
in a constant way (stable factor) but Random
Error (XR) is not constant.
 RELIABILITY
• Extent to which a scale produces
consistent results if repeated
measurements are made.
• Random Error produces inconsistency,
leading to lower reliability.
• Assessed by determining the proportion of
systematic variation in a scale, i.e. by
determining the association between
scores obtained by different administration
of scale.
 RELIABILITY
Methods of Assessing Reliability
• Test-Retest Reliability: Identical sets of scale
items at two different times and correlated.
• Alternative-Forms Reliability: Two equivalent
forms of scale at two different times and correlated.
• Internal Consistency Reliability: To assess
internal consistency of set of several items
(summated scale).
– Split-Half Reliability: Items are divided into 2 halves
and the resulting half scores are correlated.
– Coefficient alpha (Cronbach’s alpha): Average of all
possible split-half coefficients resulting from different
ways of splitting.
 VALIDITY
• The ability to scale or measuring instrument to
measure what is intended to measure (No
measurement error).
• Content Validity:
– Face validity.
– Subjective & systematic evaluation of the
representativeness of the content of a scale (measure
what is intended to measure).
• Criterion Validity:
– Ability to correlate with other measures of the same
construct.
• Construct Validity:
– Empirical evidences generated by a measure is
consistent with the theoretical logic about the concept.