INTRODUCTION TO

THE STUDY OF
ANATOMY
BY
ROEL COBARDE M.D.
APPROACHES TO STUDY OF ANATOMY

• Regional anatomy – topographical anatomy

• Organization as to major parts or segments e.g. head, neck, thorax
• Surface anatomy – provides knowledge of what lies under the skin and what structures are palpable.
e.g. pulses
• Radiographic, sectional and endoscopic anatomy allows appreciation of structures in the living as
they are affected by muscle tone, body fluids and pressures and gravity.

• Systemic anatomy – based on organ systems e.g. integumentary system, skeletal etc.
• Clinical anatomy – emphasizes application of anatomical knowledge in the practice of
medicine
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

• International anatomical terminology

• Anatomical position – person standing upright with the
• Head, eyes and toes directed anteriorly
• Arms adjacent to the sides with palms facing anteriorly
• Lower limbs close together with feet parallel
ANATOMICAL PLANES
 TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP AND COMPARISON

• Superior ---- inferior

• Cranial ----- caudal • Combination ---- anteromedial etc

• Posterior ----- anterior • Superficial, intermediate and deep

• Medial ----- lateral • External ----- internal

• Dorsum – superior aspect of any part that • Proximal ---- distal

protrudes anteriorly
TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP & COMPARISON
TERMS OF LATERALITY

• Bilateral ---- unilateral

• Ipsilateral ---- contralateral

TERMS OF MOVEMENT
TERMS OF MOVEMENT
ANATOMICAL VARIATIONS
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

• Largest organ
• Functions of the skin:
• Protection – harmful substances
• Containment – of vitals substances
• Heat regulation – sweat evaporation
• Sensation – superficial nerves
• Synthesis and storage of vitamin D
TENSION LINES IN THE SKIN (LANGER LINES)
FASCIAS, FASCIAL COMPARTMENTS, BURSAE
AND POTENTIAL SPACES
• Deep fascia – dense, organized connective tissue layer devoid of fat that covers most of
the body parallel to the skin and subcutaneous tissue.
• Investing fascia – invest deeper structures such as muscles and neurovascular bundle
• Fascial compartments – groups of muscles with similar functions sharing same nerve
supply.
• Intermuscular septa – deep fascia extending from fascial sleeve to the bone
• Synovial tendon sheaths and bursal sacs
SKIN LIGAMENTS
SKELETAL SYSTEM

• Axial skeleton – bones of the head, neck and trunk

• Appendicular skeleton – bones of the limbs including shoulder and pelvic girdle
CARTILAGE AND BONES

• Cartilage – resilient and semirigid connective tissue that offers more flexibility
• Bone – specialized hard form of connective tissue that forms most of the skeleton
• 2 types – spongy and compact bone
• Functions:
• Support for the body and its vital cavities (chief supporting tissue)
• Protection of vital structures
• Mechanical basis for movement
• Storage of salts (calcium)
• Supply new blood cells
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

• Long bones - tubular

• Short bones – cuboidal , in the carpus and tarsus
• Flat bones – protective function - cranium
• Irregular bones – various shapes
• Sesamoid bones - patella
BONE MARKINGS AND FORMATIONS

• Markings develop where tendons, ligaments and fascias are attached or arteries lie
adjacent to or enter bones.
• Capitulum, condyle, crest, epicondyle, facet,foramen,fossa etc.
BONE DEVELOPMENT

• Intramembranous ossification – direct ossification of the mesenchyme in the fetus

• Endochondral ossification – gradual replacement of cartilage into bone
• Primary ossification center – forms the diaphysis
• Secondary ossification centers(epiphyseal plates) – forms the ends of the bone
• Synostosis the fusion process of the growth plates as the bone stops growing
JOINTS

• Are unions or junctions between 2 or more bones or solid parts of the skeleton
• Classifications:
• Synovial joint – united by joint capsule
• Fibrous joint – united by fibrous tissue eg. Suture of cranium, syndesmosis type
• Cartilaginous joint or synchondrosis – united by hyaline cartilage, epiphyseal plate and
symphyses
6 SYNOVIAL JOINTS
MUSCLE TISSUE AND THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

• Types of muscle tissue

• Skeletal striated muscle – voluntary somatic muscle of the skeleton
• Cardiac striated muscle – involuntary visceral muscle that forms the heart wall
• Smooth muscle – unstriated, involuntary muscle that forms intestinal wall
SHAPE CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES

• Flat muscle – parallel fibers

• Pennate muscle – feather like – extensor digitorum longus (unipennate), rectus femoris (bipennate)
deltoid (multipennate)
• Fusiform muscle – spindle shape (biceps brachii)
• Convergent muscle – pectoralis major
• Quadrate muscle – 4 equal sides, rectus abdominis
• Circular or sphincteral muscles – surround an orifice, as in eyelids
• Multiheaded or multibellied – biceps brachii, triceps brachii
ARCHITECTURE
AND SHAPE OF
SKELETAL MUSCLES
MUSCLE CONTRACTION

• Reflexive contraction
• Tonic contraction
• Phasic contraction
• Isotonic contractions – muscle changes length in production of movement
• Concentric contraction – movement with muscle shortening
• Eccentric contraction – muscle lengthens as it undergo controlled and gradual relaxation
• Isometric contractions – no change in muscle length (no movement) but increase muscle
tension
FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLES

• Prime mover (agonist) main muscle responsible for movement

• Fixator muscle – steadies the proximal parts of the limb through isometric contraction
• Synergist muscle –complements the action of the prime mover
• Antagonist muscle – opposes the action of the agonist
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

• Circulatory system – consist of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems

• Vascular circuits – pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
• Arteries –
• Anastomoses
• Veins –
• Capillaries – simple endothelial tubes connecting the arterial and venous sides of the circulation
• Lymphoid system – thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct
NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Division
• Central NS and Peripheral NS structurally
• Functionally somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

• 2 main cell types:

• Neurons
• Neuroglia (glial cells)
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Consist of the brain and spinal cord

• Nucleus – collection of nerve cell bodies
• Tract – bundle of nerve axons within CNS connecting nuclei
• Gray matter – constitute of nerve cell bodies
• White matter – constitute of interconnecting fiber tract systems
• 3 meningeal layers – pia mater, arachnoid mater, dura mater
• Cerebrospinal fluid -
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Consist of nerve fibers and cell bodies outside of the CNS and conducts impulses to or
away from the CNS
• Types of nerves
• Cranial nerves – 12 pairs …. OOOTTAFAGVAH
• Spinal segmental nerves - 31 pairsder

• Dermatome – unilateral area of skin innervated by the sensory of a single spinal nerve
• Myotone – unilateral muscle mass receiving innervation from the fibers conveyed by a
single spinal nerve
FUNCTIONAL DIVISION

• SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – innervates only skeletal muscle, stimulating

voluntary and reflexive movement by causing the muscle to contract
• AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – visceral NS, consist of fibers that stimulate
smooth muscle, modified cardiac muscle and glandular cells.
• SYMPHATHETIC (thoracolumbar) division of ANS – IML cell columns,
• PARASYMPHATETIC (craniosacral) division of ANS -
FUNCTIONS OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Sympathetic system is catabolic and prepares the body for a fight or flight response
• Parasympathetic system is anabolic (homeostatic) promoting quiet and orderly processes
of the body to feed and assimilate.
MEDICAL IMAGING TECHNIQUES

• X-ray images
• CT
• US
• MRI
• NUCLEAR MEDICINE IMAGING
THORAX

• Between the neck and abdomen

• Commonly as the chest
• Thoracic cavity – truncated cone narrowest superiorly at the thoracic inlet and joins the
abdomen at the thoracic outlet
• Lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity but the heart, esophagus trachea and bronchus
occupy the central part.
THORACIC WALL

• Includes the thoracic cage and the structures that extends between the ribs, skin,
subcutaneous tissue, muscles and fascia covering its anterolateral aspect and posterior
aspects which belongs to the back.
• Mammary glands of the breast lie within the subcutaneous tissue of the anterior thorax
RIBS. COSTAL CARTILAGES AND INTERCOSTAL
SPACES
• TRUE (VERTEBROCOSTAL) RIB – 1-7th ribs, attached directly to the sternum
• FALSE (VERTEBROCHONDRAL) RIB – 8 , 9 & 10th ribs, its cartilages are connected
to the cartilage of the rib above them.
• FLOATING (vertebral, free) ribs – 11-12th ribs sometimes the 10th rib, does not connect to
the sternum anteriorly.
• TYPICAL RIBS – 3-9 ribs, parts: head, neck, tubercle, body
• ATYPICAL RIBS – 1,2 & 10, 11,12
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
THE STERNUM
MOVEMENTS OF THE WALL
BREAST, FEMALE

• Consist of glandular and supporting fibrous tissue embedded within fatty matrix together
with blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves
• Extends from the lateral border of the sternum to the midaxillary line and vertically from 2 nd
to 6th rib.
• Pectoral fascia and serratus anterior makes up the bed of the breast
• Axillary process or tail of Spence – small part of the mammary gland that extend along the
inferolateral edge of the pectoralis major toward the armpit
• 15-20 lobules of mammary gland
VASCULATURE OF THE BREAST

• Medial mammary branches of perforating branches and anterior intercostal branches of the internal
thoracic artery
• Lateral thoracic and thoracoacromial arteries, branches of the axillary artery
• Posterior intercostal arteries, branches of the thoracic aorta in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th ICS
• VENOUS DRAINAGE – axillary vein with some drainage to internal thoracic vein
• Lymphatic drainage – 75% (esp. lateral quadrants) drain to axillary lymph nodes via the pectoral nodes
• medial quadrants drains to the parasternal or to the opposite breast
• Inferior quadrants drains to the abdominal nodes
NERVES OF THE BREAST

• Anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the 4th-6th ICS