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superconductors
Subir Sachdev
Talk online:
http://pantheon.yale.edu/~subir
The quantum mechanics of
•Insulators
Technology in
•Metals the 19th century
•Semiconductors Technology of
the 20th century
•Superconductors
Technology of
the 21st century ?
10
Electrical resistivity of Cu at 273 K: 1.56 10 Ohm meter
6 10 8 Ohm meter
K
Quantum theory of metals
Valence electrons occupy plane wave states which extend
across the entire material 2k 2
2i2 k
H 2m*
i 2m*
k
e
e
e
e
k
e kF
1 4 3
n 2 kF
2 3
3
k F
Fermi velocity vF * ~ 108 cm/sec
m
Fermi surface of copper
Electrical conduction occurs by acceleration of
electrons near the Fermi surface
Quantum theory of metals
2i2
H *
VQ cos Qxi
i 2m i
e e
e
e
Quantum theory of metals
2i2
H *
VQ cos Qxi
i 2m i
k
Q Q
k
Fermi surface of copper
Deviation in shape from sphere is caused by
non-resonant scattering off periodic potential
Quantum theory of insulators
2i2
H *
VQ cos Qxi
i 2m i
k
Q Q
k
2 2
Quantum theory of insulators
2i2
H *
VQ cos Qxi
i 2m i
Energy gap:
k
No electron
states in a
certain range
of energies !
Q Q
k
2 2
Quantum theory of insulators
k
Q Q
2 2
Quantum theory of semiconductors
Semiconductors are insulators with a small
energy gap
Si
k
k
Q Q
2 2
Quantum theory of semiconductors
Doping with a small concentration of P
introduces mobile charge carriers
Si
k P
k
Q Q
2 2
We have so far considered the quantum theory
of a large number of fermions moving in a
periodic potential and found ground states
which are
metals, insulators and semiconductors
M. Greiner, O. Mandel, T.
Esslinger, T. W. Hänsch, and I.
Bloch, Nature 415, 39 (2002).
Strong periodic potential
“Eggs in an egg carton”
Insulator = + +
+ + +
Weak periodic potential
A single atom can tunnel easily between
neighboring minima
Weak periodic potential
A single atom can tunnel easily between
neighboring minima
Weak periodic potential
A single atom can tunnel easily between
neighboring minima
Weak periodic potential
G = e i
+ +
The ground state of a single particle is a zero
momentum state, which is a quantum superposition of
states with different particle locations.
The Bose-Einstein condensate in a weak periodic potential
Lowest energy state for many atoms
BEC = G G G
=e 3i
( + +
+
)
+ + + + ....27 terms
Large fluctuations in number of atoms in each potential well
– superfluidity (atoms can “flow” without dissipation)
The Bose-Einstein condensate in a weak periodic potential
Lowest energy state for many atoms
BEC = G G G
=e 3i
( + +
+
)
+ + + + ....27 terms
Large fluctuations in number of atoms in each potential well
– superfluidity (atoms can “flow” without dissipation)
The Bose-Einstein condensate in a weak periodic potential
Lowest energy state for many atoms
BEC = G G G
=e 3i
( + +
+
)
+ + + + ....27 terms
Large fluctuations in number of atoms in each potential well
– superfluidity (atoms can “flow” without dissipation)
The Bose-Einstein condensate in a weak periodic potential
Lowest energy state for many atoms
BEC = G G G
=e 3i
( + +
+
)
+ + + + ....27 terms
Large fluctuations in number of atoms in each potential well
– superfluidity (atoms can “flow” without dissipation)
The Bose-Einstein condensate in a weak periodic potential
Lowest energy state for many atoms
BEC = G G G
=e 3i
( + +
+
)
+ + + + ....27 terms
Large fluctuations in number of atoms in each potential well
– superfluidity (atoms can “flow” without dissipation)
The Bose-Einstein condensate in a weak periodic potential
Lowest energy state for many atoms
BEC = G G G
=e 3i
( + +
+
)
+ + + + ....27 terms
Large fluctuations in number of atoms in each potential well
– superfluidity (atoms can “flow” without dissipation)
The Bose-Einstein condensate in a weak periodic potential
Lowest energy state for many atoms
BEC = G G G
=e 3i
( + +
+
)
+ + + + ....27 terms
Large fluctuations in number of atoms in each potential well
– superfluidity (atoms can “flow” without dissipation)
87
Rb bosonic atoms in a magnetic trap and an optical lattice potential
The strength of the period potential can be varied in the experiment
M. Greiner, O. Mandel, T.
Esslinger, T. W. Hänsch, and I.
Bloch, Nature 415, 39 (2002).
Superfluid-insulator transition
Physical meaning of
Consider two superfluids connected by a weak link
Phase 1 ; e iN11
N1
w Phase 2 ; eiN 22 N 2
H w N1 1, N 2 1 N1 , N 2 N1 1, N 2 1 N1 , N 2
dN i
(Super)current in weak link = 1
N 1, H
dt
iw
= N1 , N 2 N1 1, N 2 1 N1 , N 2 N1 1, N 2 1
2w
= sin 1 2
A superfluid state is characterized by the Ginzburg-Landau
complex “order parameter” (x)
x ~ ei ( x )
Supercurrent ~
Persistent currents
C
dx 2 n
No local change of the
C wavefunction can change
the value of n
Supercurrent flows
“forever”
How do metals form superconductors ?
ky Pair wavefunction
kx
k
S 0
(Bose-Einstein) condensation of Cooper pairs
The quantum mechanics of
•Insulators
•Metals
•Semiconductors
•Superconductors