Methods of

Measuring
Behavior

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Tests and Their Development
 Types of Tests
 Observational Techniques
 Questionnaires

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Is the tool you propose to use reliable and
valid?
 Base your choice of research tools on how
you have asked the research question.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 List five reasons why tests are useful.
 Discuss the various types of tests and how they are used.
 Conduct an item analysis identifying the discrimination and
difficulty indices for each item in a test.
 Explain the difference between the discrimination index
and the difficulty index.
 List the various techniques used to record behavior.
 Write questions using a Thurstone scale and a Likert scale.
 List the factors to consider in order to make questionnaires
successful.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.
 A test should measure the nature and extent
of individual differences
 A good test differentiates people based on
their true scores

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 To help determine outcomes of experiments
 To diagnose strengths and weaknesses
 To assist in placing individuals in appropriate
programs
 To assist in selecting applicants
 To evaluate a program’s effectiveness

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.
 What It Does

Achievement Test Assesses an individual’s knowledge of a

specific area
Attitude Test Assesses an individual’s feelings about an
issue
Personality Test Assesses stable individual behavior patterns

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Standardized
◦ Commercially prepared for wide use
◦ Scoring instructions included
 Researcher/Teacher-made
◦ Designed by user for specific purpose
◦ Scoring instructions specific to test

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Norm-referenced—individual’s scores are
compared to results from a larger group
 Criterion-referenced—individual’s scores
are compared to defined performance
standards

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

12. Intelligence tests that are given to STEM
preschool children Clearly written
CORRECT
a. favor middle-class children ANSWER
b. have questionable construct validity
c. are based on motor skills
d. are no fun at all

DISTRACTERS
Should be plausible (b & c), not easily ruled out
(d)
2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.
 Advantages  Disadvantages
◦ Versatile ◦ Limit student’s
◦ Easy to score options
◦ Simple to take ◦ No opportunity to
◦ Poor writers not practice writing
penalized ◦ Some people don’t
◦ Good items used do well on them
again ◦ Limits content to be
◦ Good distracters are assessed
diagnostic ◦ Items must be well
◦ Hard to fake correct written
answer

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Questions should discriminate those who
know the material from those who don’t
 Item analysis provides two measures of a
question’s ability to discriminate
◦ Difficulty index
◦ Discrimination index

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

1. Rank scores from highest to lowest
2. Choose top 27% of scores for “high” group
3. Choose bottom 27% of scores for “low” group

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 12. Intelligence tests that are given to preschool children
a. favor middle-class children
b. have questionable construct validity
c. are based on motor skills
d. are no fun at all
Item Alternative A B C D Total
High Group 23 12 4 2 41
(n = 41)
Low Group 11 9 15 6 41
(n = 41)
Total 34 21 19 8 82

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

Difficulty index Discrimination index
 Proportion who  Proportion in high
answered item group who answered
correctly correctly minus
proportion in low
group who answered
 D = NCh + NCl correctly
 D = NC - NC
T h l
(.5)T

NCh = number of people in high group answering correctly

NCl = number of people in low group answering correctly
T = total number of people in high and low groups

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Perfect
+1.00 discrimination
when:
Discrimination Level

½ gets item
right,
½ gets item
0 wrong
0% 50% 100% &
½ right is in
upper half,
½ wrong is in
lower half
-1.00
Difficulty Level

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.
 Statements are written indicating an attitude
toward a topic
 Judges rank the statements from least
favorable to most favorable
 Statements receiving consistent ratings are
given the average score
 A set of statements is selected that covers the
entire range of attitudes

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Respondents check items with which they
agree
◦ Well-formed attitudes are indicated by consistently
checking either high or low items
◦ Poorly-formed or inconsistent attitudes are
indicated by inconsistent patterns or by checking
off many neutral items

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Statements are written indicating an attitude
toward a topic
 Items with clearly positive or negative
attitudes are selected
 Statements are listed with a space for
respondent to indicate degree of agreement

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

Directions: Indicate to what extent you agree or disagree with the statements
listed below by circling one of the following:
SA means that you strongly agree with the statement (value = 5)
A means that you agree with the statement (value = 4)
U means that you are undecided about the statement (value = 3)
D means that you disagree with the statement (value = 2)
SD means that you strongly disagree with the statement (value = 1)
Item Rating
Government has no business funding
SD D U A SA
child care programs.
Child care should be supported by
SD D U A SA
federal, state, and local tax dollars.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Item Rating
Government has no business funding
SD D U A SA
child care programs.
Child care should be supported by
SD D U A SA
federal, state, and local tax dollars.

 Items are weighted

 Weights of unfavorable items are reversed
   Average score is computed
 
 
 

  2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Projective tests
◦ Present respondent with ambiguous stimulus
 Structured tests
◦ Questions are objective

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.
 Researcher observes and records

 Does not interfere with behavior

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Technique How it Works Example

Duration recording The researcher records How much time is spent

the length of time that a in verbal interaction
behavior occurs. between two children?
Frequency recording The researcher records How often are questions
the number of times a asked?
behavior occurs.
Interval recording or The researcher observes Within a 60-second
time sampling a subject for a fixed period, how many times
amount of time. do members of the group
talk to another person?
Continuous recording The researcher records During a 1-hour period, all
everything that happens. the behavior of a 6-year-
old boy is recorded.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Observer effects
 Observer bias
 Fatigue
 Changing definitions

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.
 What they are
◦ Paper and pencil tests with structured questions
◦ Self-administered

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Advantages
◦ Can be mailed out
◦ Can be done online
 (www.surveymonkey.com, www.zoomerang.com and
www.surveygizmo.com among others)
◦ Survey broad geographic area
◦ Cheaper than one-on-one interview
◦ Respondents may be more honest
◦ Data easy to share with other researchers
 Disadvantage
◦ Low return rate

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Does not make unreasonable demands upon
the respondent
 Does not have a hidden purpose
 Requests information that respondents
presumably have
 Contains interesting questions
 Does not request information that could be
obtained by other means

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 The questionnaire contains questions that
can be answered
 The questionnaire contains questions that are
straightforward

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 The presentation is attractive, professional,
and easy to understand
 Questions and pages are clearly numbered
 Directions are clear and explicit
 Questions are objective
 Questions are ordered sensibly
 Transitions are used from one topic to the next
 Examples are given when necessary

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 Informs the recipient about the research
 Establishes the importance of the research
 Makes the recipient a part of the research

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

 List five reasons why tests are useful?
 Discuss the various types of tests and how they are
used?
 Conduct an item analysis identifying the discrimination
and difficulty indices for each item in a test?
 Explain the difference between the discrimination index
and the difficulty index?
 List the various techniques used to record behavior?
 Write questions using a Thurstone scale and a Likert
scale?
 List the factors to consider in order to make
questionnaires successful?

2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.