Thermodynamics

ENG 214
Chapter 3 – Heat & Work in Open Systems
Chapter 4 – The First Law of Thermodynamics
 System vs. Surroundings
• System – What your analyzing
• Surroundings – Everything Else
• Systems boundaries (border) can be
• Fixed
• Movable
AND these boundaries can be
• Real
• Imagined
Systems can be
• Closed (No mass transfer)
• Open (Mass flows in and/or out)
 Open Systems
• Mass can transfer in / out of system
• Mass flow rate (ṁ) or mass/time
• Often focus on flow in pipes or ducts
dṁ = rѵn dA Area
Where (A)
r = density
ѵn = velocity normal to surface A
A = area

But.. velocity can vary with area

How should we deal with this?

We normally use average (mean) velocity, ѵm

ṁ = rѵm
 Open Systems
• Volume and mass flow are related by density

V
m  V 

• Note that volumetric flow can change, mass flow is constant
• Particularly true for gasses, which are compressible
Conservation of Mass
General Mass balance:
In – Out + Generation – Consumption = Accumulation

Is mass generated or consumed?

What about Chemical Reaction?

What about E=mc2?

Example: H2 and O2 react to form 1 kg of water.

If the energy releases is 15,879 kJ how much mass is gained and/or lost (if any)?
{c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s}

1.76 x 10-10 kg
Generalized Mass Balance
In – Out + Generation – Consumption = Accumulation
No generation or consumption

Mass in – Mass Out = Net change in Mass

Can be written per unit time

Smi – Sme = dmsystem/dt

But mass and volume are related

d
    n dA i      n dA e    dV  CV
Ai Ae
dt V
Main thing is to keep track of how much mass is going in or out
Steady Flow Process
In – Out + Generation – Consumption = Accumulation

For steady flow:

What goes in = what goes out (no accumulation)

Mass in = Mass Out

For incompressible flow (applies to steady OR variable)

VI  VE
V1  V2   1 A1   2 A2
Flow Work
F=PA (force = pressure x area)
W=FL=(PA)L=PV (work = force x distance)
per unit mass:
wflow=Pv
Total Energy (e)
e = u + ke + pe = u + v2/2 + gz
ALSO…
The flowing fluid imparts additional flow energy (Pv)
So the Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid (θ)
θ = Pv + e = Pv + (u + v2/2 + gz)
But h = u + Pv
θ = h + v2/2 + gz
Rate of Energy Transport
ṁ θ = ṁ (h + v2/2 + gz)
Recall from Lecture # 1…
Q: Anyone remember the 1st Law?

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed – it only changes form

Example: Potential Energy  Kinetic Energy

Accumulation = In + Out – Generation – Consumption

Also applies to energy balances

For all adiabatic process between two specific states of a closed system, the net
work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed system and the
details of the process

We can relate heat, work and internal energy

Generalized Energy Balance
• SEIN – SEOUT = DESystem
• DE = DU + DKE + DPE
DU = m(u2-u1)
DKE = ½ mv22 – ½ mv12
DPE = mg(z2-z1)

For stationary system

DE = DU
Q: (Why?)

So how do you change U?

Heat (Q), Work (W)

DQ - DW = DE (This is the generalized 1st law equation)
DQ - DW = DU + DKE + DPE
Examples

1) A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a
paddle wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the
cooling process, the fluid looses 500 kJ of heat, and the paddle wheel does
100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.

2) A piston cylinder deice contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that is

maintained at a constant pressure of 300 kPa. A resistance heater within the
cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2A for 5 min from a 120V
source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs. Show that for a closed
system the boundary work (Wb) and the change in internal energy (DU) in
the first law relation can be combined into one term, DH for a constant
pressure process. Determine the final temperature of the steam.
Examples

3) A rigid tank is divide into two equal parts by a partition. Initially one side of
the tank contains 5 kg of water at 200 kPa and 25C, and the other side is
evacuated. The partition is then removed, and the water expands into the
entire tank. The water is allowed to exchange heat with its surroundings
until the temperature in the tank returns to the initial value of 25 C.
Determine the volume of the tank, the final pressure and the heat transfer
for this process.

4) A insulated rigid tank initially contains 1.5 lbm of helium at 80F and 50 psia.
A paddle wheel with a power rating of 0.02 hP Is operated within the tank
for 30 min. Determine the final temperature and final pressure of the
helium gas.
Examples

5) A piston cylinder device initially contains 0.5m3 of nitrogen gas at

400 kPa and 27C. An electric heater within the deice is turned on
and allowed to pass a current of 2 A for 5 min at a 120V source.
Nitrogen expands at a constant pressure, and heat loss of 2800 J
occurs during the process. Determine the temperature of the
nitrogen.

6) A piston cylinder device initially contains air at 150 kPa and 27C. At
this state, the piston is resting on a pair of stops and the enclosed
volume is 400L. The mass of the piston is such that a 350 kPa
pressure is required to move it. The air is new heated until its
volume has doubled. Determine the final temperature, work done
by the air, and total heat transferred to the air.
Examples

7) A 50 kg iron lock at 80C is dropped into a insulated tank that contains

0.5 m3 of liquid water at 25C determine the temperature when thermal
equilibrium is reached.

8) You get slapped. Temperature rises by 1.8C. Assuming the slapping hand has
a mass of 1.2 kg and about 0.150 kg of tissue on the face and hand affected
by the incident, estimate the velocity of the hand just before impact. Take
the specific heat of the tissue to be 3.8 kJ/kg-C
Energy Balance – Open Systems
Q: Will Energy Balance Change as compared to a closed system?
DQ - DW = DE [For a closed system]

For an open system

In – Out + Generation – Consumption = Accumulation
Ein – EOut = DEsystem

Energy can be transferred by heat, work or mass flow since

ṁ θ = ṁ (h + v2/2 + gz)

For a steady flow system, DEsystem = 0, thus

Ein = EOut
In Summary
In – Out + Generation – Consumption = Accumulation (e.g. net change)
Energy (and mass) are conserved. No generation or consumption.
Ein – EOut = DEsystem

DQ - DW + S ṁin q - S ṁout q = DE
where
θ = (h + v2/2 + gz)
And
DE = DU +DPE +DKE = DU +Dmgh +D0.5m(velc)2
For a steady flow system, DEsystem = 0, thus
Ein = EOut

And for a closed system (no flow) S ṁ q =0

And DQ - DW = DE
We’ll now look at applying the 1st law to..
Nozzles & Diffusers
Turbines & Compressors
Pumps & Fans
Throttling Valves
Mixing Chambers
Heat Exchangers
Pipes & Ducts
Nozzles & Diffusers
Both convert between velocity and pressure
Nozzle – contracts causing an increase in velocity & decrease in pressure
Diffuser – expands causing a decrease in velocity & increase in pressure

Converging / Diverging Nozzle

Qin + Win + S ṁ (hi + vi2/2 + gzi) = Qout + Wout + S ṁ (he + ve2/2 + gze)
For Nozzles and Diffusers:
Heat loss is generally negligible (Q=0)
Fixed volume so no work is done (W=0)
Kinetic energy changes are significant (½ mv2)
Potential Energy effects are negligible

Can perform generalized steady flow energy balance on nozzles / diffusers

S ṁ (hi + vi2/2) = S ṁ (he + ve2/2)
Nozzles & Diffusers
9) Air at 10 °C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a
velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air leaves the
diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared with the inlet velocity.
Determine the mass flow rate of air and the temperature of the air leaving the
diffuser.
Nozzles & Diffusers
10) Steam at 250 psia and 700 °F steadily enter a nozzle whose inlet area
is 0.2 ft2. The mass flow rate of steam through the nozzle is 10 lbm/s.
Steam leaves the nozzle at 200 psia with a velocity of 900 ft/s. The heat losses
from the nozzle per unit mass of steam are estimated to be 1.2 BTU/lbm.
Determine the inlet velocity and the exit temperature of the steam.
Turbines & Compressors / Pumps / Fans
Turbines – Use fluid to generate energy
Compressors – generate a large pressure change in a fluid (gas)
Pump – similar to a compressor, but handle liquids
Fan – imparts a small pressure change on a gas

Note: Turbines generate power, compressors / pumps fan need power to run

For These Devices:

Heat loss is generally negligible (Q=0) in turbines, pumps* and fans*
Potential Energy effects are negligible
Work plays a role
* for large pumps some of the electrical energy will convert to heat

What about Kinetic Energy? Can it be Neglected?

Turbines & Compressors
Are Kinetic energy changes are significant (½ mv2)

Pumps - Yes
Compressor - Yes
Turbine - No*
Fan - No

* Although DKE is significant, it is often negligee when compared with Dh

Turbines & Compressors
11) Air at 100 kPa and 280 K is compressed steadily to 600 kPa and 400 K. The mass
flow rate of the air is 0.02 kg/s, and a heat loss of 16 kJ/kg occurs during the
process. Assuming the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible,
determine the necessary power input to the compressor
Turbines & Compressors
12) The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5 MW, and the inlet and exit
conditions of the steam are as in Fig 4-34
a) Compare the magnitudes of Dh, Dke and Dpe
b) Determine the work done per unit mass of the steam flowing through the turbine
c) Calculate the mass flow rate of the steam.
Throttling Vales
A throttling valve is any flow restricting device (pinch valve, orifice place, etc.)
that imparts significant pressure drop

Produce pressure changes without work

Temperature drops as gas pressure drops
Amount of temperature change related to the Joule-Thompson Coefficient
 T 
  
 P  h
Adiabatic (Q=0)
No work done
PE change negligible
KE changes but is often small compared to Dh
Throttling Vales
13) Refrigerant 134a enters the capillary tube of a refrigerator as a saturated liquid
at 0.8 MPa and is throttled to a pressure of 0.12 MPa. Determine the quality of the
refrigerant at the final state and the temperature drop during this process.
Mixing Chambers
Area where two fluids meet and combine
 Tees
 Elbows
 Static mixers

Looking at the energy balance

Q=0
W=0
PE=0
KE=0

Thus: m1+m2=mtotal

Energy balance
ṁ h + ṁ h = (ṁ + ṁ ) h
Mixing Chambers
14) Consider an ordinary shower where hot water at 140 °F is mixed with cold
water at 50 °F. If it is desired that a steady stream of warm water at 110 °F be
supplied, determine the ratio of the mass flow rates of the hot to cold water.
Assume that loses from the mixing chamber to be negligible, and the mixing to
take place at a pressure of20 psia
Heat Exchangers
Heat is transferred from one fluid to another.
Come in many configurations
Tube in Tube
Shell and Tube
Plate and Frame
Plate / Fin

Looking at the energy balance

W=0
PE=0
KE=0 (since mass flow constant)

What about the heat?

Heat Exchangers
Let’s say we are using steam to heat water.

If we define the system as the entire heat exchanger

Q=0

If we define the system as either the fluid being heated (Water)

Or the heating fluid (steam) then

Q = dH = m Cp dT for single phase fluids

m hfg for phase changes

And Qwater = Qsteam

m Cp dT = mhfg
Heat Exchangers
Refrigerant 134a is to be cooled by water in a condenser. The refrigerant enters
the condenser with a mass flow rate of 6 kg/min at 1 MPa and 70 C, and leaves
at 35 C. The cooling water enters at 300 kPa and 15 C and leaves at 25 C.
Neglecting any pressure drops, determine the mass flow rate of the cooling
water required and the heat transfer rate from the refrigerant to the water.
Pipe & Duct Flow
Transport of fluids in pipe is fundamental for industry
Fluid mechanics – studies flow in pipes
Normally steady state
Heat loss may occur
Can have other forms of work in region of flow
Low velocity – kinetic energy negligible
Potential energy changes with elevation
Pipe & Duct Flow
16) The electric heating systems used in many houses consist of a simple duct
with resistance wires. Air is heated as it flows over resistance wires. Consider a
15 kW electric heating system. Air enters the heating section at 100 kPa and 17
C with a volume flow rate of 150 m3/min. If heat is lost fro the air in the duct to
the surrounding at a rate of 200 W determine the exit temperature of the air.
Refrigeration and Freezing of Food
Impact on food quality
Temperature
Moisture
Rate of freezing / thawing

Bacteria
Growth rate is slow at ≤ 4 C
Growth rate accelerates with warming
Bacterial starts to die off at ≥ 70C

Storage life is a function of temperature

and can range from about a week (1C to 4C) to months (-18C to -35C)
Refrigeration and Freezing of Food
Rate of freezing
Early frozen food was of inconsistent quality
Want to avoid buildup of large ice crystals (freezer burn)
Need to reduce temperature gradually

Chilling Injury
Freezing Injury

Moisture is important
Want to avoid dehydration (moisture loss)
Refrigeration and Freezing of Food
Thermal Properties of Food

Refrigeration of
Fruits & Vegetables
Meats
Poultry
Refrigeration and Freezing of Food
19) A typical one-half carlot capacity banana room contains 18 pallets fo
bananas. Each palate consist of 24 boxes, and thus the room stores 432 boxes
of bananas. A box holds an average of 19 k of bananas and is made of 2.3 lg pf
fiberboard. The specific heats of the banana and fiberboard are 3.55 and 1.7
kJ/kg-°C respectively. The peak heat of respiration of bananas is 0.3 W/kg. The
bananas are cooled at a rate of 0.2 °C/hr. Disregard any heat gain through he
walls or other surfaces, determine the required rate of heat transfer from the
banana room.
Refrigeration and Freezing of Food
20) A supply of 50 kg of chicken at 6 C contained in a box is to be frozen to -18°C
in a freezer. Determine the amount of heat that needs to be removed. The
latent heat of the chicken is 247 kJ/kg, and its specific heat is 3.32 kJ/kg-°C
above freezing, and 1.77 kJ/kg-°C below freezing. The container box is 1.5 kg,
and the specific heat of the box material is 1.4 kJ/kg-°C. Also, the freezing
temperature of chicken is -2.8°C
Homework
4-6E, 4-7, 4-10, 4-29, 4-32, 4-43, 4-53, 4-61, 4-68E, 4-69, 4-79,
4-83, 4-88E, 4-90, 4-110, 4-114, 4-127E, 4-149, 4-156, 4-161E, 4-164

AND

Any 5 concept problems (end with the letter C)