CHAPTER 6: Dielectrics …

What is a capacitor ?
a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an
electric field

A l m e ta l li z a tio n

M e ta l te r m in a tio n (a )

Epoxy
C e ra m ic
P o ly m e r film

L eads
(b )
M e ta l e le c tro d e

(a) Single layer ceramic capacitor (b) Multilayer ceramic capacitor

(e.g. disk capacitors) (stacked ceramic layers) Two polymer tapes in (a) each with a metallized film electrode on the
surface (offset from each other) can be rolled together (like a Swiss roll-
Single and multilayer dielectric capacitors cake) to obtain a polymer film capacitor as in (b). As the two separate
metal films are lined at oppose edges, electroding is done over the whole
side surface.
 Capacitors
What is a dielectric material ?
an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field

What are the ways of increasing capacitance?

Dielectric

+Qo Co C ­Q
­Qo +Q
i (t)
E E

V V V
The relative permittivity (or the dielectric constant) is defined to reflect this
increase in the capacitance or the charge storage ability by virtue of having a
dielectric medium. If C is the capacitance with the dielectric medium as in,
then by definition

Polarization
Polarization is a phenomenon where two different poles (positive and
negative) within the atoms or molecule or unit cell, created either
induced by an external electric field or without the help of external
applied field. Polarization results from the separation of the by centers
of positive and negative charges.

If this separation is induced by an external electric field, it is called

dielectric polarization and if that separation is induced without the
help of external applied field, it is called spontaneous or
ferroelectric polarization.
 Polarization
Polarization
… polar molecules vs. non-polar molecules

Can non-polar molecules become polar ?

E
C x O
E le c tro n c lo u d

A to m ic
n u c le u s
Electric Dipole Moment,

C e n te r o f n e g a tiv e p  Qâ
ch arg e

p in d u c e d
(a ) A n e u tra l a to m in E = 0 . (b ) In d u c e d d ip o le m o m e n t in a fie ld

The origin of electronic polarization.

The definition of electric dipole moment.
 Polarization
How do dielectrics increase the capacitance of a capacitor ?
Bound polarization
charges on the surfaces +Q E ­Q
­QP +QP Area =A p
total

(c)
P
­QP +QP

Dielectric V

+Qo Co C ­Q
­Qo +Q
i (t) Polarization,
E E
QP
P
A
V V V
 Polarization
QP
P P  χeεo E χe  1  εr
A
p induced  αE

Susceptibility, Χe: A proportionality constant that indicates the degree of

polarization of a dielectric material in response to an applied electric
field. (dimesnionless)
Permittivity: A measure of how an electric field affects, and is affected by, a
dielectric medium. (F/m)

polarizability … dielectric constant … are material properties.

In a way they are equivalent to what mobility is for conductors and
semiconductors.
The polarization p can be measured as the dipole moment per unit
volume. The total dipole moment per unit volume is defined as
P = ΣQnrn,
(1.1)
where, rn is the position vector of the charge Qn.

An important concept in dielectric theory is that of an electric

dipole moment ρ, which is a measure of the electrostatic effects of
a pair of opposite charges + Q and - Q separated by a finite distance
r, and so is defined by
ρ=Qr
The polarization P can be measured as the dipole moment per unit
volume. The total dipole moment per unit volume is defined as
P = ΣQnrn,
(1.1)
where, rn is the position vector of the charge Qn
Polarizability (α) is the ability of an atom or molecule to become
polarized in the presence of an electric field. It is induced polarization
in the molecule per unit field along the field direction
The induced dipole moment depends on the electric field causing it.
We define a quantity called the polarizability α to relate the induced
dipole moment / induced to the field E causing it,

 
where is a coefficient called the polarizability of the atom. It
depends on the polarization mechanism.
 Polarization Mechanism

Dependence of ε’r & ε”r frequency depends on

polarization mechanism:

a. Electronic
b. Ionic
c. Interfacial
d. Orientational

1. Electronic polarization.
2. Ionic polarization.
3. Permanent dipole polarization.
4. Space-charge polarization.
Schematic representation of different
mechanism of polarization
 POLARIZATION MECHANISMS
Ionic:
polarization caused by relative displacements between positive and
negative ions in ionic crystals

p+ p-

(a ) x
C lÐ N a+

p '+ p '-

(b )

(a) A NaCl chain in the NaCl crystal without an applied field. Average or net dipole moment per ion
is zero. (b) In the presence of an applied field the ions become slightly displaced which leads to a
net average dipole moment per ion.
 POLARIZATION MECHANISMS
Electronic:
the stretching of atoms/electronic clouds under an applied E-field (in
covalent solids)

(a) Valence electrons in covalent bonds in the absence of an applied field. (b) When
an electric field is applied to a covalent solid, the valence electrons in the covalent
bonds are shifted very easily with respect to the positive ionic cores. The whole solid
becomes polarized due to the collective shift in the negative charge distribution of
the valence electrons.
 POLARIZATION MECHANISMS
Interfacial:
charge accumulation at defective interfaces (2 material or 2 regions of same
material) leads to the formation of a net polarization vector

E le c tro d e E le c tr o d e
D ie le c tr ic
E E

F ix e d c h a rg e A c c u m u la te d c h a rg e G ra in b o u n d a ry o r in te rfa c e
M o b ile c h a rg e
(a ) (b ) (c )

(a) A crystal with equal number of mobile positive ions and fixed negative
ions. In the basence of a field there is no net separation between all the
positive charges and all the negative charges. (b) In the presence of an
applied field the mobile positive ions migrate towards the negative
electrode and accumulate there. There is now an overall separation
between the negative charges and positive charges in the dielectric. The
dielectric therefore exhibits interfacial polarization. (c) Grain boundaries
and interfaces between different materials frequently give rise to interfacial
polarization.
 POLARIZATION MECHANISMS
Orientational (Dipolar):
in “rigid polarized molecule” materials, an applied field aligns the
permanent dipoles to yield a net polarization vector

+Q
t
po = aQ q F =QE
Cl­ H+ E
F
po
­Q
(a)
(c)

pav = 0 pav ¹ 0 E

(b) (d)
POLARIZATION MECHANISMS
 DIELECTRIC LOSS
The dielectric constant is frequency dependent … why ?

The polarization process is not instantaneous … i.e. it takes a finite amount of

time for the molecules to align themselves.

If the applied field is changing so fast that the molecules cannot respond to it
at all … then the polarization is … zero!

Therefore ε is frequency dependent …

εr  εr'  jεr''
Dielectric loss is the electrical energy lost as heat in the
polarization process in the presence of an applied AC field. The
energy is absorbed from the ac voltage and converted to heat during
the polarization of the molecules.

Dielectric strength is the maximum field (Ebr) that can be sustained

in a dielectric beyond which dielectric breakdown ensues; that is,
there is a large conduction current through the dielectric shorting the
plates.
 DIELECTRIC LOSS

P = P o s in ( t - ) p

d(0 )E o
p Ð d(0 )E

E = E o s in  t d(0 )E

r' and r'' E

t

r' E o

r (0 ) E
t
0
The dc field is suddenly changed from Eo to E at time t = 0. The
induced dipole moment p has to decrease from d(0)Eo to a final value
of d(0)E. The decrease is achieved by random collisions of molecules
in the gas.
 r ''

1

0 .0 1 / 0 .1 / 1/ 10/ 100/
    
v = V o s in  t
(a ) (b ) εr  εr'  jεr''
The imaginary part represents dielectric “losses” due to “slow” polarization.
 DIELECTRIC LOSS
ε r  ε 'r  jε 'r'
ε o (ε 'r  jε 'r' )A jω  Aε o ε 'r ωAε o ε 'r'
Y  jω  C  jω  
d d d
P = P o sin (t -) C o n d u c ta n c e = G p = 1 /R p

C ε 'r'
loss tangent ... tanδ  '
εr

v = V o s in  t v = V os in t

2
Dielectric Loss V 1 V2
Wvol    2 ωε o ε "r  ωE 2 ε o ε 'r tanδ
per unit volume, R P dA d
 DIELECTRIC LOSS
1. For the dielectric material as in the figure, calculate the loss tangent
at 10 MHz frequency.
If the parallel plate capacitor is formed with the material, where the
separation is 1mm, plate area is 1mm2 and 1V is applied across…
2. Calculate the value of resistance and capacitance.
3. Calculate the power loss per unit volume.

ε 'r'
1. loss tangent  tanδ  ' =0.5 ε
εr

d Aε o ε 'r
2. R P  CP 
ωAε o ε 'r' d
2 ε’ r
=1.8x106 ohm =1.7x10-14 F 1
ε ”r
V2
3. Wvol  2 ωε o ε "r  ωE 2 ε o ε 'r tanδ MHz

d 0 10 f
=556 Wcm -3
 Matter Polarization & Permittivity

The definition of electric dipole moment.


Electric Dipole Moment, p  Qaˆ
Q C
εr  
Q0 C0
pinduced  αE E
Spring action
C x O
E le c tro n c lo u d

A to m ic Fr   β x Fe   Ze E
n u c le u s

C e n te r o f n e g a tiv e
ch arg e Induced Electric Dipole Moment,

p in d u c e d Z 2e 2
(a ) A n e u tra l a to m in E = 0 . (b ) In d u c e d d ip o le m o m e n t in a fie ld pe  (Ze)x  ( )E
The origin of electronic polarization.
β
 Matter Polarization & Permittivity
E
C x O
E le c tro n c lo u d

A to m ic Induced Electric Dipole Moment,

n u c le u s

Z 2e 2
C e n te r o f n e g a tiv e
ch arg e pe  (Ze)x  ( )E

p in d u c e d
(a ) A n e u tra l a to m in E = 0 . (b ) In d u c e d d ip o le m o m e n t in a fie ld

The origin of electronic polarization.

Removal of applied E field cause the vibration with a resonant frequency…

F=ma
d 2x
 x  Zme 2 x(t)  xo cos (ω0t)
dt
1/ 2 Electronic Polarizability
 β 
ω0     Ze 2 
 Zme   e   2 
Electronic polarization  ω0 me 
resonance frequency
 Permittivity: Electronic Polarization
B o u n d p o la riz a tio n
c h a rg e s o n th e su rfa c e s
-Q P +Q P
Total Polarization
+Q
E
-Q
ptotal Qp d Qp
(b )
P  
volume Ad A
A rea = A p

 p  P   e o E
to ta l

(c)
(a) -Q P +Q
V P P

Total Polarization
d =surface polarization charge density!
(a) When a dilectric is placed in an electric field, bound polarization
charges appear on the opposite surfaces. (b) The origin of these
polarization charges is the polarization of the molecules of the
medium. (c) We can represent the whole dielectric in terms of its
surface polarization charges +QP and -QP.
Also, total polarization P  Npinduced  N e E

1
e  N e
o
 Permittivity: Electronic Polarization

B o u n d p o la riz a tio n
before insertion of dielectric medium
c h a rg e s o n th e s u rfa c e s
-Q P +Q P

V Qo Qo o
E   
d Co d  0 A  0
+Q -Q
E
(b )

A re a = A Qo free surface
o 
p to ta l

A charge density
(c)
(a) -Q P +Q
V P P

after insertion of dielectric medium

d
(a) When a dilectric is placed in an electric field, bound polarization
charges appear on the opposite surfaces. (b) The origin of these Q  Qo  Q p
polarization charges is the polarization of the molecules of the
medium. (c) We can represent the whole dielectric in terms of its
surface polarization charges +QP and -QP.

dividing by the area, A

  0E   p
 Permittivity: Electronic Polarization
B o u n d p o la riz a tio n
c h a rg e s o n th e su rfac e s
-Q P +Q P

Substitution for surface charge density

+Q -Q

  (1   e ) 0 E
E
(b )

A rea = A p to ta l

(c)

V
(a) -Q P
P +Q P
Q  Relative
r  
d
(a) When a dilectric is placed in an electric field, bound polarization
Qo  o permittivity
charges appear on the opposite surfaces. (b) The origin of these
polarization charges is the polarization of the molecules of the
medium. (c) We can represent the whole dielectric in terms of its
surface polarization charges +QP and -QP.

 r  1  e

N e
 r  1 Relation between polarization
0 mechanism to relative permittivity
 Clausius-Mossotti Equation
E lo c The bulk electric field assumption is
not valid in the atomic level

1 Lorentz
E le c tric fie ld a t Elocal  E  P Field
a to m ic s c a le 3ε0
E lo c
E E = V /d

The electric field inside a polarized dielectric at the atomic scale is

not uniform. The local field is the actual field that acts on a
molecules. It can be calculated by removing that molecules and
evaluating the field at that point from the charges on the plates and
the dipoles surrounding the point.

 r  1 N e Relation between polarization

 mechanism to relative permittivity
r  2 0 Clausius-Mossotti Equation
For electronic polarization
 Total Polarization

 r  1 N i i Clausius-Mossotti Equation
 For ionic polarization
 r  2 3 0

Total Polarization pav   e Eloc   i Eloc   d Eloc

Relative permittivity due to ionic and electronic polarization

 r 1 1
  N e e  N i i 
 r  2 3 0
 Total Polarization
7.9 Electronic and ionic polarization in KCl
KCl has the FCC crystal structure. Lattice parameter is 0.629 nm.
The ionic polarizability per ion pair (per K+-Cl- ion) is 4.58 10-40 F m2.
The electronic polarizability of K+ is 1.264  10-40 F m2 and Cl- is 3.408  10-40 F m2.
Calculate the dielectric constant under dc operation and at optical frequencies.
Experimental values are 4.84 and 2.19.

FCC… 4 KCl ion pairs per unit cell. The number of ion pairs, or individual ions, per unit volume (N) is:

4 4
N  = 1.607  1028 m-3

a 3 0.629  10 9 m 3 
 r 1

1
 r  2 3 0
 N i e ( K  )  N i e (Cl  )  N i i  under dc operation

 rop  1

1
 rop  2 3 0
 N i e ( K  )  N i e (Cl  )  under optical frequency

r(op) = 2.18 Example 7.2, 7.3

Pyroelectric material is a polar dielectric (such as barium titanate) in
which a temperature change ΔT induces a proportional change ΔP in the
polarization, that is, ΔP = p Δ T, where p is the pyroelectric coefficient of
the crystal.

Piezoelectric material has a noncentrosymmetric crystal structure

that leads to the generation of a polarization vector P, or charges on
the crystal surfaces, upon the application of a mechanical stress. When
strained, a piezoelectric crystal develops an internal field and therefore
exhibits a voltage difference between two of its faces.